Georgia is the full name of the country. Republic of Georgia

Georgia is located in the central and western part of Transcaucasia between 41 and 43 degrees north latitude. On the world map in the same latitudes are located: Macedonia, Rome, Barcelona, ​​on the other hand Tashkent, Beijing, Pyongyang, New York.

From the north, Georgia borders with Russia along the Main Caucasian Range, in the south with Armenia and Turkey, in the east with Azerbaijan. From the west, the territory of Georgia is washed by the Black Sea.

The map of Georgia is diverse and attractive for all types of tourism and pastime.

Nature of Georgia

Due to its location, the nature of Georgia is characterized by amazing diversity. The relief of the country was formed as a result of neotectonic uplifts and subsidences, which determined the diversity of the landscape with many variants of climate, flora and fauna, soil type.

This allows you to diversify excursion tours by combining classic tourist routes with hiking in the mountains and relaxing on the lakes and at the sea, in the mountains and national parks of Georgia.

The continental climate of some regions borders on the semi-humid climate of the Mediterranean, the dry climate of the highlands of Western Asia, and the humid Aral-Cospian depression.

In this regard, you can travel to Georgia at different times of the year, choosing places that are comfortable for your stay.

Georgia combines highlands with plateaus, mid-mountain and low-plain reliefs, hilly, plateau-like and low-plain landscapes.

The highest point of the country is Mount Shkhara (5068 m) of the Greater Caucasus, which is represented by the Main Range and smaller ranges. On the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus Range are located: Kodori, Kakheti, Kartli, Svaneti, Kharuli and others. The territory of Georgia also occupies part of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus (Tushetia and Khevsureti regions).

In the northern high-mountainous part of Georgia, mountain-erosion relief forms are clearly expressed, in the creation of which glaciers played the main role. This is clearly seen during an excursion along the Georgian Military Highway.

Karst is widespread in the west of the country in the Imereti (Kutaisi) region. There are countless karst caves underground, one of which is open to the public (Prometheus Cave and Sataplia Park Cave).

To the south of the Greater Caucasus lie the so-called intermountain depressions, the Colchis and Iberian flat-hilly depressions. They are separated by the Upper Imeretian plateau.

Between the Lower Kartli and Alazani plains is the Iora plateau. The rest of the territory of Georgia extends in the zone of the mid-mountain ranges of the Lesser Caucasus (up to 2850 m) in the north and on the South Georgian volcanic highlands, formed by a lava plateau, chains of extinct volcanoes and river canyons in the south. Chernozems valuable for agriculture are common in this region.

The territory of Georgia is an integral part of the mobile alpine belt of the earth's crust, the processes of formation of the relief have not yet been completed, which explains the seismicity of the territory.

Georgia is complex in terms of geological structure, which means it is rich in minerals and building materials: coal, oil, manganese (the city of manganese mining - Chiatura), copper, iron and gold ores and other minerals, marble, shale, tuff, mineral and thermal springs .

The climate is also extremely varied. The lowest temperatures are observed in the closed basin of the Shaori basin of the Racha Range (up to -40 degrees).

Hundreds of glaciers, mainly in Svaneti and Racha, provide an excellent opportunity for mountain tourism at any time of the year. Some descend to 1900 meters above sea level.

The fauna includes up to 4500 species of plants. Forests make up about 40 percent. In the distant past, forests were replaced by cultivated plantations in the lowlands, depressions and plains (Alazani Valley, Colchis Lowland).

Of the trees, beech, hornbeam, chestnut, oak, etc., fir, spruce are common, and pine trees predominate in the highland regions. Above the upper border of the forests, from 2800 to 3500 meters, there are alpine meadows, excellent pastures for sheep.

In the forests, it is worth wandering carefully so as not to stumble upon the owners: brown bears, wild boars, lynxes, wolves, foxes, deer, tours.

Georgia - (in Georgian - Sakartvelo, Sakartvelo; in eastern languages ​​​​- Gurjistan) - an ancient state in Transcaucasia. Georgia, as well as its historical lands - state formations, for the three thousand-year history of statehood are known as the Kingdom of Colchis (Egrisi), Iveria, or Iberia (Kartli, Kartalinia), the Laz Kingdom, or Lazika (Egrisi), the Abkhazian (Western Georgian) kingdom, Kingdom of Georgia (Sakartvelo), principalities of Abkhazia, Guria, Megrelia (Mingrelia, Odishi), Samtskhe-Saatabago and Svanetia. With the accession of the Kartalian-Kakhetian kingdom to the Russian Empire (1801), the abolition of Georgian state formations and the inclusion of their territory directly into Russia began. After the collapse of the Russian Empire (1917), an independent statehood was recreated - the Georgian Democratic Republic (1918 - 1921). Formed after the Bolshevik occupation (1921), the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic existed until 1990. After the collapse of the USSR (1991), Georgia became an independent state again: the Republic of Georgia.

Georgians (self-name - Kartvels) and Abkhazians (self-name - Apsua), as well as representatives of the Azerbaijani, Armenian, Assyrian, Greek, Jewish, Kurdish, Ossetian, Russian, Ukrainian and other peoples live in Georgia. The Georgian language (together with Megrelian and Svan) is included in the Kartvelian group of Ibero-Caucasian languages, the Abkhazian language is in the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of Ibero-Caucasian languages.

The main part of the population of Georgia professes Orthodoxy, part - Catholicism, Gregorianism, part - Islam (Adjarians, Lazians, Ingiloys, part of the Meskhs). Part of the Abkhazians (mostly Abzhuys) profess Orthodoxy, and part - Islam (mostly Bzyb).

At the turn of II and I millennia BC. in the southwestern region of historical Georgia, two large associations were formed - early class states: Dia-okhi (Taokhi, Tao) and Kolkha (Colchis). At the beginning of the 7th century BC. Dia-ohi was defeated by the state of Urartu. In the 30s - 20s. 8th century BC. the ancient Colchis state, which is remembered in the ancient Greek legend of the Argonauts, was defeated by the Cimmerians invading from the north.

In the VI century. BC. Colchian tribes formed an early slave-owning state - the Kingdom of Colchis (Kolkheti, Egrisi). The development of urban life and trade in Colchis was facilitated by the emergence of Greek colonies (Phasis, Dioscuria, Gyuenos, etc.). From the 6th century BC. in Colchis, silver coins were minted - “Colchis tetri” (“Colchis”). At the end of the VI century. and the first half of the 5th c. BC. The Colchis kingdom was dependent on the Achaemenid Iran. At the end of the IV century. BC. the ruler of Colchis Kudzhi, together with the Kartli king Farnavaz, led the movement for the creation of a united Georgian state. At the end of the II century. BC. The Colchis kingdom was subordinated to the Pontic kingdom, and in the 1st century. BC. - Rome.

In the VI - IV centuries. BC. intensive consolidation of the Kartli (East Georgian) tribes in the east and south of historical Georgia, which culminated in the formation of the Kingdom of Kartli (Iberia) with the center in the city of Mtskheta. Ancient Georgian sources date this event to the end of the 4th century. BC. and is associated with the victory won by the descendant of the Mtskheta elders (mamasakhlisi) Farnavaz (farnaoz) over the son of the king of Arian-Kartli Azo. Pharnavaz achieves the independence of the kingdom and becomes the founder of the Pharnavazian dynasty. The historical tradition connects the creation of Georgian writing with the name of Farnavaz. In the III century. BC. under Saurmag and Mirian, who reigned after Pharnavaz, Kartli became a vast and powerful state, which already included a significant part of Western Georgia (Adjara, Argveti), Egrisi recognized the supremacy of the Kartli rulers. Kartli managed to establish its control over the highlanders, who inhabited both slopes of the Caucasus Range.

In the 1st century BC. Iberia for some time submitted to Rome. The appearance of the first Georgian Christian communities in the 1st c. AD At the beginning of the new era, the kingdom of Kartli grew stronger and stronger, and during the reign of Faraman II (30-50s of the 2nd century AD) it reached great power and expanded its borders. From the 3rd century The kingdom of Kartli falls under the influence of Sasanian Iran.

At the turn of the I - II centuries. on the site of the collapsed Colchis kingdom, the Laz kingdom arose - Lazika (Egrisi - Georgian sources), which eventually spreads its attention to the entire territory of the former Colchis kingdom, including Apsilia, Abazgia and Sanigia.

At the beginning of the early Middle Ages, there were two states on the territory of Georgia: the East Georgian kingdom of Kartli (Iberia), which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains south to Albania and Armenia, and Egrisi (Lazika), covering the whole of Western Georgia with its capital in Tsikhe-Goji (Archeopolis, Nokalakevi ).

Around 337, under King Mirian and Queen Nana, Christianity was declared the state religion of the Kingdom of Kartli. This fateful event for Georgia is closely connected with the name of Saint Equal-to-the-Apostles Nino, the hierarch of Georgia. In the Laz kingdom, Christianity becomes the state religion under King Tsate in 523.

The King of Kartli Vakhtang I Gorgasal (second half of the 5th century), striving for the centralization of Georgia and the elimination of vassal dependence on Iran, leads a large united uprising of Georgians, Albanians and Armenians against Iran, pacifies the Caucasian highlanders, significantly expands the boundaries of the kingdom (which already covers almost all of Georgia ), carries out church reform, founds the city of Tbilisi, where the capital of the Kingdom of Kartli is soon transferred. Under Vakhtang I, the Eastern Georgian Church received autocephaly from the Patriarchate of Antioch, and the Georgian Church was headed by the Catholicos (later the Catholicos-Patriarch).

