Reforms of AlexanderII
1 Land reform
In 1857, by decree of Alexander II, a secret committee on the peasant question began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory allocation of land to the peasants. On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. There was a manifesto and a provision on granting freedom to the peasants. The peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landlords, and while allotments were allotted, the peasants in the position of "temporarily liable" bore duties in favor of the landowners.
2 Abolition of corporal punishment
By decree of April 17, 1863 (on the sovereign's birthday), they were abolished. The new law abolished gauntlets, cat whips, branding, but temporarily retained the rod. Completely freed from corporal punishment were: a) women; b) clerics and their children; c) teachers of public schools; d) those who have completed a course in county and agricultural, and, moreover, in secondary and higher educational institutions; e) peasants holding public office by election.
3 Zemstvo and city reforms
The principle of the Zemstvo reform carried out in 1864 consisted in electivity and lack of estates. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine, zemstvos were established as local governments. The right to elect to county assemblies is enjoyed by: a) local landowners who are not peasants; b) local peasants; c) residents of the county town. The assembly gives orders, controls, the council puts into effect the resolutions of the meetings. The “City Regulations” (June 16, 1870) gave the population of cities local self-government, with the right to manage their city economy and promote the development of education in their cities.
4 Judicial reform
After the act of February 19 returned their civil rights to the multimillion population, the former landlord (patrimonial) court lost its meaning, and it had to be replaced by a state court, fair, general and the same for all. The “Basic Principles” of the forthcoming judicial reform were previously worked out and published for general information in order to provoke a comprehensive and free discussion of them. The judicial statutes were promulgated on November 20, 1864 and marked the beginning of a new court in Russia. The main features of the new court:
1. Judicial power was separated from administrative and legislative.
2. In criminal cases, the judiciary is separated from the accusatory (prosecutor's supervision).
3. The court took place publicly, with open doors, accessible to anyone.
4. The trial took place orally, through direct questioning and exchange of opinions.
5. An adversarial process has been introduced (accusation and defense; comparison and indication of data for and against the accused). For this purpose, prosecutorial supervision (accusatory power) and the institution of sworn attorneys (defence; official advocacy) were established. A defense (advocacy) was created, which did not exist in the old courts.
6. Introduction of jurors. They could judge by conscience, by conviction.
7. To eliminate pressure from administrative authorities, the police were excluded from participation in the investigation of criminal cases; investigation was conducted by judicial investigators.
8. In order to better ensure the impartiality of the judicial investigation, the position of judicial investigators was declared irremovable; they were accountable for their actions to the Senate alone.
9. For petty cases, magistrates' courts have been established (without the participation of jurors).
Judicial institutions according to the judicial charters of 1864:
1. Lower instance: the World Court (for all estates) and the volost court (separately for peasants).
2. The highest instance: the Congress of Justices of the Peace (one per county): cases were transferred here on complaints against decisions of the world and volost courts.
1. Lower: District Court (one per province); consists of two departments: criminal and civil.
2. Higher: Judicial chamber (one for several provinces): cases on complaints against decisions of district courts were transferred here.
III. The crown of judicial institutions was the Senate, which examined complaints against decisions of world congresses and judicial chambers.
5 Military reform
The main event of the entire military reform is the Manifesto of 1874 on January 1 on universal military service. This made it possible to create a new type of army, which would not suffer from a lack of soldiers, but at the same time did not require huge amounts of money for maintenance. The recruitment system was abolished, every citizen of Russia over the age of 20 with no criminal record was required to serve in the army.
The term of service in most troops was 6 years. It was impossible to pay off military service or avoid it by any other method; in the event of war, the entire population who had undergone military training was mobilized. The division into districts made it possible to lay down cases that did not concern the entire state from the Minister of War and transfer them to the jurisdiction of the districts. The soldiers received new modern weapons that could compete with the weapons of the Western powers. Military factories were reconstructed and now they themselves could produce modern weapons and equipment.
