Sculpture of the late Middle Ages, associated aesthetically and in content with the Gothic style, is completely subordinate to Christian ideology, is closely connected with architecture and strict rules for depicting sacred figures.
In fact, in Gothic times, sculpture as an independent art was not considered. It was designed not only to decorate temples and monasteries, but also to serve as load-bearing parts of complex archaeological structures, and, of course, an object of veneration, along with icons.
The works of medieval art in general, and Gothic art in particular, are full of symbolic meaning, a kind of code that contains biblical meanings, the meaning of feats in the name of the Faith of Christian saints.
In addition to the biblical Old Testament characters, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, the apostles, kings, rulers, and statesmen were depicted in Gothic sculpture.
In Gothic sculptures, medieval restraint, static and detachment give way to emotionality, dynamism and individualization of features. Of course, all these changes are only outlined and several centuries will pass until the medieval sketchiness, deliberate simplification will be replaced by the humanism and authenticity of the Renaissance.
Gothic sculpture has made changes in the interpretation of the image of Jesus Christ. If in the early Middle Ages the Savior was interpreted as a formidable judge and omnipotent, now more and more often he appears as a wise shepherd, good mentor and teacher. Facial features soften, a half-smile can be seen on the face.
All these changes do not apply to the sculptures on the crucifixes. At this time, the authors are trying with all their might to depict the suffering of the Savior on the cross as authentically and vividly as possible.
The sculptors of the Gothic era have an interest in the inner world of their heroes, artists of all European countries are looking for opportunities to convey the features of character, the inner world of a person. The authors notice individual facial features, achieve realism in depicting the folds of clothing, postures and gestures. It is safe to say that the Renaissance was born in the workshops of sculptors of the 12th-14th centuries.
The external schematicity and simplicity of Gothic sculptures is explained mainly by the fact that the masters in their searches relied not on ancient traditions, but on the aesthetic and technological traditions of the barbarian world, dating back to pagan times.
Among the masterpieces of Gothic art can be called Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.
The gallery of kings above one of the facades depicts the Old Testament Jewish rulers, emphasizing the inseparable connection of the Testaments. Good-looking faces, good-naturedly and with a smile, look at passers-by. Surprising variety of faces, the nature of each of the sculptures.
Everyone knows the sculptures of gargoyles and monsters that adorn the crowns of the cathedral. Few people know that this is only an imitation of Gothic, and the sculptures themselves appeared above the cathedral much later.
The sculptures decorating the shrine with the relics of the Magi in the altar of the Cologne Cathedral are interesting. Each image is individual, each is made with extraordinary precision.
The portals of Chartres Cathedral allow you to get to know the Gothic sculpture most closely. Old Testament characters, pictures of the Last Judgment, images of Christ and the Virgin - each work of sculptors is worthy of special attention, each is unique in its execution and content. Separately, it must be said about the wooden sculptures, which are perfectly preserved in the cathedral. The skill of the authors, who perfectly felt all the possibilities of wood as a material for sculpture, is striking.
Reims Cathedral is called the "kingdom of sculpture". Here you can see thousands of reliefs and hundreds of sculptures. The masters who created the Reims Cathedral invested so much inner content and dynamism in their works that they even pushed architectural beauty into the background. The sculpture of the "Smiling Angel" is simply mesmerizing.
The sculptural group "Foolish Virgins" of the Magdeburg Cathedral is made in a realistic manner, they are full of emotional drama and form an independent group that attracts the attention of visitors.
It is impossible not to say about the funerary sculptures of the Gothic era. The tomb of the dukes in Dijon is full of sculptural images of the most varied content.
The expressiveness and artistic harmony of Gothic sculpture inspire contemporary sculptors as well. On one of the facades of Westminster Abbey there is a gallery of martyrs of the 20th century, all the figures are made in accordance with the canons of Gothic sculpture.
Page 1 of 2
The art of each era has its own language of symbols and allegories. In an allegorical form, it revealed the ideas and concepts that worried a particular society, reflected the views of the classes that were in power. The turning points in the development of various countries, the change of social formations gave birth to new figurative symbols and allegories.
As an example, one can cite Russia in the 18th century, where the transformations of Peter the Great necessitated the embodiment of many new concepts and ideas in allegorical images. In this regard, by order of Peter, the collection "Symbols and Emblems" was published in 1705, containing a large number of images with explanatory inscriptions. The need for such a book was so great that it went through three editions over the course of a century. The same role was played even by stove tiles with corresponding images. The great revolutionary upheaval that led to the fall of the feudal system in France led to an appeal to antiquity, in which artists drew folk, democratic images that could convey the thoughts and feelings experienced by the insurgent people. If in the early painting by L. David “The Oath of the Horatii” the struggle for the freedom of the motherland was expressed in an allegorical form in the images of antiquity, then the “La Marseillaise” by F. Ryud on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris recreates all the pathos, all the greatness of the revolutionary impulse of the people with more modern means, although in the forms of the entire group, much still goes back to the same antiquity. But we are interested not so much in the formation and development of allegorical and symbolic images in the art of the past, as in their emergence and existence in our Soviet contemporary art, especially in sculpture.