The heirs of Vakhtang I Gorgasal continued the struggle against Iran. But the uprising of 523 led by King Gurgen was defeated. The royal power in Kartli was soon abolished, and a ruler, a marzpan, was placed at the head of the country by Iran. In the 70s of the VI century. in Kartli, the power of a representative of the noble nobility, “the first among equals,” whom the sources call erismtavar, was established. The family chronicle considers the Erismtavars of Kartli to be representatives of the Bagratid (Bagrationov) family.

From the middle of the VI century. Laz kingdom, and from the beginning of the 7th century. - Kartli fell under the rule of Byzantium. From the middle of the 7th century by the ninth century a significant part of the Georgian lands was captured by the Arabs.

In the 8th century in Western Georgia, the Abkhazian eristavi is being strengthened. The Abkhaz eristavs skillfully use the Arab-Byzantine contradictions, with the help of the Khazars they free themselves from Byzantine rule and unite all of Western Georgia. Abkhazian eristav Leon II takes the title of king. Based on the origin of the royal dynasty and the leading role of the Abkhazian eristavstvo, the new Western Georgian political association was called the Abkhazian kingdom, but out of eight of its eristavstvos, Abkhazia itself was represented by two (Abkhazian and Tskhum). Kutaisi became the capital of the kingdom. The Western Georgian church dioceses under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople are resubordinated to the Mtskheta Catholicos.

From the end of the 8th century - the beginning of the 9th century. The territory of Georgia covered: the Principality of Kakheti, the Principality of Kartvelian Kuropalate (Tao-Klarjeti), the Kingdom of Hereti, the Kingdom of Abkhazia and the Tbilisi, or Kartli, Emirate, originally ruled by the governors of the Arab caliphs. During the IX - X centuries. between these political associations, with varying success, a tense struggle was waged for mastering the central part of Georgia - Shida Kartli - the traditional political, economic and cultural center of Georgian statehood. This struggle ended with the unification of Georgia and the creation of a single Georgian feudal state. The Georgian nobility, led by eristavi Ioane Marushisdze, suggested to David III Kuropalat of the Bagrationi dynasty, the powerful ruler of Southern Georgia, “to come out with their own forces, seize Kartli and take the throne himself or pass it on to Bagrat, the son of Gurgen,” who also came from the Bagrationi house. Bagrat, the adopted son of the childless David III Kuropalat, inherited the kingdom of Kartvel (from his father's side) and the Abkhazian kingdom (from his mother Gurandukht, sister of the childless Abkhazian king Theodosius). In 975 Bagrat Bagrationi received Shida Kartli. In 978, Bagrat was elevated to the Western Georgian (Abkhazian) throne with the title of “King of the Abkhazians”. In 1001, after the death of David III, Kuropalate Bagrat III received the title of Kuropalat, and in 1008, after the death of his father, the title of “king of the Kartvels” (Georgia). In 1008 - 1010. Bagrat III annexes Kakheti, Hereti and Rani. “King of the Abkhazians, Kartvelians, Rans and Kahs” Bagrat III Bagrationi carried out the unification of all Georgia into a single state begun under Farnavaz and continued under Vakhtang I Gorgasala; the concept of “Sakartvelo” appears to refer to the whole of Georgia.

XI - XII centuries. were periods of greatest political power, the flourishing of the economy and culture of feudal Georgia. During the reign of David the Builder (1089 - 1125), important transformations were carried out aimed at strengthening the central authority and the unity of the state, military reform. In the first quarter of the XII century. Georgia repelled the invasion of the Seljuk Turks and liberated a significant part of Transcaucasia from them - Shirvan and Northern Armenia were included in the Georgian state.

During the reign of George III (1156 - 1184) and Tamar (1184 - c. 1213), Georgia's influence extended to the North Caucasus, Eastern Transcaucasia, Iranian Azerbaijan, all of Armenia and the southwestern Black Sea region (Trapezund Empire). Georgia has become one of the strongest states in the Middle East. Georgia's external relations expanded not only to the east, but also to the north, in the 12th century. established cultural and economic ties with Kievan Rus.

In the second quarter of the XIII century. Georgia was conquered by the Tatar-Mongols. Tamerlane's invasions in the second half of the 14th century. ruined the country. In the second half of the XV century. As a result of continuous invasions of foreign invaders and economic decline, the unified Georgian state broke up into the Kartli, Kakheti and Imereti kingdoms and the principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago.

In the XVI - XVII centuries. Odish (Megrelian), Gurian, Abkhazian (according to the 17th century included in Odishi) and Svan principalities separated from the Imereti kingdom, which only nominally continued to recognize the supremacy of the Imeretian king.

In the XVI - XVIII centuries. Georgia has become the arena of the struggle between Iran and Turkey for dominance in the Transcaucasus. Georgian rulers have repeatedly asked Russia for military assistance - they also raised the issue of joint actions against Turkey and Iran. At the end of the XVII century. a Georgian colony appears in Moscow. The king of Kartli Vakhtang VI (1703 - 1724) streamlines state government, feudal orders, issues legislative acts, develops construction work and restores the irrigation system, however, in the conditions of Turkish and Iranian dominance, he is forced to leave the throne and, together with many Georgian political and cultural figures, finds asylum in Russia.

From the second half of the XVIII century. The balance of power in Transcaucasia has changed significantly: King Teimuraz II of Kartli and his son King Erekle II of Kakheti became so politically stronger that in 1749-1750. The Yerevan, Nakhichevan and Ganja khanates became tributaries of Georgia. Heraclius II defeated the ruler of Tabriz Azat Khan and the Dagestan feudal lords. After the death in 1762 of Teimuraz II, who was in St. Petersburg in search of support, having inherited the Kartalin throne, Erekle II proclaimed himself the king of Kartli-Kakheti, uniting Eastern Georgia. On July 24, 1783, a Russian-Georgian treaty was signed in Georgievsk, ratified by Heraclius II on January 24, 1784. Under the terms of the treaty, the Russian Empire took under the protection of the Kartalin-Kakhetian kingdom, guaranteed its integrity, undertook the obligation to return the lands seized by enemies to Georgia, and retained the royal throne for Heraclius II and his descendants, did not interfere in the internal affairs of the kingdom. For his part, Heraclius II recognized the supreme power of the Emperor of Russia.

Turkey, incited by France and England, tried in every possible way to prevent the implementation of the terms of the treaty - it set the neighboring Muslim rulers against Georgia. In 1785, the Avar ruler Omar Khan invaded and devastated Eastern Georgia. In July 1787, Turkey presented an ultimatum to Russia, demanding the removal of Russian troops from Georgia and the recognition of Erekle II as a Turkish vassal. In August of the same year, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Russia did not dare to open a second, Caucasian front (along with the Balkan one) and in September withdrew its troops from Georgia - thus the conditions of the Treaty of Georgievsk were violated. In 1795, Agha Magomed Khan, who united almost all of Iran, invaded and devastated Tbilisi. In 1798 Tsar Erekle II died.

Under George XII (1798 - 1800), the struggle for possession of the throne between the numerous sons and grandsons of Heraclius II and George XII intensified. Groups warring among themselves formed around the applicants. The issue of foreign policy orientation was acute. George XII, being seriously ill, began to seek the restoration of the terms of the treaty of 1783 and the approval of his son David as heir to the throne. Emperor Paul I formally granted the request of the king, in 1799 he transferred a regiment of Russian troops to Georgia, but decided to abolish the Kartalin-Kakhetian kingdom and annex it to Russia. The emperor's representatives at the Kartalinsko-Kakheti court received a secret order: in the event of the death of Tsar George XII, do not allow the accession to the throne of Tsarevich David. On December 28, Tsar George XII died. On January 18, 1801, in St. Petersburg, and on February 16, in Tbilisi, the manifesto of Paul I on the annexation of Georgia to Russia was published. The final abolition of the Kartalian-Kakhetian kingdom and joining the Russian Empire was approved on September 12, 1801 by the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I. Members of the Georgian royal family were forcibly taken to Russia. In 1811 the independence of the Georgian Church was abolished.

The history of the Imereti kingdom is marked by constant feudal unrest. King Solomon I (1751 - 1784) managed to strengthen the royal power, prohibit the slave trade encouraged by Turkey, defeat the Turks (1757) and create a military alliance with Kartli-Kakheti. Imereti kings repeatedly turned to Russia for help, but the requests were rejected in order to avoid complications with Turkey. After 1801, the King of Imereti Solomon II tried to unite all of Western Georgia, to lead the struggle for the restoration of the Kartalin-Kakhetian kingdom. However, Russia, having supported the separatism of the Megrelian, Abkhazian, Gurian and Svan rulers, doomed the struggle of Solomon II to defeat and in 1804 forced him, according to the Elaznaur Treaty, to accept the patronage of Russia. In 1810, Russian rule was also established in Imereti.

Principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago from the beginning of the 16th century. became a vassal of Turkey. In the 30s - 90s. 16th century the Turks began to seize the territory of Samtskhe-Saatabago, create their own administrative units, and in the 20s and 30s. 17th century eliminated the remnants of the independence of the principality. The methodical Muslimization of the population began.

The Mingrelian (Mingrelian) principality (Odishi) gained independence around the middle of the 16th century, and since 1550 its rulers, from the Dadiani clan, recognized the power of the Imeretian kings only nominally. Until the beginning of the XVII century. Abkhazia was also part of the Megrelian principality. At the end of the XVII century. in Odishi, the Lechkhumi aznaur (nobleman) Katsia Chikovani, who overthrew the dynasty that had previously ruled there, strengthened. His son George took the title and surname of the former rulers of the Megrelian principality - Dadiani. The sovereign prince of Megrelia Grigol (Gregory) I Dadiani in 1803 passed into the citizenship of the Russian Empire, retaining autonomy in civil affairs. After the death of the ruler David Dadiani (1853), due to the infancy of the heir, Prince Nicholas, until 1857, his mother, Princess Ekaterina Alexandrovna Dadiani (nee Princess Chavchavadze), ruled the principality. In 1857, the governor of the Caucasus, Prince. Baryatinsky, taking advantage of the turmoil as a result of peasant unrest in Odishi, introduced a special administration of the principality. In 1867, the Mingrelian Principality legally ceased to exist and became part of the Russian Empire.