6 Financial reform
In 1860, the State Bank was established, the farming system was abolished, which was replaced by excises (1863). Since 1862, the Minister of Finance has become the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures; the budget was made public. An attempt was made to carry out a monetary reform (free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at a fixed rate).
7 Education reforms
The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” dated June 14, 1864, abolished the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private individuals were allowed to open and maintain elementary schools under the control of the county and provincial school councils. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions, but introduced fees. The University Charter (1863) granted the universities broad autonomy, and introduced the election of rectors and professors. The leadership of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of Professors, to which the students were subordinate. A harmonious system of education was created in Russia, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.
8 Censorship reform
In May 1862, the reform of censorship began, "provisional rules" were introduced, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship for books of 10 or more printed sheets was abolished; editors and publishers could only be prosecuted in court. Periodical publications were also exempted from censorship by special permission and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.
9 Consequences of the reforms
Alexander II left a deep mark on history, he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to take on - the liberation of the peasants from serfdom. We enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day. The main reform of his reign - the liberation of the peasants - radically changed the order that existed before and entailed all other reforms. The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The reformer tsar made truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war. With the abolition of serfdom, commercial and industrial activity "resurrected", a stream of workers poured into the cities, and new areas for entrepreneurship opened up. Old ties were restored between cities and counties and new ones were created. The fall of serfdom, the equalization of all before the court, the creation of new liberal forms of social life led to the freedom of the individual. And the feeling of this freedom awakened the desire to develop it. Dreams were created about the establishment of new forms of family and social life. During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with the European powers, and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries. Alexander Nikolaevich correctly understood the essence of his vocation in the memorable (1855-1861) years of his reign. He firmly held his post on the “stern of his native ship” during these difficult years of his voyage, rightfully deserving of an enviable epithet attached to his name. Liberator »
(Great reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.
Background and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2
Russia longer than any other states remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had finally become obsolete, and the conflict that had been brewing since the 18th century reached its peak. It was necessary to urgently change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.
With the development of technology and the advent of industrial technology, the need for manual labor was increasingly eliminated, but the landowners still actively used the labor of the peasants, taxing them with huge taxes. As a result, the peasantry was ruined everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in the serf economy and the income of the landlords. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the ruined landlords, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.
The developing industry also suffered, because due to the widespread enslavement of the peasants, there was not enough free labor force that could service the machines in the factories.
In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such an environment, talk began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.
Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, in one of his speeches to the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it would happen from below (revolution).
The era of great reforms began.
The main reforms of Alexander 2
Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:
- Peasant reform (1861);
- Financial reform (1863);
- Education Reform (1863);
- Zemstvo reform (1864);
- Judicial Reform (1864);
- Reform of the state self-government (1870);
- Military reform (1874);
The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was nevertheless carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy an arable plot for himself for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, the peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, could open trade and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transition to another estate. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landlords.
Another reform of Alexander 2 is the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as publicity and freedom of the press (relative) appeared, newspapers could discuss the activities carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted and people were free to leave the country.
The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all estates and the principle of publicity and openness. Jury trial appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.
Zemstvo and city reforms formed open bodies of local self-government, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this greatly simplified the process of city self-government.
The military reform involved replacing the Peter's system of recruits with universal military service. This allowed the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.
Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.
Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2
The political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are not in vain called great. Thanks to them, the foundation was laid for the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for an honest and open trial. The press became freer, which allowed citizens to have the opportunity to discuss and condemn government decisions.
The emancipation of the peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to overcome the crisis and create the conditions for further successful growth, taking into account the new economic realities.
In general, the country has experienced significant changes that have helped it embark on a new path of development, more successful and modern.
) are the reforms carried out in the 60-70s. 19th century and affecting almost all aspects of the life of the Russian Empire.
Background and reasons for reforms
Russia remained a feudal country longer than any other developed countries, in addition, serfdom greatly slowed down the country's economy and by the beginning of the 19th century. has already completely outlived its usefulness, as it brought only losses to the country. Ever since the 18th century. a conflict between the peasants and the authorities was brewing in the country, and by the middle of the 19th century. it had reached its peak and threatened to turn into a revolution. In order to avoid this, it was necessary to urgently change the state system.