When the Soviet state was formed, the hammer and sickle, symbols of labor and unity of the working class and peasantry, were included in its coat of arms. These objects, taken from reality, spoke about the nature of the labor activity of the victorious people. The vital, effective nature of the laconic emblem, which has a memorable decorative silhouette, as it were, set the necessary tone for the symbolic images of those years.
However, in subsequent years, the attitude towards allegory and symbol inexplicably changed. One could hear that allegory and symbol are alien to Soviet art, that the growth of scientific knowledge, the development and deepening of realism have limited their place and role in our art, or even made them simply superfluous. V. Mukhina spoke out against such judgments, practically proving the necessity of the existence in our art, in particular in sculpture, of both allegory and symbols. “From the life of thinking and language,” she said, “one cannot throw out the concept and representation. The concept is not always figurative. Since abstract concepts are not characteristic of sculptural art, it forces the widespread use of personification, allegory. Justice, strength, thought, agriculture, fertility, courage, kindness, etc., etc. - all these concepts are not figurative, but to convey them nunsho, without them, thought becomes impoverished. It is very difficult to convey all these concepts in sculpture, since it operates only with the human body and objects. Therefore, naturally, here we can only speak in the language of personification - allegory. At the same time, according to V. Mukhina, "the allegorical form is the most powerful figurative expression of fine art, because the artist is free to choose external data that meets his task." Mukhina in her practical activities followed her judgments. In the allegorical sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Girl" she embodied a whole range of ideas: the revolutionary impulse, the movement, and the youth of our republics. The hammer and sickle - symbols of the Soviet country - seemed to overshadow the excellent plastic and at the same time decorative work imbued with genuine pathos. It is the decorativeness of the form, directly dictated by the idea of the work, the emotional force of the impact, appealing to the feelings of the audience, that allows the artist not only to most sharply and fully convey the entire depth of the idea, but also to express the feelings and thoughts of the Soviet people. At the same time, the emotional impact is achieved not by abstract gestures and postures, but by a moderately realistic system of both the entire group as a whole and its details. Here one should pay attention even to the position of the steps of the legs of the statues, to the nature of the hands thrown back, etc. Everything is taken by the sculptor from reality, noticed by the artist in life and translated into a sculptural form. Mukhina realized her plan by realistic means, retaining that measure of conventionality that is necessary for any allegorical work and which protects it from naturalism.
For all the modernity of the images, for all the realism of the figures, the general character of their postures and gestures is conditional, just as the hammer and sickle raised up by their hands, symbols of the Soviet state, are conditional. This convention does not cause the slightest feeling of protest; in a sense, it is natural, because it reflects our feelings, although in reality, in life, we are unlikely to meet with such gestures and postures.
Mukhina was not alone in her noble but difficult quest. Here we should remember I. Shadra. In The Liberated East, the artist was still in the grip of a speculative understanding of the allegorical work. His work, created in the manner of ancient Egyptian sculpture, has not yet embodied modern concepts, feelings and images. However, when Shadr undertook the creation of a monument to Lenin on the dam of ZAGES, he performed something more than a monumental portrait of the founder of the Soviet state. This is not only the image of the inspirer of the electrification of the country - the figure of Lenin grows into a powerful symbolic image of the Builder of the whole country, its Creator, the Conqueror of the forces of nature, directed from now on to meet the needs of the people. The generalized meaning inherent in the Shadr monument determined the artistic and plastic qualities of this outstanding work. It should also be pointed out to the decorative expressiveness of the gesture and posture of the figure, which can be defined by a short full force formula - "let it be!" At the same time, they are, of course, different from those in Mukhina's group, but they also play a primary role in the overall design. The conventionality of posture and gesture, as if passed through the prism of the decorative beginning, in turn deepens the figurative meaning of the monument.
Decorativeness and the well-known conventionality of poses and gestures combined with it are the necessary qualities of allegorical works. Their character in Soviet sculpture is inextricably linked, first of all, with the modernity of the image, with life itself, with the individual manner of a person of today to behave, with his tread, with his movements. The works of Shadr and Mukhina convincingly testify to this. We see similar properties in other works by Mukhina, for example, in groups intended to decorate the Moskvoretsky Bridge, some of them were made according to the sketches of the artist in bronze by N. Zelenskaya, Z. Ivanova and A. Sergeev. These groups, by the way, should have been installed long ago in the places provided for them. The position of the figures here is arbitrary, but at the same time, how much vitality is in the way the girls hold the sheaf over their heads, in the character of the movement of the fisherman, who grabbed a large catfish, in the admiring contemplation of the feminine girl of the fruits collected in the basket, which the young man is holding! Everything is subtly noticed by the artist in life and conveyed in decorative allegorical images that attract us with their plasticity, beauty of lines and completeness of the composition.
Neither Shadr nor Mukhina forgot that their works, embodying large and deep concepts in an allegorical form, must have a bright, eye-catching decorative effect, emotionality and beauty of forms. The Georgian craftsman V. Topuridze, who made the statue of "Victory" for the pediment of the theater in Chiatura, did not forget about this either. In a wide-stepping female figure with outstretched arms raised, boundless joy, intoxication with freedom are embodied, moreover, the pose and gesture of the figure seem to symbolize the liberation of the whole world, she appeals to all mankind - in her hands it is like "the whole globe, from which the shackles fell enmity, enmity, tyranny.The artistic qualities of the sculpture are such that it can be freely compared with the figure of the Marseillaise by F. Ryud, and comparison with the statue of E. Vuchetich on the same theme from the Volgograd memorial clearly indicates on which side the height of the artistic embodiment is.