The Gurian principality separated from the Imeretian kingdom in the 16th century. Adjara was also under the rule of rulers from the Gurieli family (descendants of the Svan eristav Vardanidze). Frequent civil strife among the Georgian feudal lords and a hard struggle against the Turkish invaders led the principality into decline. In the 17th century Adzharia was conquered by the Turks and began to actively promote Islam. The rulers of Guria became vassals of the kings of Imereti and in 1804, as part of the Imeretian kingdom, came under the protection of Russia. In 1811 The principality of Guria, with the preservation of internal autonomy, was annexed to the Russian Empire, and in 1828 it was finally abolished.

The Abkhaz principality took shape at the beginning of the 17th century. and entered into direct vassal dependence on the Imeretian king. The eastern border of the principality moves to the Kelasuri River, along the line of which the ruler of Megrelia, Levan II Dadiani, builds the western part of a large defensive wall. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries, having captured part of the territory of the Megrelian principality, the Abkhaz rulers from the Shervashidze (Chachba) clan expanded their borders to the Inguri River. Islam is actively spreading in Abkhazia and dependence on Turkey is growing.

Based on the appeal of the ruler of Abkhazia George (Safar Bey) Sharvashidze (Shervashidze) by the manifesto of Alexander I of February 17, 1810. The Abkhaz principality was annexed to the Russian Empire with the limited power of the ruler preserved. The Samurzakan rulers Manuchar and Levan Shervashidze took the oath of “loyalty” as early as 1805. provinces.

After the collapse in the XV century. united Georgian state, part of Svanetia became part of the Megrelian principality. The rest was formally subordinate to the Imeretian king and was divided into Free Svanetia and the Principality of Svanetia (possession of the princes of Gelovani, then of the princes of Dadeshkeliani). The princely power in Svaneti was abolished in 1857-1859, after the last sovereign prince Konstantin Dadeshkeliani in 1857, while trying to arrest, personally killed the Kutaisi governor Prince Gagarin and three of his servants, and also wounded several soldiers. Prince Dadeshkeliani was shot in 1858 by a court-martial.

During the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The Russian Empire, with the active support of the Georgian nobility and peasantry, recaptured a part of the Georgian historical lands seized in different periods of time by Turkey. Tavads and aznauris (princes and nobles) of the Georgian kingdoms and principalities were recognized in the princely and noble merits of the Russian Empire.

The article was written by Prince G.A. Apakidze, Doctor of Historical Sciences, based on the publications of G. Melikishvili, M. Lordkipanidae, R. Metreveli, V. Guchua, O. Soselia and E. Khoshtaria in the Great Soviet, Soviet Historical and Georgian Soviet Encyclopedias.

brief information

Georgia is an amazing country where different cultures, traditions and religions intersect. In this country, any tourist can find what he likes most - snow-capped peaks, the subtropical Black Sea coast with cypresses, firs and palm trees, unique mineral springs and balneological resorts, breathtaking landscapes with beautiful nature, ancient fortresses, as well as delicious cuisine. .

Geography of Georgia

Georgia is located in the Caucasus at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe. Georgia borders Russia in the north, Armenia and Turkey in the south, and Azerbaijan in the southeast. In the west, the Georgian shores are washed by the waters of the Black Sea. The total area of ​​this country is 69,700 sq. km., and the total length of the state border is 1,461 km.

In the north of Georgia there is a mountain range of the Greater Caucasus Range. There are three mountains in Georgia, the height of which exceeds 5 thousand meters - Shkhara (5068 m), Dzhangitau (5059 m), Kazbek (5033 m). In the west of the country is the plain of Colchis.

Many beautiful rivers flow through the territory of Georgia. The largest of them are Kura (1,364 km), Tegri (623 km) and Chorokhi (438 km).

Capital

The capital of Georgia is Tbilisi, which is now home to more than 1.2 million people. Historians claim that the settlement of people on the territory of modern Tbilisi existed 5 thousand years ago.

Official language of Georgia

The official language in Georgia is Georgian, belonging to the Kartvelian language family.

Religion

About 84% of the population of Georgia are Orthodox Christians belonging to the Georgian Orthodox Church, and another 9% of Georgians consider themselves Muslims (Shia).

State structure of Georgia

According to the current Constitution of 1995, Georgia is a presidential republic. Its head is the President, elected by the people for 5 years.

Legislative power in Georgia belongs to the unicameral Parliament (150 deputies). Members of Parliament are elected for a 4-year term.

The main political parties in Georgia are United National Movement, Georgian Dream - Democratic Georgia, Conservative Party, Republican Party, Our Georgia - Free Democrats.

Climate and weather

The climate in Georgia is very diverse. Conventionally, this country can be divided into two climatic zones - East and West. The Greater Caucasus Range protects Georgia from the cold wind from the north, and the Lesser Caucasus mountain system from the south.

Most of Western Georgia (Batumi) is in a subtropical humid climate. The wettest region in Georgia is Adjara, where an average of 5,500 mm of precipitation falls annually.

In Eastern Georgia, the climate is transitional from humid subtropical to continental. The weather in this region is influenced by air from the Caspian and Black Seas. Annually, 400 - 1,600 mm of precipitation falls here.

The average annual air temperature in Tbilisi is +13.3C. In July and August, the average air temperature in Georgia is +31C, and in January - -2C.

Sea in Georgia

In the west, the Georgian shores are washed by the waters of the Black Sea. The coastline is 310 km. Most of the Black Sea coast in Georgia is a resort area.

Rivers and lakes

Many rivers flow through the territory of Georgia. The largest of them are Kura (1,364 km), Tegri (623 km), Chorokhi (438 km) and Alazani (351 km). As for the lakes in Georgia, the largest of them are Paravani, Kartsakhi and Paleostomi.

History of Georgia

The history of Georgia is an endless series of wars, uprisings and revolutions. The territory on which Georgia is located (between the Black and Caspian Seas) has attracted various conquerors for many centuries. Georgia has always been involved in the sphere of economic and political interests of large states. Georgia is a relatively young state, formed in the 10th century, but its history began long before that….

The history of Georgian statehood begins with the appearance of Colchis and the Iberian kingdom. So. Colchis was formed in the 6th century AD.

In the 10th century, King Bagrat III united the eastern and western parts of Georgia into a single state. It reached its peak in the 12th century during the reign of King David the Builder. In the 13th century, the Tatar-Mongols invaded Georgia, and in the 15th century, the troops of Timur.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries, Georgia gradually became part of the Russian Empire. But only in the 1870s, the troops of the Ottoman Empire were finally expelled from Georgia.

In 1918, Georgia became part of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, and in 1936 - part of the USSR.

Georgia's independence was proclaimed in 1991. In 1992 Georgia became a member of the UN.

culture

For many centuries, winemaking has been not only the basis of Georgia's economic wealth, but also a part of its spiritual culture. Wine for Georgians is not just a drink. Wine in Georgia is more like a religion. The vine is often mentioned in Georgian legends and songs.

Hospitality traditions are very strong in Georgia. Previously, Georgian houses even had special rooms for guests (or separate houses), where any guest could enter, eat and spend the night there.

Each Georgian holiday must go in a certain order. This is followed by a special person - toastmaster. According to tradition, the master of the house should be the host himself or he should be chosen from among the most respected guests.

Georgian traditions, as well as Georgian hospitality, are reflected in wedding customs. A lot of guests need to be invited to a Georgian wedding (sometimes their number reaches several hundred). Refusing to come to a wedding is an insult to the inviting party, and because of this, a blood feud can begin.

Cuisine of Georgia

Perhaps some tourists who have visited Georgia will say that its main attraction is the local Georgian cuisine. The traditional Georgian feast is an integral part of Georgian culture.

Georgians love and know how to cook meat. Dishes such as shish kebab, “chicken tobacco”, chikhirtma and chakhokhbili have long gained popularity in various countries of the world.

A distinctive feature of Georgian cuisine is a large number of sauces. The same dish in Georgia can be served with different sauces, and it will differ not only in appearance, but also in taste and aroma. Sauces in Georgia are made from berries, fruits, tomato, pomegranate, blackberry, barberry, which are boiled and then mixed with vinegar and spices.

Another distinctive feature of Georgian cuisine is the abundance of cheeses. Each region in Georgia boasts its own traditional type of cheese. The most famous varieties of cheese are Suluguni, Kobisky and Chanakh.

For cooking, Georgians often use nuts - almonds, hazelnuts and walnuts.

A very important element of Georgian cuisine is spices. They are used for breakfast, lunch and dinner. The most popular spices (depending on the season) are parsley, dill, wild garlic, mint, basil, savory, tarragon, etc.

On the Georgian table, next to the meat, there must always be vegetables and herbs. Most vegetable dishes are prepared with eggplant, beans, cabbage, beets and tomatoes. So, in Georgian cuisine there are several dozen eggplant dishes.

Soups are very popular in Georgia, which can be meat, vegetarian and dairy. Soup in Georgia is usually cooked without vegetables, and, of course, seasoned with a sauce with flour or eggs.

Instead of bread in Georgia, gomi is used, a very thick corn porridge, as well as "shoti" (white leavened bread) and "mchadi" (corn cakes).

A Georgian feast cannot be imagined without wine. Georgian wines are known in many countries of the world. The most popular Georgian wines are Khvanchkara, Kindzmarauli, Saperavi, Tvishi and Tsinandali.