With the development of technology, the need for manual labor disappeared, households brought less and less profit, but there were not enough workers in the factories that began to be actively built due to industrialization. Peasants could become these hands, but they did not have the right to leave the landlords, which caused a wave of riots. The landlords were also unhappy, as the serf economy was losing its economic attractiveness. The state every year received less and less money, and the economy slipped into a crisis.
In 1859-1861. peasant revolts arose already throughout the country and reached their peak. The lost one, which showed the complete failure of the military and economic systems, aggravated the situation - the people's trust in the emperor and the government fell sharply. It was in this situation that talk began about the need to urgently reform the country.
In 1855, Emperor Alexander 2nd ascended the throne, who, in one of his open speeches to the nobility, stated that it was urgent to abolish serfdom by decree from above, until the peasants from below did it through a revolution.
The "Great Reforms" have begun.
The main reforms of Alexander 2nd
- peasant reform. The abolition of serfdom (1861).
- Financial reforms (since 1863).
- Education Reform (1863).
- Public Administration Reform (1870).
The essence of the reforms of Alexander the 2nd was the restructuring of the state to a new type, which could more effectively lead the economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.
The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years, and although the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move on with serfdom, therefore, all changes have been implemented. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could redeem themselves from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for housekeeping. To make a ransom, a peasant could take a loan from a bank for 49 years. The redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landlords. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights, they could trade and carry out real estate transactions.
Another important reform is the reform of the judicial system. The court ceased to focus on the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. A jury trial also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative system and formed into an independent institution.
Zemstvo reform and urban reform were designed to simplify the administration of the state and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own self-government bodies and deal with economic issues without waiting for an order from above. This made it possible to develop the economy of the regions, as the management began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.
The military reform was supposed to make the army more efficient so that the situation with the Crimean War would not be repeated. General conscription was introduced, the army received new weapons, the principle of educating soldiers was changed. Many educational institutions for the military have opened.
Along with military schools, new ordinary schools and universities began to open. University rectors received more rights and were able to make their own decisions, which helped the country to make a leap in public education.
The reform of the press was also important. The principle of publicity was proclaimed, the press was given the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.
The results and consequences of the "great reforms" of Alexander the 2nd
The political and financial reforms of Alexander the 2nd are called great due to the fact that in a relatively short time they were able to completely rebuild the state system in a new way. The crisis in the economy was overcome, the state received a new army that could resist the invaders, and the number of educated citizens increased. In general, the reforms helped the country embark on the path of capitalization and industrialization, and also proclaimed the beginnings of democracy.
The economic process and the further development of social life in Russia were seriously hampered by the low educational level of the population and the lack of a system of mass training of specialists. In 1864 a new provision was introduced about elementary public schools, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people. In the same year it was approved charter of gymnasiums, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions. Adopted the year before university charter, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced; the university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. The results were not long in coming: by 1870 there were 17,700 elementary schools of all kinds, with about 600,000 students enrolled; the number of university students increased by 1.5 times. It was, of course, not enough, but incomparably more than in the pre-reform period. The internal unity and liberal orientation of the entire complex of reforms 60s - 70s allowed Russia to take an important step towards bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave an impetus to the formation of civil society, caused a social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are the undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.
Military reforms (60s - 70s)
By revising military reform one should take into account its dependence not only on the socio-economic situation in the country, but also on the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to a rapid buildup of the military potential of all powers. Emerging in the middle of the XIX century. the decomposition of the state system of Russia was reflected in the state of the army. The unrest in the army was clearly revealed, there were cases of revolutionary actions, there was a decline in military discipline. The first changes were made in the army already in the late 50s and early 60s. Military settlements were finally abolished.
WITH 1862 A gradual reform of local military administration was begun on the basis of the creation of military districts. A new system of military administration was being created, eliminating excessive centralization and facilitating the rapid deployment of the army in case of war. The Military Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.