2. Eco U. Open work. Form and uncertainty in modern poetics. St. Petersburg: Simposium, 2006.
3. Weawer W. La matematica dell "informazione // Controllo Automatico. Milano: Martello, 1956.
4. Moles A. Theorie de l "information et perception esthetique. Paris: Flammarion, 1958.
Information and the sense of music message of the XX century
There is shown the specific of communication process in the works of the XXth century composers.
In the comparative analysis of two vocal compositions
(“A letter by S. Rakhmaninov to K.S. Stanislavsky”
by S. Rakhmaninov" and "Franz Schubert
(to a friend)" D. Argento) it is proven
that the expanding of usual meanings
in the given works with the help of creating
new codes enlarge the quality of senses.
But the enlargement of information makes them disappear.
Key words: media space, single valued and multiple valued information, information space, entropy, art message, music sense.
I.V. PORTNOVA (Moscow)
IMAGES-SYMBOLS IN ANIMAL SCULPTURE OF THE XX CENTURY
The issues of development of domestic animalistic art of the 20th century are considered. The author's interpretation of animalistic images-symbols in sculpture is given.
Key words: image-symbol, symbolic language, animalistic sculpture.
At the end of the 50s of the XX century. the relationship between nature and man is beginning to be considered in the visual arts in a philosophical aspect. This theme was reflected in the painting of the 1960s, and then in sculpture. In its solution, animalistic art often resorts to symbolic language, metaphor, strives for generalization, and also uses new plastic possibilities.
At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, in the era of great scientific discoveries, the sacred meaning of nature does not disappear. Scientific discoveries give rise to new questions, nature appears in a new quality. The universe is now seen as a great idea rather than a great machine. Under the gaze of an attentive observer, nature is always spiritualized, inseparable from the thoughts and feelings of a person, it is also a source of inspiration for artists, writers, and philosophers. Most aesthetic concepts consider nature as an intrinsically valuable entity, a source of images and symbols of art.
To understand the concept of the image-symbol, it is necessary to consider the views of artists on the natural world. V. Vatagin, B. Vorobyov, D. Gorlov have an almost religious reverence for animals. With a great deal of nostalgia, V. Vatagin recalled the cult of animals in antiquity: “The animal is held in high esteem here, as on icons, it is treated as a deity ... every movement was filled with inner meaning, contained the “soul” of a living being” . The artist speaks about the peculiarities of Egyptian animalism: “In Egyptian art, an image of an animal appeared before me, deeply generalized and full of significance, the movements of animals are full of calmness and dignity, and the poses are closed in a self-profound, solemn immobility, the silhouettes are captured by an exquisite and stingy line, there is nothing superfluous and accidental that violates the harmony of the whole ”(quoted from:). I. Efimov notes the value of the animalistic image in ancient Eastern art: “Oriental masters look at the model for an extremely long time and squeeze out all its value.” D. Gorlov notes the natural foundations of the animalistic image in folk art: “The ability of folk masters to convey the rhythmic essence of the depicted, to conditionally generalize the image, in turn, makes it possible to conditionally paint, increasing the intensity of color, without losing the feeling of life. The ability to remain in a generalized image in the arena of complete association with the living, without translating it into a caricature or caricature.
In ancient art, the animal was in the center of attention of artists, and
© Portnova I.V., 2009
zy were convincing and full of great inner strength and significance. As you know, in these cultures, the image of animals was mainly of a magical, ritual nature and meaning. In animalistic art of the XX century. the divine side of the cult, which gave the beast unshakable strength and a certain "holiness", turned into a symbol, as a tribute to the past. For the artist, the significance of this force, poured into nature, is more important. Therefore, stylization in the spirit of ancient cultures is not only a tribute to their expressive language, but also a desire to see the animal again in all its natural beauty. Sculptors turn their attention to ancient animalistic art not only to admire the past, but also to confirm its relevance at the present stage as a solid foundation and a rich source of inspiration for modern animalistics.
In ancient animalistic art, artists of the XX century. saw a special symbolic value of nature, which can be interpreted at the present stage. A symbol in art is a holistic idea realized within the framework of the main line of design. Such a line was the generalization of human knowledge about the world of nature and animals. Ultimately, the purpose of such an appeal was the solution of universal moral problems. At the beginning of the 20th century, having substantiated the principle of relativity, A. Einstein made a discovery, expressing a new consciousness of the individual, who now presented a picture of the world in a different way, which began to be perceived as a whole, regardless of the sphere of knowledge - scientific, historical or artistic. The modern animalist sets himself the task of revealing the integral figurativeness of a symbol in an infinite variety of textures, making the color, light, texture of the material become an element of a single expressiveness of the image of a philosophical sound. So the sculptural image of eagles by A. Belashov bears the stamp of "eternity" and vitality. The sculptor repeats his favorite image of an eagle on large sheets of paper, drawing it in pencil or watercolor. Its solid and laconic silhouette stands out in contrast against the white field of paper, just as it looked in nature against the blue sky or on ledges of rocks. Here, clearly
There is a connection between the type and the ancient prototype, the image with the prototype. At the same time, it is perceived as a reality brought from life.