Sights of Georgia

According to official data, there are now more than 10 thousand historical, architectural and archaeological monuments in Georgia. The Top 10 best Georgian attractions, in our opinion, may include the following:

1. Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta
2. Sioni Cathedral in Tbilisi
3. Church of St. Mary in Tbilisi
4. Gremi Citadel on the Intsoba River
5. Monastery Shio-Mgvime
6. Jvari Church in Mtskheta
7. Ananuri Fortress
8. Akhali Shuamta Nunnery
9. Khertvisi Fortress
10. Samtavro Convent

Cities and resorts

The largest Georgian cities are Batumi, Rustavi, Kutaisi, Zugdidi, Poti, Gori, and, of course, Tbilisi.

On the Black Sea coast in Georgia there are several excellent beach resorts - Batumi, Zeleny Mys, Mikhinjauri, Ord, Kobuletti, Tsikhisdziri, Ureki. The best Georgian beaches are located in Adjara, which is located in a subtropical humid climate. Almost the entire coastline of Adjara is a beautiful long beach, on the banks of which palm trees, firs and cypresses grow.

Georgia is famous not only for its beaches, but also for its balneological resorts. Today there are about 2 thousand thermal and mineral springs in Georgia. Moreover, more than 20 of them are large mineral springs (as in Borjomi). The most famous balneological Georgian resorts are Borjomi, Tsikhisdziri, Tskhaltubo, Mukhuri, Beshumi, Abastumani, Shovi, Zekari.

Georgia cannot be imagined without ski resorts. The most famous of them are Bakuriani, Gudauri, Bakhmaro. The skiing season in Georgia usually lasts from December to April.

Souvenirs/Shopping

Tourists from Georgia usually bring folk art products, a wine horn, scarves, icons, Georgian cheese, Georgian wine, churchkhela, spices (hops-suneli, cilantro, Imeretian saffron), sauces (adjika, tkemali).

GEORGIA
The Republic of Georgia, a state in the Central and Western Transcaucasia. Georgia includes two autonomous republics - Adzharia and Abkhazia.

Georgia. The capital is Tbilisi. Population: 5431 thousand people (1998). Population density - 78 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 56%, rural - 44%. Area: 69.7 thousand square meters km. The highest point: Mount Shkhara (5068 m). Official language: Georgian. Main religion: Orthodox Christianity. Administrative-territorial division: 9 territories, 2 cities as territories, 2 autonomous republics. Monetary unit: 1 lari = 100 tetri. Public holiday: Independence Day - 26 May. National anthem: "Dideba" (Glory).