IN 1865 began to be carried out military judicial reform. Its foundations were built on the principles of openness and competitiveness of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts have been established: regimental, military district and chief military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.
The development of the army largely depended on the availability of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1960s, more than half of the officers had no education at all. It was necessary to resolve two important issues: to significantly improve the training of officers and open access to officer ranks not only for the nobles and non-commissioned officers who had served, but also for representatives of other classes. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short period of study - 2 years, in which people who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.
On January 1, 1874, the charter on military service was approved. The entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. For the army, basically, a 6-year term of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve were established (for the fleet - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits have been established. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempted from active service. The new system made it possible to have a relatively small army in peacetime and significant reserves in case of war. The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, and education.
Russian Emperor Alexander II
Having ascended the throne in 1855, Alexander II received a difficult legacy: he had to resolve complex internal and external issues (eastern, peasant, Polish, etc.); Russia's financial position was upset by the unsuccessful Crimean War, which left Russia in international isolation.
Emperor Alexander II began to gradually carry out the reforms necessary for the state, including the city.
urban reform
It was a direct continuation of the zemstvo reform.
On June 16, 1870, the emperor issued the “City Regulations”, as a result of which elective self-government was introduced in 509 out of 1130 cities existing at that time - city councils. The number of vowel members of the Duma was significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. In the capital's dumas, there were much more vowel members: in the Moscow Duma - 180, in the St. Petersburg Duma - 252.
They were elected for 4 years. The City Council was governing body. She elected her permanent executive agency — city government. The city government consisted of the mayor, who was also elected for 4 years, and several members.
city head He was also the chairman of the city council and the city council. City councils were controlled by government officials.
1870 urban reform scheme
The right to elect and be elected to the City Council
It was based on the bourgeois property qualification.
Only those residents who had a property qualification (mainly owners of commercial and industrial establishments, houses, banks) had this right. The City Duma consisted of three electoral assemblies: the first included large taxpayers who paid a third of city taxes, the second included smaller ones who paid another third of taxes, and the third included all the rest. Various departments, institutions, companies, societies, churches, monasteries also enjoyed the right to vote as a legal entity. Only men over the age of 25 were allowed to vote. Women could participate in elections only through their proxies. Wage workers, who mostly did not own real estate, representatives of the intelligentsia (engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who often did not have their own houses, but rented apartments), were actually deprived of the right to vote.
The limitations of this reform are obvious: the bulk of urban residents were excluded from participating in city self-government.
The competence of city government
This competence was limited to solving purely economic issues: the construction of hospitals, schools, urban improvement, care for the development of trade, urban taxation, fire protection measures, water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems. City dumas were also to take measures against begging, to promote the spread of public education (to establish schools, museums, etc.).
Significance of urban reform
Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, which led to an increase in the role of cities as centers of the economic, socio-political and cultural life of the country.
As a result, both the clergy and the nobles, who owned real estate within the city limits, were involved in the city administration, until 1870 they were suspended from work in self-government bodies as exempt estates.
Alexander II did a lot for Russia. He did what other rulers were afraid to do: he freed the peasants from serfdom.
The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale with the reforms of Peter I. The reformer tsar made truly grandiose transformations without a fratricidal war.
As a result of the abolition of serfdom and urban reform, commercial and industrial activity was revived, a stream of workers flowed into the cities, and new opportunities for entrepreneurship appeared.
D. Medvedev: "The reforms of Alexander II continue even now"
D. Medvedev, speaking in St. Petersburg at the Mariinsky Palace on the occasion of the anniversary of the abolition of serfdom, noted that the reforms of Alexander II are still ongoing: “Alexander II received a country with a powerful military-bureaucratic vertical of power. Behind her pomposity - and we always knew how to throw dust in our eyes - he saw the inefficiency of these institutions. He abandoned the traditional way of life and pointed the way to the future. This path has been long and difficult. And it is not yet completed to this day. In fact, we are continuing the course that was laid a century and a half ago.”