In the spirit of ancient Egyptian sculpture, expressing the meaning of the totem beast, the works of M. Fokin are presented. The artistic structure of L. Gadaev's images is just as epic. He conveys the value of life itself, using philosophical and allegorical symbolism. “For a long time, realism and the depiction of life in the forms of life itself were inextricably linked in our artistic consciousness. But by the mid-70s, as interest in the philosophical, artistic understanding of life processes grew, criticism began to talk about a special intellectual approach, about parables and mythologism as legitimate forms of a realistic depiction of reality. The works of L. Gadaev are works-parables. In them, the desire to overcome illustrativeness in reflecting the deep phenomena of reality is palpable. Responding to the problems of time, the artist forms his concept of man, the world, nature, using symbolic forms, thereby striving to create artistic images at a higher level of generalization than in traditional realism. There is, as it were, a peculiar addition to the concrete content of the work with universal human moments. In achieving this goal, the artist developed his own pictorial style: “There is no liberties in his modeling, not a single extra spectacular stroke, no excesses in modeling: Gadaev’s “handwriting” is free from both fine detailing and the emphasized play of chiaroscuro. Rather, one can speak of an attraction to archaic forms, which he sees as the embodiment of the spirit of formation, development, incompleteness.
The image-symbol is especially organic in the monumental and decorative sculpture of animal artists. By its nature, this type of plastic art is prone to generalization, accentuated on silhouette perception and decorativeness, designed to solve artistic problems with a lesser degree of individualization of the image. “In the very combination of “monumental-decorative sculpture” lies a subtle interconnection of meanings. Decorativeness is a property contained in the thing itself and qualitatively representing it (texture, color, generalization of the image).
for and its conditional interpretation, compositional and plastic expressiveness, etc.), in this tandem is understood more broadly and is revealed in connection with the tasks of monumental art. Here, many additional parameters for solving a work come into play: scale, distance from the viewer, ideological symbolism, correlation of various materials that interact, place in an ensemble with other types of art, and the nature of inclusion in the spatial environment. In this case, decorativeness acts as the most important organizing factor in the synthesis of arts, being an integral quality of balancing parts and achieving overall harmony. Here the animalistic image acquires the character of a great monumentally significant idea. In the synthesis of other types of art, it looks even more majestic. In the monumental sculptures of P. Balandin, as well as in his easel works, the strength of animal forms is palpable. The large size and generality of plastic make this sculpture monumental in the full sense of the word, elevating it to the significance of a natural symbol. A. Kardashev defines the essence of the animalistic image in its natural form in this way: the beautiful silhouette readability of animal figures, the severity of a strict, almost classical silhouette, a certain refinement of its appearance make the sculpture monumentally significant - an ideal-symbol of perfection. Here A. Kardashev focused on the traditions of the animal monument, which have a long history abroad and in our country.
According to his creative principles, V. Vatagin is closest to P. Balandin. Hence the well-known similarity in the creative manners of sculptors working in large planes. Vatagin's understanding of the world is also close to the art of the monument. An example is the figures of animals he made at the entrance to the Moscow Zoo: "Bear" (concrete, 1932) and the sculptural compositions "Monkey" and "Wolverine" (concrete, 1932) flanking the gate. On the convex surface of the gate, two reliefs are depicted: on one - a running antelope, on the other - a reindeer. At the entrance to the old territory of the zoo, Vatagin placed two large figures of lions (concrete, 1936, the sculptures were not preserved). These works radiate some kind of primordial power, reveal some primordial
layer of life. The present and the past seem to meet. The idea of wholeness, “cosmicity”, which was relevant for the ancients, again takes possession of the consciousness of modern man. This process is characterized as a search for a rational grain in the relationship "nature - man".
The theme of man and nature interested artists at various stages of the development of Russian art. This interest has led to many creative concepts of our time. Even at the turn of the 1950s-1960s, the formation of a landscape vision began in sculpture, which influenced its future fate. This trend manifested itself first in painting, where the landscape was a significant genre throughout the century. Along with its direct interpretation - the image of nature in its “pure form”, it became a significant area in which the spiritual self-consciousness of a contemporary was reflected. In the painting of the "severe style" (1950 - 1960s), the landscape acted as a kind of accompaniment to the confrontation between man and harsh nature. New landscape motifs appeared in the paintings of the painters, which had not been depicted before. Nature began to be interpreted as something correlated with the deeds of a new hero-creator, a worker whose main goal was the conquest and transformation of the surrounding world, and not concern for the preservation of its beauty and not the desire for contemplative admiration of nature. This trend has also been developed in sculpture.