Georgia occupies an area of ​​69.7 thousand square meters. km. It borders on Russia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, and Armenia and Turkey in the south. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Black Sea. The mountains of the Greater Caucasus occupy the northern periphery of the country, while the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus and the South Georgian (Javakheti) volcanic highlands occupy the southern. Representatives of approx. 100 nationalities. All ethnic Georgians speak the same language (Georgian) and most belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church. Georgian statehood has ancient roots. Sometimes on the territory of this country there were several small kingdoms, sometimes - one large one. During 1801-1864 Georgia was gradually annexed to Russia. From 1918 to 1921 it was an independent republic, and from 1922 to 1991 - a union republic within the USSR. On April 9, 1991 Georgia declared itself an independent republic. From the 4th c. BC. Georgians call themselves kartvelebi, and their country Sakartvelo ("land of the Kartvelians"). The ancient Greeks called Western Georgia Colchis by the name of the Colchis kingdom that existed there, and later ancient authors - Iberia (Iverian, or Kartvelian, state).
NATURE
Surface structure. 2/3 of the territory of Georgia is occupied by mountains. In the north, the mountain system of the Greater Caucasus stretches with altitudes up to 4500-5000 m above sea level. The highest point in Georgia is Mount Shkhara (5068 m). There are 786 glaciers on the ridges of the Greater Caucasus with a total area of ​​556 sq. km. In the axial watershed part of the mountains there are famous mountain passes: Cross (2384 m), Mamison (2829 m), Roki (2996 m), connecting Georgia with Russia by the shortest routes. The southern slope of the Greater Caucasus is divided into deep river valleys and echelon-shaped ridges. Here, in a warm and humid climate, karst is widely developed in carbonate rocks. Only on low ridges (less than 1000 m above sea level) there are more than 470 karst caves, including New Athos (length 3.3 km, area about 50 thousand square meters). On the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus there are large deposits of silver-lead and zinc ores, barite, manganese and coal. Between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus there is a sublatitudinal zone of intermountain basins, where the most fertile lands of Georgia are concentrated. In the west, the Colchis lowland stands out, in the east - the plains, on which the historical provinces of Imereti, Kartaliniya and Kakheti have long been formed. From the east, the Colchis lowland is closed by the Likhi (Surami) ridge, which is an important natural boundary that separates the western regions of Georgia from the eastern ones. To the east of the Likhi range, the Kartli plain, the Iora and Shirak plateaus (with heights up to 500-700 m) and the Alazani valley (up to 500 m) stand out. The mountains of the Lesser Caucasus are separated from the zone of intermountain basins by the Meskheti and Trialeti ranges. The average heights of the mountains in the south of the country are 2000-3000 m above sea level. There are many basins here, especially within the South Georgian Highlands around lakes of volcanic origin (Paravani, Khozapini, etc.). The territory of Georgia is characterized by increased seismicity, in some areas there are earthquakes with a power of up to 5-7 points (especially in the eastern regions). Mountain areas in the modern era are experiencing a general upward trend (more than 10 mm per year), and lowlands - to lower. The Colchis lowland is characterized by a particularly high rate of subsidence (up to 1.3 mm per year). Many ancient coastal settlements are now flooded.
Climate. In the western regions affected by the Black Sea, summers are humid and warm, with average July temperatures of 22-24°C. Winters are mild, with average January temperatures of 4-7°C. maximum in Adjara (up to 3200 mm). The predominant part of the precipitation falls in the spring, the distribution over the rest of the seasons is fairly even. The Likhi Range intercepts the moisture of air masses moving from west to east. In the eastern regions of Georgia, the climate is formed under the influence of continental air masses. On the plains, summers are longer and hotter, with average July temperatures of 23-25°C. Winters are cool, with an average January temperature of +1 to -2°C. summer. On the slopes of the mountains of Georgia, the average July temperatures drop to 4-6 ° C, in the highlands, the average January temperatures can reach -10-16 ° C. The average annual precipitation ranges from 1600-2800 mm in the west to 1000-1800 mm in the east of the Greater Caucasus and up to 600-700 mm in the South Georgian Highlands. The weather in the mountains changes quickly. Sudden cold snaps are accompanied by heavy snowfalls, downpours, hail and hair dryers, causing significant damage to the economy.
Rivers. In Georgia, ca. 25 thousand rivers, many of them are used for energy production and as sources of irrigation. They feed mainly on melted snow and glacier waters and atmospheric precipitation. In the foothill areas, composed of carbonate rocks, groundwater plays a significant role in feeding the rivers. The rivers of Western Georgia are full of water throughout the year, while in the east, in winter and summer, the river flow is reduced. Most of the rivers flow into the Black Sea, the rest - into the Caspian. The largest river in Western Georgia, the Rioni, is 327 km long and originates in the Greater Caucasus and flows into the Black Sea near Poti. The large river Kura (Mtkvari in Georgian) begins in the mountains of northeastern Turkey, crosses southern and eastern Georgia and flows into the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan.
Soils. There are three main soil-geographic regions in Georgia: western, eastern and southern. The lowlands of the western region (between the Likh Range and the Black Sea) are characterized by moist peat soils suitable for growing corn; in the foothills, subtropical red and yellow soils are common, which are ideal for growing grapes, tea and tobacco; in the higher areas of Megrelia, Abkhazia and Svanetia - brown or carbonate forest and mountain soils. The eastern region is dominated by ancient alluvial soils. Chestnut soils are widespread on the Nizhnekartalinskaya Plain, suitable for growing vegetables, fruit and grain crops. The chernozems and brown soils of the Kakhetian plain are mainly used for grain crops and vineyards, although in the Gardabani and Sagarejo regions, southeast of Tbilisi, these soils are infertile due to the arid climate. The southern region is confined to the foothills and southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus and the South Georgian Highlands. It is characterized by a combination of brown and mountain meadow soils used for the cultivation of crops, vegetables and, to a lesser extent, grapes.
Vegetation and fauna. The flora of Georgia is very diverse: there are more than 5,000 species of flowering plants alone. Depending on the climatic features and the absolute height of the area, several zones and vertical belts of vegetation (from steppe to alpine) are distinguished. Forests are distributed mainly in the mountains and cover almost 20% of the country's territory. In the west of Georgia, they descend to sea level, and in the east, their lower limit is at altitudes from 600 to 800 m above sea level. The forests of western Georgia are especially rich and diverse. Their lower zone (up to 1000-1200 m) is dominated by broad-leaved species (oak, hornbeam, chestnut, maple, beech, etc.) with evergreen undergrowth of Pontic rhododendron, laurel cherry, boxwood, Colchis holly, Colchis needle, Caucasian blueberry. For this, the so-called. the Colchis forest is characterized by an abundance of lianas - ivy, clematis, obitnik; in some places it takes the form of an impenetrable thicket. In the swampy forests of the Colchis lowland itself, alder predominates and there is almost no undergrowth. In some parts of the coast of Abkhazia, rare endemic species are found, for example, Pitsunda pine, a relic of the Tertiary Crimean-Caucasian flora. Over the past millennia, grapes and fruit crops have been cultivated in the valleys. In western Georgia, above the belt of Colchis forests and up to the upper forest line (1700-1800 m), mixed forests are common, which combine beech and spruce-fir, less often pine stands. At the upper border of the forest there are birch forests with an admixture of mountain ash and thickets of rhododendron. The forests of eastern Georgia are less rich. In the upper belt of mountains (up to 2300-2400 m), spruce-fir forests are common, found to the west of the Ksani River, and in more eastern regions - only pine and pine-birch forests. Below, coniferous forests give way to beech, and then oak-hornbeam. In the extreme east of the country, there are dry steppes and xerophytic light forests with species such as carcass and pistachio. In the valleys of the Kura, Alazani, Iori and other rivers, floodplain tugai forests of aspen, willow, silvery poplar, oak, dogwood have been preserved. Subalpine and alpine meadows are distributed up to 2800-3000 m and occupy up to 25% of the area of ​​mountain territories. The subalpine meadows of western Georgia are characterized by lush tall grasses with a large proportion of umbelliferous, legumes, and labiaceae. Low grass alpine meadows are distributed in fragments, alternating with stone placers, rock outcrops and glaciers. In the west of Georgia, the Alpine belt rises up to 3000 m, in the east - up to 3600 m above sea level.
Animal world Georgia is diverse, with more than 100 species of mammals, 330 species of birds and 160 species of fish. Many of them are endemic or semi-endemic, for example, the Artvinian lizard and the Kuban tur (whose horns are used in Georgia as vessels for wine). The fauna of the steppes of eastern Georgia is very peculiar. Until recently, there was a goitered gazelle, which was preserved only in certain areas of the Shirak steppe. The striped hyena is found in the Gardabani steppe and the Alazani valley. Of the other predators, we note the fox, jackal, reed cat. Wolves are common in livestock areas. Rodents are typical for the steppes: jerboas, voles, hamsters. Among the birds are common sparrow, gray partridge, quail, steppe eagle. The abundance of lizards and turtles, as well as snakes (already ordinary and water, western boa constrictor, yellow-bellied snake) is characteristic. Gyurza is found in the Eldar and Shirak steppes. The animal world of forests is the richest. In many areas, Caucasian deer, roe deer, wild boar, hare, squirrel are common, and predators include brown bear, wolf, jackal, lynx, forest cat and fox. The badger causes great harm to agriculture. The forests of Georgia are famous for the abundance and diversity of birds. Species such as chaffinch, black-headed tit, great tit, greenfinch, blackbird, etc. are common. Of the birds of prey listed in the Red Book of Georgia, there are (mainly in reserves) bearded vulture, golden eagle, griffon vulture, black vulture, etc. In In some areas of Colchis and Kakheti, you can still see a pheasant. Of the reptiles in the forests of Georgia, the most numerous are lizards, marsh turtles and snakes (snake, copperhead, Caucasian viper). The alpine fauna is better preserved on the Main Caucasian Range. In its western part there is a Kuban tur, in the eastern part - a Dagestan one. Both species descend into the forest belt for the winter. The chamois is almost ubiquitous, and the bezoar goat is found in the east. Of the characteristic birds of the highlands, we note the Caucasian black grouse, keklik, bearded vulture. Trout is caught in mountain rivers.
The state of the environment. One of the main environmental problems is air pollution in industrial cities, especially in the center of metallurgy - Rustavi. Increased deforestation, soil erosion and pollution of the Black Sea are of serious concern. There are difficulties in supplying the population with drinking water and sewage disposal. Georgia is a party to many international agreements on environmental protection.
POPULATION
According to the last census of 1989, 5449 thousand people lived in Georgia. Over the previous 10 years (compared to the data of the 1979 census), the population growth was 8.7%. The urban population increased by 16.7%, while the rural population increased by only 0.3%. In 1990 ca. 56% of the population lived in cities and approx. 44% - in rural areas. The capital city of Tbilisi is home to 1,260,000 people (about a quarter of the country's population); compared with 1979, the number of inhabitants of the country increased by 18%, which is largely due to the constant outflow of the population from rural areas. Every year, 23 thousand rural residents moved to the cities of Georgia, which led to a sharp decline in the population in a number of rural areas. Ethnic conflict in Abkhazia (1993-1994) led to resettlement in Tbilisi c. 80 thousand refugees. In 1993-1998, the population of Georgia changed relatively little and was maintained at the level of 5.0-5.4 million people. The 1993 data indicated a slight decrease in the population, mainly due to emigration to Russia. After the declaration of independence, the birth rate in Georgia decreased significantly - to the level of 2.2 per 1,000 people in 1995 and 1.6 - in 1997. According to official statistics, as of July 1997, 5,160 thousand people lived in Georgia. The sex and age structure of the population was as follows: 22% of the population under 14 years old (boys - 581 thousand, girls - 558 thousand), 66% aged 15 to 64 years (men - 1,640 thousand, women - 1,766 thousand). ) and 12% aged 65 years and older (men - 231 thousand, women - 382 thousand). According to a 1998 estimate, the population of Georgia was 5431 thousand people. In 1989 almost a third of the population was in the under 19 age group and approx. 15% - for a group of 60 years and older. The aging of the population was observed: in the period from 1979 to 1989 the number of people older than working age increased by 1/4. The average life expectancy in 1985-1986 was 71.5 years (for men - 68.7 years, and for women 75.1 years) and increased slightly compared to the 1970s. However, in 1997 this figure dropped to 65 years (61.6 for men and 68.5 for women). In 1989, the infant mortality rate was approx. 20 per 1000 newborns (versus 25 in 1985). The average family size was 4.1, although there were significant differences between urban and rural areas and between regions of the country. The infant mortality rate rose to 50.1 per 1000 in 1997 as a result of a sharp deterioration in the health care system and a general decline in the quality of life in the country.