Along with this line in landscape painting, the establishment of poetic thinking began in the late 1950s. The landscape becomes an expression of lyrical, nationally significant images. In sculpture, the theme of man and nature is vividly heard. Artists had a need to include elements of the natural environment in sculpture that would give rise to certain associations, and the compositional and plastic structure of the sculpture itself became more spatial. There was a shift in emphasis towards the natural world, awareness of its fragility, reflection of the subtle beauty of the natural world, its constant variability. The romanticism of a labor feat was replaced by the lyricism of the poetic contemplation of man and animals against the backdrop of nature. The attention of artists is increasingly focused on the spiritual -
moral issues. The theme of the relationship between man and nature becomes even more relevant in the 1970s and 1980s. The future of mankind is associated with this theme, the realization of the fact that animals are increasingly becoming victims of civilization, and not free inhabitants of the environment. The idea of preserving wildlife, which is a condition for human existence, is persistently affirmed. If in the 1950s - 1960s an effective, albeit one-dimensional connection between man and nature was affirmed and unity stood out in the context of creative efforts, then in the second half of the 20th century. the question of the relationship between man and nature acquired a deeply philosophical character. In the 1980s and 1990s, nature and animals became the subject of serious human reflection. On this basis, in an attempt to understand the patterns of human life, the connections of the past, present and future, philosophical generalizations are born, which artists symbolically express in sculpture.
Literature
1. Vatagin V.A. Image of an animal. M., 1957. S. 247.
2. Vatagin V.A. Moscow sculpture. 1936 // OR GTG. F.4. Item 1560. Op. 1. L. 123.
3. Efimov I.S. About art and artists. M., 1977. S. 97.
4. Animal worshiper Vatagin. Looking into life. Sverdlovsk, 1972. S. 196.
5. Kozorenko P.P. Artistic features of the domestic monumental and decorative sculpture of the 1930s - 50s. M., 1999. S. 41.
6. Lazar Gadaev. Sculpture. Exhibition catalog / entry. Art. S.B. Bazazyants. M., 1989. S. 6.
7. Nurmanbekova D.N. Problems of Realism as a Creative Method in Soviet Aesthetics (History and Modernity). M., 1990. S. 102.
8. Letter from Gorlov to D. Babenchikov. 1956 // RGALI. F. 2094. Op.1. Unit ridge 24.
Images-symbols in the animalistic sculpture of the XX century
There are considered the questions
of the development of the Russian animalistic
art of the XX century. Also there is given the author's
view on animalistic images-symbols in sculpture.
Key words: image-symbol, symbol language, animalistic sculpture.
© Malkova O.P., 2009
O.P. MALKOVA (Volgograd)
SPECIFICITY OF THE COLLECTION I.I. MASHKOV AT THE VOLGOGRAD MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS *
A brief description of the collection of paintings and graphic works by I.I. Mashkov in the collection of the Volgograd Museum of Fine Arts. The history, composition, theoretical aspects of the study of the collection are considered.
Key words: Russian Soviet painting, avant-gardism, primitivism, socialist realism, Jack of Diamonds, I.I. Mashkov.
The name of Ilya Ivanovich Mashkov (1881-1944) cannot be attributed to the forgotten ones, but he is most often perceived by the mass consciousness as a painter of the 1910s, one of the leaders of the Jack of Diamonds. Many aspects of his work remain poorly understood, including later work, as well as works that are in provincial museums. The Volgograd Museum of Fine Arts (VMII) has one of the richest and most unique regional collections of works by I.I. Mashkov. The circle of literature devoted to the works of Mashkov from the Volgograd Museum is very limited. The special attention of the museum to his work was initially due to the fact that the artist was born on July 29, 1881. in the village of Mikhailovskaya (now part of the Uryu-Pinsky district of the Volgograd region).
Of great importance is the fact that all the works came to the VMII from the artist's studio, which eliminated doubts about their authenticity. The beginning of the collection was laid in 1964, when two small still lifes "Cherry" (1939) and "Still life on a blue background" (1930s) were transferred by the Directorate of Art Funds during the organization of the museum. All other works were received at different times from the heirs of the artist
* The article was prepared with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Foundation and the Administration of the Volgograd Region. 09-04-20404 a / c “Comprehensive study of the creative personality of I.I. Mashkov (based on the works of the Volgograd Museum of Fine Arts, archival and expeditionary materials).
The development of plastics is inextricably linked with Gothic architecture. Sculpture occupied the first place in the fine arts of that time. It enhanced the emotionality and spectacle of Gothic architecture, it most clearly manifested the desire for a sensually poetic, pictorial embodiment not only of the religious ideas of the time, but also of nature naively deified by man and himself as its perfect product. The Gothic cathedral was especially richly decorated, which Victor Hugo figuratively compared with a giant book. The main place in its external and internal decorative decoration belonged to the statue and relief. The compositional and ideological design of the sculptural decoration was subordinated to the program developed by theologians.