Ethnic composition. Georgia has a complex multinational society. In 1989, Georgians made up 70.1% of the population (versus 68.8% in 1979). Of the national minorities, Armenians (8.1%), Russians (6.3%), Azerbaijanis (5.7%), Ossetians (3.0%), Greeks (1.9%) and Abkhazians (1.8%) stood out ). In the period 1979-1989, there was a decrease in the share of all the listed groups (except for Azerbaijanis and Abkhazians) due to assimilation and departure from Georgia. Abkhazians, a distinct Caucasian ethnic group, have their own autonomous republic, where in 1989 they made up 17.8% of the population. Ossetians, the Iranian-speaking people of the Greater Caucasus, mostly live in the territory of the former autonomous region of South Ossetia, where in 1989 they accounted for 66.2% of the population. Outside of its borders, most Ossetians lived dispersed throughout eastern Georgia. Adjarians, who converted to Islam, Georgians, have their own autonomous republic, where in 1989 they accounted for 82.8% of the population. Since the mid-1980s, the level of national self-consciousness of the population in the autonomies of Georgia has risen sharply: Adjarians, as well as Abkhazians and Ossetians, came into conflict with the Georgian government on the issue of the rights of autonomies and accused Tbilisi of ignoring its social and economic interests. Both Abkhazians and Ossetians announced the separation of their autonomies from Georgia. In response, the Georgian government and its paramilitary units used force. In December 1990, the autonomous region of South Ossetia was abolished by the central authorities. Abkhazians in 1993-1994 defeated the Georgian troops and proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Abkhazia. The Georgian-Abkhazian negotiations mediated by Russia and the UN dragged on for a long time and have not yet been completed. Other national minorities live in Georgia, including Jews, Assyrians, Kurds and Tatars, but they are not numerous. Among ethnic Georgians, there are distinctly different regional groups - Mingrelians and Svans, who, in addition to Georgian, widely use their own languages. Language. The Georgian language belongs to the Kartvelian group of Iberian-Caucasian languages, which also includes Megrelian and Svan languages. It has its own alphabet, which has been used since ancient times and underwent significant changes in the 11th and 17th centuries. The earliest surviving Georgian literary monuments date back to the 5th century. AD Over 98% of ethnic Georgians consider Georgian as their mother tongue. It is widely used in the economic, political and cultural life of the country. The Abkhaz language is the official language on the territory of Abkhazia.
Letter. The Georgian language is the only one among the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​that has an ancient alphabetic script. It conveys the sound composition of Georgian speech and forms the written and printed symbols of this language. The Georgian alphabet has 33 letters (5 vowels and 28 consonants). The spelling of the letters is unique: it cannot be compared with any other alphabet in the world.
Religion. Most ethnic Georgians belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church, a branch of Orthodox Christianity. Eastern Georgia in 330 AD was converted to Christianity by St. Nino is from Cappadocia and became the second (after Armenia) state to adopt Christianity as the official religion. The Georgian Orthodox Church remained independent for a long time, but in 1811 it was incorporated into the Russian Orthodox Church. The status of autocephaly was returned in 1917. Like other churches in the former USSR, the Georgian church lost its former influence as a result of atheistic state policy. The number of church parishes dropped from about 2,000 in 1917 to 80 by the 1960s. The influence of the church began to recover only with the approval of glasnost in the late 1980s. There are a small number of Catholics in Georgia, and relatively many Muslim Georgians in Adjara and along the southern border of the country. Abkhazians are mostly Sunni Muslims, but there are also Orthodox. Azerbaijanis, Assyrians and Kurds are Muslims. Most Ossetians profess Orthodoxy. Armenians, Greeks and Russians have their own Orthodox churches. Georgia is characterized by religious tolerance. Tbilisi has many temples, including synagogues and a mosque.
Cities. Tbilisi, founded in the 5th c. AD King Vakhtang I Gorgasali, is located in the very core of Georgian lands, at the junction of several historical regions - Inner and Lower Kartalin (Kartli), Kakhetia and Javakhetia. From 1801 to 1917 this city (until 1936 Tiflis) was the main administrative and commercial center of the Caucasus region. In 1845 it became the residence of the governor of the Russian Empire, who ruled the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Almost a quarter of the population of Georgia lives in modern Tbilisi. In 1989, ethnic Georgians made up 66% of the population here, Armenians - 12%, Russians - 10%, Ossetians - 3%, Kurds - 2% and Greeks - 2%. The city's architecture reflects a rich mixture of Eastern and Western cultures. The old part of the city is characterized by winding streets, bazaars and low houses with flat roofs and carved balconies. Modern quarters have a European look. There are beautiful high-rise buildings, wide boulevards and avenues lined with shady trees. Large areas around Tbilisi are occupied by forest parks, orchards and vineyards. Other large cities include Kutaisi (235 thousand inhabitants in 1989), the oldest city in the country and the regional center of Western Georgia; Batumi (136 thousand), the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, the main port and oil terminal of Georgia; Sukhumi (121 thousand), the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and in the recent past the main resort; Rustavi (159 thousand), the main center of metallurgy. Tskhinvali (42 thousand) is the center of South Ossetia. Chiatura (69 thousand) and Tkibuli (37 thousand) are the centers of manganese and coal mining.
Administrative-territorial division. In 1995, a new administrative-territorial division of Georgia into 9 regions was adopted: Samegrelo Upper Svaneti, Lower Svaneti and Racha-Lechkhumi, Imereti, Guria, Meskhet-Javakheti, Lower Kartaliniya (Shida Kartli), Upper Kartaliniya (Kvemo Kartli), Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Kakheti; two cities on the rights of the region: Tbilisi and Poti; two autonomous republics: Adjara and Abkhaz (currently pursuing an independent policy). The South Ossetian Autonomous Region was abolished by law, but exists de facto.
GOVERNMENT AND POLICY
During a long period of its history, Georgia was fragmented into small kingdoms, often under the control of foreign powers. After joining the Russian Empire, the country was divided into four provinces. From 1918 to 1921 it existed as an independent republic with a Menshevik government. In 1921, power was seized by the Bolsheviks, and in 1922 Georgia became a Soviet republic within the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR). In 1936, the TSFSR was liquidated, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR. In April 1991, Georgia declared independence, and after presidential elections and a constitutional referendum in October 1995, it became a democratic republic.
State device. Until 1991, Georgia was one of the 15 union republics of the USSR. Its legislative body, the Supreme Council of the Georgian SSR, consisted of 440 deputies who were elected every five years by popular vote. Despite the status of the highest legislative body, the Supreme Soviet of Georgia, together with its presidium and other highest republican political, administrative and judicial bodies (the Central Committee of the Communist Party, the Council of Ministers and the Supreme Court of Georgia), were under the control of Moscow and ultimately the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU . All major appointments to positions in the highest bodies of power in Georgia were made in agreement with the Central Committee of the CPSU. After October 1990, the system of government changed radically in connection with the election of a non-communist government in the first in the republic (after 1919) alternative multi-party elections. The bloc of radical nationalists "Round Table - Free Georgia" won 155 out of 250 seats in the Supreme Council. The new government quickly replaced the communist administration with what was essentially an autocratic presidential system. The President, like the Supreme Council, was elected for five years without any restrictions on the term of office. The President was given broad powers in the legislative and executive spheres of power. He could appoint his own advisory council and, with the approval of the Supreme Council, appoint or remove the prime minister and the entire cabinet. He had the power to appoint the chairmen of the commissions of the Supreme Council, which were formed by departments of the government, and to choose the prosecutor general and the chairman of the Supreme Court. The president had the power to veto laws and dissolve the Supreme Council, issue decrees, stop the activities of the cabinet of ministers, and create administrative regions. He had great powers in governing the autonomous republics. The first president, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, elected in May 1991, tried to exercise the powers granted to him, but in January 1992 he was overthrown in a military coup. The State Council, which consisted of about 70 representatives of most opposition parties, ruled the country until new general elections in October 1992. Eduard Shevardnadze, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR under Gorbachev and chairman of the State Council of Georgia since March 1992, was elected to the post of head of state - chairman of parliament . Representatives of 26 parties received seats in the new 235-seat parliament, which soon united into 11 factions. Parliament is formally endowed with great powers, including the right to remove the head of state (if there are 2/3 of the votes) and the exclusive right to call new elections. However, due to the ongoing military and economic crises that the country is facing, the head of state has concentrated large additional powers in his hands. At the end of 1992, a cabinet of ministers was formed, consisting entirely of Shevardnadze's supporters. The main achievement of the newly formed parliament was the adoption on August 24, 1995 of the constitution of Georgia. Shortly thereafter, Georgia acceded to all the conventions of international law.
Local government. Prior to the elections in October 1990, local government was carried out jointly by elected local councils and centrally approved committees of the Communist Party. Councils organized in cities, regions (republics), districts and rural areas were elected for a period of three years. They appointed executive committees to govern their territories. The Soviets, in fact, did not exercise local democratic control over the executive power and after the 1990 elections were replaced by a system of prefectures. The prefects, appointed by the president and reporting only to him and the Supreme Council, acquired significant power over the new local people's assemblies - sakrebuloebi. After the overthrow of President Gamsakhurdia, the sakrebuloebis regained their former powers.
Judicial system. Until 1990, the judicial system of Georgia was subordinate to the republican and central Soviet government and the CPSU. The criminal and civil codes of the republic, the courts, judicial procedures and the constitution repeated the all-Union standard. The supreme judicial body of the republic was the Supreme Court, which was subordinate to the Supreme Court of the USSR and was elected by the Supreme Council of Georgia every five years. The lower courts replicated the Soviet administrative hierarchy. At the level of the rural district and small town, judges were elected by popular vote; at the level of the region (republic) and the big city - by the relevant council. The judges served for five years, and the two people's assessors, who sat next to the judge, were elected for a term of 2.5 years. The autonomous republics had their own judicial systems, each of which was headed by a supreme court subordinate to the Supreme Council of Georgia. The proceedings were prosecuted and strongly influenced by prosecutors appointed by the republican prosecutor, who in turn was appointed by the prosecutor general in Moscow. Despite the constitutional and legal provisions on independent judiciary, all judges were under the control of the CPSU. After the defeat of the Communist Party in the October 1990 elections, the criminal and civil codes, judicial structures and procedures, and the constitution were revised to create a truly independent judiciary. The Supreme Court remained the highest legal body, and the term of office of its members was extended to 10 years. The rights of both lawyers and defendants were expanded; accusatory bias in legal proceedings was abolished. The prosecutor's office and the new constitutional review committee began to strictly enforce the law. Judges were prohibited from belonging to any political organization and from holding any other public office. The judiciary of Georgia is still highly centralized. It consists of the following branches: the Supreme Court of Georgia, the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Courts of the Autonomous Republics, the Court of Appeal; district, regional and city (district city) courts. The President of the Constitutional Court is appointed by the Parliament on the proposal of the President. Other courts are part of the judicial system of general jurisdiction, which is formed by the President of Georgia. Members of the Council of Justice (an advisory body established under the President of Georgia) are appointed by the President and Parliament. The lower level of courts of general jurisdiction is represented by regional and city (district city in large cities) courts. The Council of Justice appoints judges. The chairman of the court is appointed by the President of Georgia for a 5-year term. A judge in an autonomous republic is appointed by the supreme legislative body of the autonomous republic with the written consent of the president. District courts are formed by the President of Georgia on the proposal of the Council of Justice. Collegiums are created in district courts (on criminal law, civil law, etc.). The chairman of the district court and his deputy are appointed by the President of Georgia for a five-year term. In the autonomous republics, chairmen of the court are appointed by the parliament with the written consent of the president. There are courts of appeal attached to the supreme courts of the republics of Adzharia and Abkhazia, in Tbilisi and Kutaisi. The activity of courts of general jurisdiction is supervised by the Supreme Court of Georgia. The President of Georgia approves the staffing and structure of the Supreme Court on the proposals of the Council of Justice. The Parliament of Georgia approves the Chairman of the Supreme Court of Georgia by a majority of votes upon the proposal of the President. Protection of human rights in independent Georgia. The foundations of the human rights protection system in Georgia were laid on April 20, 1992, when, at the initiative of the head of state, the Committee for the Protection of Human Rights under the government of the country was established, which became the main government source of information on this issue. The Committee analyzes and controls state legislation, court decisions and administrative acts in the field of human rights. On October 4, 1994, Decree No. 335 of the head of state "On certain measures for the protection of human rights in Georgia" was issued. In accordance with it, all state authorities were invited to cooperate with the Committee for the Protection of Human Rights to develop proposals and measures to facilitate the practical implementation of the requirements of the UN, international agreements and additional protocols.
Political parties. Until October 1990, the CPSU was the only legal political party in Georgia. In 1981 it consisted of approx. 350 thousand people, i.e. less than 7% of the population. The party controlled all political and social life. The Communist Party's monopoly of power ended after multi-party elections in October 1990. The Round Table - Free Georgia Bloc, a seven-party coalition led by Gamsakhurdia, and the Georgian Helsinki Union formed a new government and became the dominant political force in the Supreme Council. This bloc received 54% of the vote in the general election and 155 of the 250 seats in Parliament. The Communist Party of Georgia received 30% of the vote and 64 seats. The All-Georgian Union of National Accord and Revival won 3.4% of the vote and did not receive a single seat in parliament. In September 1990, an unofficial rival parliament was elected, which was called the National Congress (more than half of the voters participated in the elections). It was dominated by the National Independence Party led by Irakli Tsereteli and the National Democratic Party led by Giorgi Chanturia. Until January 1992, he played the role of an extra-parliamentary opposition to the Supreme Council and President Gamsakhourdia. Political life was dominated by anti-Gamsakhurdi hunger strikes, demonstrations and rallies until December 1991, when the opposition resorted to the armed overthrow of the president. The government's hardline policies, including censorship and non-recognition of ethnic parties, along with Georgia's economic failure and international isolation, have disappointed Georgian society. After the failed state putsch in Moscow in August 1991, a large new parliamentary opposition in Tbilisi, consisting of the intelligentsia known as "Charter-91", and government officials, including ministers and military leaders, united and called for Gamsakhurdia's resignation. After violent clashes in Tbilisi in December 1991 - January 1992, Gamsakhurdia fled the country (eventually settling in Checheno-Ingushetia). In the autumn of 1993, he made an attempt to return to power, initiating a short but tense civil war. In January 1994, Gamsakhurdia was killed under mysterious circumstances. Supporters of exiled President Zviad Gamsakhurdia still form one of the opposition political movements. The cabinet appointed by Shevardnadze in late 1992 reflected the balance of political power in the new parliament. The parliamentary factions soon merged into a majority group, i.e. supporters of Shevardnadze, and an opposition group of opponents of Shevardnadze. The majority united in a broad coalition of the Civil Union, led by Zurab Zhvania of the Green Party. The opposition was led by the Popular Front, the National Democratic Party, Charter-91 and the Ilya Chavchavadze Society. The All-Georgian Revival Union represented the political forces of Adzharia in Tbilisi. The Abkhaz faction tried to pass resolutions on Abkhazia. New political parties were formed: the Christian Democratic Union led by Irakli Shengelaya, the Democratic Georgian Union (Avtandil Margiani), the National Independence Party (Irakli Tsereteli), the Georgian Monarchist Party (Timur Zhorzholiani) and the United Communist Party of Georgia (Panteleimon Georgadze). The November 1995 parliamentary elections were held on the basis of a mixed system based on party lists and single-mandate constituencies. There are 10 parties in the parliament that have overcome the threshold of 5% of the vote, but only three of them have political weight: the pro-Shevardnadze Union of Citizens of Georgia, the opposition National Democratic Party and the All-Georgian Union of Revival (defends the interests of Adzharia). The political parties of Georgia are still loose formations and have little connection with their electorate.
Armed forces. Georgians have long lived surrounded by aggressive states and have accumulated extensive military experience. After the annexation of Georgia by Russia in the 19th century. Georgian troops were included in the Russian army, and then the Soviet armed forces. In 1991, the country hosted approx. 200 thousand Soviet troops. By 1994, as a result of the withdrawal of troops and the conclusion of a bilateral agreement with Russia, the number of Russian troops in Georgia was reduced to 20 thousand people, who were stationed at three military bases. In November 1990, the Georgian National Guard was formed; subsequently it was included in the regular army, created in the spring of 1992. The Mkhedrioni paramilitary organization actually had an autonomous status within the army, although it was transformed into the official state structure of the Georgian Rescue Corps. In the summer of 1994, the new Minister of Defense reorganized the 20,000-strong army. There was no strict discipline in the regular army, desertion flourished, obsolete weapons prevailed. The 1995 Constitution, as well as the laws "On Conscription and Military Service", "On Defense", and "On Martial Law" formed the legislative basis for the armed forces of Georgia. In the same year, the parliament approved the military doctrine of the country. The armed forces of Georgia are responsible for its defense. They consist of troops subordinate to the Ministry of Defense, border troops, internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Security Brigade. The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president of Georgia. In 1995, the armed forces of Georgia consisted of the following units: ground forces, navy, air force, air defense units, the national guard and the republican security forces (internal and border troops). The draft age is 18 years. According to estimates for 1997, 1,289,000 people aged 15 to 49 can be mobilized at a time (annually 40,800 men reach draft age). The Parliament of Georgia approves the size of the armed forces and defense spending. Military cooperation with Western countries is gradually expanding, especially with the United States and Germany. In 1996-1997, the Georgian armed forces held large-scale military exercises for the first time. In 1996, a division of the Georgian army took part in exercises conducted on US soil as part of the Partnership for Peace program. The border troops of Georgia received significant assistance from the United States. In 1998, the Ministers of Defense of Greece and Georgia signed an agreement on military-technical cooperation and adopted a joint program of military cooperation. During the Abkhaz-Georgian conflict, both sides left minefields on the territory of Abkhazia. Most of the mines were laid in the Gali region of Abkhazia, where the population is dominated by Georgians. In August 1994, the UN Humanitarian Aid Commission estimated that between 75,000 and 150,000 mines were laid in Georgia between the Gumista and Inguri rivers. Main and secondary roads were mined, adults and children were blown up by mines. Currently, only the CIS troops are engaged in demining. The Georgian government is interested in UN assistance in demining the territory, but this requires the consent of the Abkhaz side.
Foreign policy. After declaring independence, Georgia signed friendship treaties with Russia, Turkey, Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan and established diplomatic relations with most Western countries. She is a member of the UN since 1992, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the International Monetary Fund and has the status of an invited state in the Council of Europe. Initially, Georgia refused to join the CIS, and its relations with the Russian Federation remained strained due to Russia's unofficial support for the Abkhaz separatists. However, after the defeat in Abkhazia and because of the civil war in the west of the country in the fall of 1993, Georgia was forced to request the entry of a Russian military contingent into the country. After that, she joined the CIS.
ECONOMY
As part of the USSR, the Georgian economy developed rapidly. Between 1913 and 1975 the national income of the country grew almost 90 times. At the same time, the national income per capita in the 1970s was only 3/4 of the average all-Union level. The country's economy changed from agrarian to industrial and post-industrial. In 1990, the service sector accounted for over 40% of the employed, and the industry for 27%. Until 1992, almost all means of production belonged to the state, and the economy was managed by the planning authorities from Moscow and Tbilisi. The volume of output produced by each enterprise was planned on the basis of the control figures of the annual and five-year plans developed by officials along the entire vertical of sectoral management (from the enterprise to the union ministry in Moscow). Despite impressive growth rates, industrial and agricultural production in Georgia was inefficient and supported by cheap government loans. Georgia's heavy industries include hydropower production, coal and manganese mining, cement production, metallurgy (ferroalloys, iron and steel production), mechanical engineering (trucks, electric locomotives and ships), oil refining and paper production. Light industry was dominated by the food industry (tea, wine, mineral water, etc.) and the textile industry (silk, cotton, and wool fabrics). The volume of foreign trade was insignificant, although two-thirds of the food produced in Georgia was exported to other republics of the USSR. Unemployment and inflation were not officially recognized until 1990, but they have always existed in a hidden form. The government of independent Georgia faced a catastrophic economic downturn. In 1992, production as a whole fell by 40%. The volume of output in industry decreased by 48%, and in agriculture - by 32%. The government's planned expenditures for 1993 were almost four times the expected revenues. In the first two months of 1993, inflation was 50% per month, and the official unemployment rate reached 7%. In April 1993, Georgia introduced a temporary currency, the coupon, to stop using Russian rubles. The privatization process was very slow, despite the active legislative activity in this area. By mid-1994, the main indicators of the state of the economy indicated a crisis in all sectors of production. Many sectors of the economy, such as forestry and construction, have practically ceased their activity, while the rest have reduced the volume of output to the level of the 1960s. The production and transport infrastructure was destroyed, and the new monetary unit depreciated. Inflation was approx. 