Prophet Jeremiah
Prophet Daniel
Well of the Prophets
Claus Sluter, Well of the Prophets, 1395-1406, Champmol Monastery, Dijon, France
In the temple, embodying, as before, the image of the universe, the religious history of mankind with its sublime and base sides, with its life complexity, was now most expanded in visible sensual forms. Thousands of statues and reliefs were made in the workshops at the cathedrals. Many generations of artists and apprentices often took part in their creation. Portals became the focus of sculptural compositions, where large statues of apostles, prophets, and saints were arranged in rows, as if meeting visitors. Tympanums, arches of portals, gaps between them, galleries of the upper tiers, niches of turrets, wimpergi were decorated with high reliefs, decorative reliefs and statues. Many small figures and separate scenes were placed in transepts, on consoles, plinths, pedestals, buttresses, and roofs. The capitals and cornices were filled with images of birds, leaves, flowers, various fruits, along the ledges of the cornices, the ribs of the turrets, the flying buttresses, half-opened stone leaves (crabs) ran exactly along the spiers, the spiers were crowned with a flower (cruciferous). All these ornamental motifs, as it were, breathed a sense of the life of nature into architectural forms. Such an abundance of floral ornamentation is not found in other architectural styles.
Gothic sculpture is an organic part of the architecture of the cathedral. It is included in the architectural design, is part of the functional elements of the building. In Reims Cathedral, it even determines its appearance. The interaction of architecture with sculpture and painting gave rise to that unique variety of impressions with which Gothic enriched contemporaries. The statues retain the closest connection with the wall, with the support. Figures of elongated proportions, as it were, echo the vertical divisions of architecture, obeying the dynamic rhythm of the whole, forming a single architectural and sculptural ensemble. Their dimensions were in exact proportion to the architectural forms and depended on the location established by the religious canons. In Gothic architecture, not only did the degree of subordination of sculpture to architecture increase, but the independent significance of sculpture also rose. Gothic continued the separation of the human image from the general decorative decoration begun by the Romanesque sculptors. The interpretation of the artistic form has become freer, the role of statuary round plasticity, its interaction with the surrounding spatial and light-air environment has increased. The statues were often separated from the wall, placed in niches on separate pedestals. Light bends, turns of the torsos and transfer of the weight of the body to one leg, characteristic lively poses and gestures give the figures a dynamism that somewhat breaks the vertical architectural rhythm of the cathedral.
Santa Reparata
Museo del Duomo, Florence
Santa's Cathedral Campanile
Maria del Fiore, 1337–1343
Hope, 1330
Baptistery, Florence
Sculptor and architect Andrea Pisano, doors of the Florence Baptistery, reliefs and statues of the Florence Cathedral
The drapery of clothes, emphasizing the plasticity and flexibility of the human body, its life in a spatial environment, gave great emotional expressiveness to the statues. The folds have acquired a natural weight; sinking deep, they gave rise to a rich play of light and shadow, sometimes likened to the flutes of columns, then formed tense sharp breaks, then flowed in light streams, then fell in stormy free cascades, as if echoing human experiences. Often a body was visible through thin clothes, the beauty of which began to be recognized and felt by both poets and sculptors of that time. Attention was focused on the plastic and spiritual expressiveness of faces. Humanity and gentleness appeared in the characteristics of the saints. Their images became diverse, sharply individual, concrete, the sublime was combined in them with everyday everyday life. The human face was enlivened by an expressive look, thought or experience. Addressed to those around them and to each other, the saints, full of spiritual intimacy, seemed to be talking heartily among themselves. The Gothic artist conveyed subtle spiritual movements, joy and anxiety, compassion, anger, passionate excitement, languid meditation.
Sculptural groups appear, united by plot and dramatic action, diverse in composition. The holy wives weep over the tomb of the Savior, the angels rejoice, the apostles in the Last Supper are worried, sinners are tormented in hell. Reviving the plastic conquests of the Greeks (the profile image of the face and the three-quarter turn of the figure), the Gothic masters go their own way. Their attitude to the world around them is more personal, emotional. The desire to enhance the sensual authenticity of the image revealed itself in keen observation and an avid interest in the single, private, individual, portrait and even unusual, random. The human face, both beautiful and ugly, for a medieval master was a reflection of the eternal beauty and wisdom of the universe. Hence the interest in the characteristic life details with which they enriched the plastic. The heyday of sculpture began at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries in France, when the process of national awakening was on the rise. The simplicity and elegance of clear forms, the smoothness and purity of contours, the clarity of proportions, restrained gestures served in French sculpture as an expression of moral strength and spiritual perfection.
The highest achievements of Gothic sculpture are associated with the construction of Chartres, Reims and Amiens Cathedrals, numbering up to two thousand sculptural works, which are distinguished by high aesthetic pathos. Here, classical techniques of sculptural decoration were developed and a synthesis of all the arts was developed under the auspices of architecture. The Chartres masters created a number of images that are excellent in terms of their bright individuality and spirituality, for example, the wise Old Testament “kings” of the western portal - with a seal of arrogance and isolation in the face or in a state of internal tension. The statue of St. Theodore from the southern portal is distinguished by mature craftsmanship - it embodies the ideal pure image of a Christian knight with a trusting open face of a young man, concentrated, a little sad, and at the same time unshakably courageous. By changing the point of view, the viewer discovers different aspects of the warrior's character. Exceptional in complexity and versatility of the inner world is the portrait head of Rainier de Mouson (tombstone of the abbey of Josophat near Chartres), the Bishop of Chartres, with a face marked by intellectuality, power of thought, and nervous tension.
Hans Mulcher
Holy Trinity, 1430,
Cathedral in Ulm, Germany
Michel Colomb
Tombstone of Margrita de Foy,
1502, cathedral, Nantes, France
Michel Colomb, Saint
George slaying the dragon
Gaillon castle, France
In the statues of saints - Martin, Gregory and Jerome on the southern portal of Chartres Cathedral, a decisive step was taken in improving the construction of the human figure. While maintaining the frontal position necessary for architecture, the master revived the figures of the saints with a barely noticeable movement - a slight turn of the heads, a restrained gesture. Each image is a certain character with a corresponding state: Martin is angry and domineering, George is warm-hearted, quiet Jerome is thoughtful. At the same time, all three figures are united by a single sense of moral strength, spiritual nobility - the people of this era were consistent in their thoughts and actions with a high, but abstract concept of honor, loyalty, generosity. In the future, French sculpture followed the path of greater freedom in the staging of figures, turns, gestures, movements became distinct and varied. Among the Reims statues, the powerful figures of two women, Mary and Elizabeth, are marked by a special force of plastic expression. Each of them has an independent plastic value. At the same time, they are internally united by a silent dialogue, experiences. The young Mary, awaiting the birth of Christ, seems to be listening to the awakening of new life. Her head is the most plastically complex. The veil falling from curly hair either obscures or reveals the face and allows you to catch the subtle shades of moods slipping through the features from different points of view: either calmness, or sadness, or enlightenment, which dominates the profile. Spiritual excitement is expressed not only in classically beautiful features, but in the movement of the body, in the quivering vibration of the draperies of clothes, in the flexible sinuous lines of the contours. Mary, with her spiritual uplift, with her majestic grace, is contrasted with the image of an elderly, stern, wise, dignified and tragic foreboding Elizabeth. The images created by the Reims masters attract with their moral strength, the height of spiritual impulses and, at the same time, bodily vitality, simplicity and character, the charm of female beauty, close to the ancient ideal. Thoughtful Anna with delicate French features, temperamental St. Joseph (the group "The Presentation", 1240s) is an elegant secular person with a sparkling Gallic mind. The details are expressive: a sharp, perky look, a smartly twisted mustache, wildly curly hair, a curly beard, a rapid turn of the head towards the interlocutor. Energetic light and shadow modeling enhances the liveliness of expression.
The interpretation of traditional images is changing. Depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the Gothic master reveals his closeness to suffering humanity. Such is the image of Christ the Wanderer (Reims Cathedral), self-absorbed, mournful, reconciled with fate. In Christ Blessing (Amiens Cathedral), harmonious features are marked with the seal of wise moral beauty and courageous strength. The imperious gesture of the hand exactly calls the viewer to a worthy clean life. Among the people, the image of the Madonna with a baby in her arms was loved, embodying girlish purity and maternal tenderness. Since the 13th century, portals have often been dedicated to her. She is depicted with a flexible figure, with her head gently bowed to the baby, smiling, with half-closed eyes. Feminine charm and softness mark the "Gilded Madonna" of the south facade of Amiens Cathedral (late 13th century). The wide waves of lines running from the thigh to the foot, already visible in the Reims statues, acquire here the character of a movement full of noble rhythm. The flowing line brings out the graceful curve of the torso, hips and knees. In the statues of the Amiens Cathedral, the proportions are correct, the draperies naturally fit the figure. They are not characterized by the expression of the works of the Chartres masters. They are full-blooded and simple, plastically more perfect. Reims masters sometimes approach the ancient classics. Two female statues of the Strasbourg Cathedral (1230s) attract with their spiritual purity, elegance of slender proportions. One of them symbolizes the triumphant Christian Church, the other - the defeated Synagogue. The image of the Church, with an imperious gaze, with a proud posture, set off by the smooth rhythm of the folds of clothes, is given as positive. Dropping the torn tablets of the Covenant, the blindfolded Synagogue is tragic. She embodies the false Jewish religion condemned by Catholicism. The drooping head, the complex spiral movement of the flexible body, the unexpectedly sharp break of the spear express mental confusion and instability. The apt observations of the artist, the desire to reproduce specific details are noteworthy. Through the bandage on the face of the Synagogue, the outlines of the eyes are visible, through the thin fabric covering the arm of the Church, its graceful forms appear.
The sculpture of the Strasbourg Cathedral combined the features characteristic of French and German Gothic: the high ethical structure of French plastic and the expressiveness of German. The world of sublime images of Gothic sculpture often included everyday motifs, in which the folk stream of art made itself felt: grotesque figures of monks, genre figures of butchers, pharmacists, mowers, grape pickers, merchants. Subtle humor reigns in the scenes of the Last Judgment, which have lost their harsh character. Among the ugly sinners, there are often kings, monks and rich people. The “Stone calendars” (Amiens Cathedral) are depicted, which tell about the work and occupations of the peasants characteristic of each month. In 1385 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy founded the Carthusian monastery of Champmol near Dijon in France. From the 1390s, commissioned by the duke, the best craftsmen erected monastic buildings and created custom sculptures. One of them was the Dutch sculptor Klaus Sluter, who made six human-sized stone statues of the prophets for the monastery.
In Germany, sculpture was less developed. More ponderous in its forms than the French, it captures the power of dramatic images. The tendency towards individualization of character and feelings gives rise to an almost portrait of Elizabeth of the Bamberg Cathedral (1230-1240), with severe features of a strong-willed face, with a gloomy agitated gaze. Sharp angular forms, restless broken folds of clothes enhance the drama of the image. Equestrian images appear early in Germany. The Bamberg Horseman is the embodiment of courage and chivalrous energy.
German Gothic played an important role in the development of portrait sculpture. In the statue of Margrave Eckehard of Naumburg Cathedral (mid-13th century), a typical image of an imperious, rude knight with a sensual haughty face is given. Fragility and lyricism distinguish his wife Uta - melancholic, concentrated, with a uniquely individual expressiveness, as if suddenly captured movements. From the 60s of the 13th century, spirituality was supplanted by the mannerism of pretty images, which was especially evident in small plastic. In the 14th century, cold elegance, naturalistic earthiness dominated. Sincere inspiration was often replaced by conditional schematization.
The all-Ukrainian project "Together for Nature" continues to accept applications for participation in the competition of modern sculpture "Symbol of the Carpathians". Based on its results, the best project will be selected and then a sculpture of the Eurasian lynx will be installed in Morshyn. You can participate in the competition. And we have found for you the most interesting examples of how sculptures became symbols of cities.
The Spoonbridge and Cherry
Where: 726 Vineland Pl, Minneapolis, Minnesota
The art installation in the form of a giant spoon and a cherry was created in 1985 by artist Claes Oldenburg. It has become the centerpiece of the Minneapolis Sculpture Garden, the largest urban sculpture park in the world.
The spoon itself weighs about two tons, and the cherry weighs 500 kg. The cherry stalk is a fountain that sprays water and then it flows down a spoonful into the pond.
By the way, the reservoir itself is shaped like a linden seed. And this is no coincidence: a lot of linden trees grow next to it.
Cloud Gate
Where: 201 E. Randolph St., Millennium Park, Chicago
Cloud Gate, one of Chicago's most visited attractions, was first shown to the public in 2004 at the opening of Millennium Park. The 'Bob', as Kapoor's work is called, weighs 110 tons and is made up of 168 stainless steel plates. The seams between them are so polished that the sculpture looks monolithic and incredibly light, despite its huge size and considerable weight.
London-based artist Anish Kapoor gave it the name "Cloud Gate" for a simple reason - 80 percent of its surface reflects the sky. And at the bottom of the sculpture is a concave dome, entering which visitors can see their reflection in different perspectives.
LOVE
Where: Avenue of the Americas, 55th Street & 6th Ave, New York
LOVE is considered a pop art icon along with the image of Marilyn Monroe and Andy Warhol's Campbell Soup Can. The LO over VE design was originally brought to life by artist Robert Indiana in pictorial form when MoMA commissioned him a Christmas card in 1964. In his youth, the artist attended a Christian church, where posters hung that read "God is love." They inspired Indiana to create LOVE: four bold letters in a vibrant color scheme.
In 1970, Indiana replicated the LOVE design in the form of a sculpture that became a symbol of New York City.
Interestingly, Robert Indiana did not register the copyright for his work. In the late 60s, when a huge number of "pirated" versions of LOVE appeared, Indiana tried to copyright his work, but failed.
Der hase
Where: Tiergarthertorplatz, Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany
Nuremberg is a city of rabbits and hares. Here they can be found everywhere, in various incarnations: from figurines and chocolate coins in souvenir shops to art objects. And it is no coincidence.
In 1502, Albrecht Dürer created the Hare drawing. This is one of the first works he signed and dated. The inhabitants of Nuremberg fell in love with the bunny depicted by Dürer so much that copies of the picture appeared in almost every home.
Based on it, in 1984, the German avant-garde artist Jurgen Hertz created the grotesque sculptural composition Der Hase - the figure of a giant bronze rabbit with bulging eyes, crawling out of a wooden box. And next to him lurked a small gilded hare. The sculpture was created as a parody of the famous graphic work of Dürer and is installed opposite the house-museum of the outstanding artist.
Angel of the North
Where: Durham road, Gateshead, England
Since its installation in 1998, the Angel of the North has become the most recognizable symbol of Gateshead, a city in the North East of England.
This giant 20-meter sculpture with a wingspan of 54 meters and a weight of 208 tons was created by contemporary muralist Anthony Gormley.
They decided to install the sculpture on a hillside, which was not easy, given the peculiarities of its design. The statue must withstand wind speeds of 160 km/h, and therefore required the construction of a concrete foundation 21 meters underground. As a result, the total weight of the structure was 700 tons, of which 500 tons accounted for the foundation, and 200 tons - the weight of the sculpture.
Many residents of Gateshead objected to the statue, believing it would distract drivers and cause traffic accidents on the A1. In addition, the Getshead Post published a scathing article comparing Gormley's work to Albert Speer's Icarus sculpture commissioned by the Nazis in the 1930s.
Despite criticism, the "Angel of the North" was installed and became one of the most famous urban sculptures in the world. Since the statue is located next to one of the largest motorways in the UK, about 90,000 people see it every day.
Read us at
Telegram