9000% per year, and unemployment reached 20%. While officially operating enterprises and organizations were in a state of complete collapse, informal shadow production and the black market adapted well to the new conditions. In 1995, the government began to bring the economy out of a state of crisis, bringing down inflation, directing almost all IMF loans to stabilize finances, and bringing the structure of the economy in line with the conditions for granting loans. Market prices for grain products were introduced, preparations were made for entry into the World Trade Organization, agreements were signed to transport Caspian oil through a pipeline through Georgia to the Black Sea, and laws were passed on commercial banks, land and tax reforms. Agriculture began to revive, but the industry still needed radical restructuring and large investments. The introduction of a new currency - lari and a relatively balanced state budget have had a beneficial effect on the state of the country's economy. In 1996, the country's GDP grew even more than the government planned - by 14% (in 1995 - only 2.4%). More than 30 thousand private enterprises were registered. The total number of employed in 1996 was estimated at 2.2 million people, of which 31% were in industry and construction, 25% in agriculture and forestry, and 44% in other sectors. The government's efforts were aimed at phasing out price controls. In February 1996, the government increased the price of bread by 40%, one of the steps towards the complete elimination of bread subsidies throughout the year. Such measures have become inevitable due to the gradual decrease in the supply of grain from humanitarian aid funds. In 1996, Georgia received only 138 thousand tons of wheat as aid (in 1995 - 540 thousand tons), which was due to the need to purchase grain at world prices. In general, this had little effect on the prices of other products, which indicates that the market is more independent of government intervention than expected. In 1997, economic growth was stimulated by the development of small and medium-sized private enterprises that were active in the service, transport, construction and food industries. Credit to large state-owned enterprises and price support for bread, utilities, and passenger transport were cut sharply, as was the number of employees in state-owned enterprises. The budget deficit in 1996 decreased to 3-4%. The new monetary unit lari, introduced in 1995, gradually rose in value. Officially registered unemployment in 1997 remained low, although most of the employed no longer worked in the public sector. The private sector provided over 50% of GDP. After some buildup, the pace of privatization increased. Most small businesses and housing were privatized, as well as a few large enterprises. Georgia has a voucher program, but privatization has not extended to strategic enterprises and state monopolies such as the grain trade and state energy systems. There are no restrictions on the participation of foreigners in the privatization of enterprises. For the restoration of agriculture, the reform that ensured the right to sell landed property was of great importance. The economy remains fragile due to complex structural problems, including difficulties in tax collection and energy billing. Most firms evade paying taxes because they are associated with underground business. In Georgia in 1995 the share of taxes was only 5.8% of GDP. Income tax was collected only from those working in the public sector, and in other sectors - only from those few who declared income. Nevertheless, in 1997 there were positive developments in the collection of taxes. President Shevardnadze said that tax revenues have grown strongly, and the current tax reform, encouraged by the IMF, will lead to further growth. At the same time, Georgia's foreign debt exceeded $1.5 billion by mid-1996. The second stage of economic reforms will see the transition to a market economy complete, but the protracted energy crisis remains the main obstacle to economic growth.
Economical geography. Almost all industrial production is concentrated in the flat regions of the country; over half of the enterprises are located in the cities of Tbilisi, Rustavi (southeast of Tbilisi) and Kutaisi (in western Georgia). The east-central region (Tbilisi-Rustavi) is characterized by the highest level of economic development, followed by the west-central region (Kutaisi-Zestaponi), Abkhazia, South Ossetia and the southern regions. Despite trends towards a more even distribution of the economy through the expansion of coal mining and electricity production in Abkhazia, talc mining and logging in South Ossetia, and the development of agro-industrial complexes throughout the republic, territorial differences persist and continue to exacerbate ethno-regional contradictions. The growth rates of industry in general in Abkhazia and South Ossetia are much lower than in Georgia. The share of employment in agriculture among the Abkhaz was higher than that of any other ethnic group of the former USSR. More than 70% of all employed in industry are concentrated in Central Georgia.
Energy. The hydropower potential of Georgia is estimated at 88.5 billion kWh per year and exceeds the combined hydropower potential of Great Britain, Switzerland and Germany. Even using just under 10% of this potential, hydropower generates almost half of the country's electricity. There are 72 power plants in Georgia, of which 64 are hydroelectric power plants. However, only 3/4 of the electricity demand is met. Stocks of other energy carriers - coal, oil and natural gas - are negligible. Coal mining is declining. Coal mines near the towns of Tkvarcheli and Tkibuli in western Georgia provide only half of the coke needed by the Rustavi Iron and Steel Works and make a very modest contribution to electricity generation. In 1997 Georgia produced 14,000 tons of coal against 500,000 tons in 1992. The oil industry, based on deposits in Kakheti, is poorly developed: in 1997, only 120,000 tons of oil were produced. Local oil provides only 4% of the country's needs; the rest is imported from Russia and Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the oil refinery and storage facilities in Batumi, supplied by pipelines from the Baku oilfields, make Georgia a vital component in the future development of the Caucasian region's oil economy. Natural gas, which provides 44% of the country's fuel needs, comes from other countries, primarily from Turkmenistan. In 1990, non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and oil industries were the most energy-intensive consumers. In 1990, the three largest plants - Rustavi Metallurgical, Zestafon Ferroalloys and Rustavi Azot Chemical Complex - consumed more electricity than the entire population of Georgia. The collapse of the USSR led to an energy crisis in Georgia. The production of gasoline and electricity has declined catastrophically. Oil and gas supply agreements were concluded with Iran and Turkey. The country's long-term energy needs can only be met through the further development of hydropower. In 1994, hydroelectric power plants operated at only 21% of their installed capacity, and the only operating thermal power plant, Gardabanskaya in Eastern Georgia, operated at only 14%. The Green Movement in Georgia opposes the pollution of the Black Sea. In April 1992, the heads of governments of Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Turkey signed the Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution. The convention has been ratified by all six countries. In April 1993, an intergovernmental declaration on the protection of the Black Sea was adopted in Odessa. It notes the need to create a system of joint management of the coastal zone and states that the Black Sea countries should develop and implement national policies within the framework of this system. The operation of this system in Georgia is supported by international organizations, in particular the Black Sea Environmental Protection Program funded by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program and UNEP. Energy consumption in Georgia has halved in 1990-1994. After 1993 almost no gas was supplied to consumers. In a limited volume, it came from Russia to the Gardabanskaya GRES and the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant in exchange for some goods under the barter scheme. Imports of other types of fuel (oil, fuel oil, gasoline) dropped sharply. At the end of 1994, Georgia was indebted to Turkmenistan, mainly for gas (over $400 million). Wood has again become one of the main fuels for heating houses and cooking in rural areas, and kerosene is the main fuel in cities. In 1994, electricity demand was met by hydropower (70.5%), thermal power (17.6%) and imports from the Russian Federation (11.9%). In the autumn of 1995, the State Fuel and Energy Corporation was established, which included special departments of Sakenergo (production and distribution of electricity), Sakgazi (supply of natural gas), Saknaftobi (extraction and processing of oil and natural gas) and the holding company "Saknaftobprodukt" (supply and fuel distribution). This corporation is responsible for the development of the country's economic and energy policy and its implementation. The reorganization of the management of the fuel and energy complex has led to an improvement in energy supply since 1996. Energy reform is a crucial link in Georgia's transition to a market economy. The Georgian government is currently restructuring the power industry. The adoption of the law on electricity in June 1997 made it possible to create a national regulator in this area.
Mining industry. Despite the richness of the subsoil with a variety of minerals, the mining industry in Georgia is poorly developed. The exception is the extraction of manganese. Manganese mines in Chiatura in the 1970s provided 1/4 of all manganese production in the USSR. In the mid-1990s, manganese reserves in Georgia were estimated at 200 million tons. Coal deposits in Abkhazia (reserves of more than 300 million tons) and oil in Eastern Georgia (reserves of less than 100 million tons) cannot meet the needs of energy and the metallurgical industry . Georgia has small deposits of copper, lead, lime and barite, which allow supporting non-ferrous metallurgy and the chemical industry, incl. production of nitrogen fertilizers and medicines. Among other important types of mineral raw materials are talc, diatomite, marls, dolomites, limestones, marble, refractory clays, etc. Georgia is rich in mineral springs. Mineral water "Borjomi" and manganese were the hallmarks of the mining industry in Georgia. The mining industry in Georgia has prospects for further development, but the scale of production will depend on the domestic and foreign markets.
Manufacturing industry. Until the end of the 19th century. Georgia remained an underdeveloped agrarian outskirts of the Russian Empire. During the Soviet period, rapid industrialization was carried out. During the period from 1913 to 1975, the volume of gross industrial output in Georgia increased 154 times. In 1990, the republic produced 0.2% of all world industrial output, about the same as Norway. Industry provided over 40% of the country's national income. However, the centralized organization of industrial production according to five-year plans and production targets led to a serious economic imbalance with an extremely high concentration of investment in heavy industry and the production of low-quality goods. The dominant branch of the manufacturing industry is the food industry. Using its own agrarian base, this branch produces 3/5 of all industrial products, it employs almost 2/5 of those working in industry. The leading branches of the food industry are fruit canning, tea production, winemaking and tobacco production. These four industries account for 3/5 of the total value of the products produced by the food industry. Less developed industries are the production of pasta, beer, sugar, meat and dairy products. The production of fabrics (silk, woolen and cotton), clothes and footwear is developed. Heavy industry includes the production of steel, railroad locomotives, trucks, ships, and agricultural machinery. Metallurgy, represented almost exclusively by the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant, produces pipes and rolled steel for the oil and automotive industries, as well as for factories that produce railway locomotives, ships and agricultural machinery. Metallurgical production is largely dependent on the supply of coke and iron ore from Russia. Due to the energy problem, declining resources and the drain of skilled workers to Russia in the early 1990s, the industry experienced a catastrophic decline. In 1993, the volume of industrial output was 74.3% of the 1992 level. During the same time, the volume of output in metallurgy decreased to 81%, and in engineering and metalworking - to 43%. The total volume of industrial output produced by state enterprises in 1994 amounted to 1/5 of the 1990 level, but in 1995 the decline stopped. Now less than 20% of industrial enterprises operate in Georgia, loaded with only 15% of their capacities. In 1996, the increase in industrial output amounted to 7.7%. By 1996, such industries as the production of steel, aircraft, machinery, machine tools, foundry equipment, electric locomotives, tower cranes, electric welding equipment, equipment for the food and meat-packing industry, electric motors, instrumentation, trucks, tractors, fabrics, footwear, chemical products, woolen products and wine.
Agriculture. Cultivated lands occupy less than 20% of the territory of Georgia. Previously, peasants could not use marshy soils along the sea coast, but during the years of Soviet rule, most of the waterlogged lands were drained. It was no less difficult to cultivate the lands in the arid regions in the east, but they were also involved in agricultural circulation due to the extensive development of irrigation. Despite the problems noted, Georgia's agriculture has achieved great success and remained the main source of prosperity for the republic. Between 1913 and 1980 agricultural output increased more than 10 times. Georgian farmers have long used the country's fertile soils and warm climate to grow crops such as citrus fruits, tobacco and tea, which are the backbone of the food industry. When the Soviet market was closed to foreign competition, Georgia had a monopoly on tea and citrus production. The need for a large number of laborers to grow and harvest such specialized crops as tea, tobacco and grapes determined a persistently high level of employment. According to official statistics, in 1985, 28% of the country's able-bodied population was employed in agriculture and related activities. Prior to land privatization in 1992, Georgian agriculture was organized in the form of collective farms and state farms. The average collective farm had land with an area of ​​428 hectares and united more than 400 peasant households. Although there was no private ownership of land, peasants and some urban dwellers were given land on lease to grow produce for personal consumption or for sale. Despite the small area of ​​these plots, the yields there were twice as high as in the collective farms and state farms. There were also restrictions on the allowable number of pets in private farms. Private traders supplied almost half of the republic's agricultural products, including 64% of meat, 54% of milk and 43% of eggs; they owned more than half of the livestock (mainly cattle, sheep and pigs). Until 1992, more than 80% of the cultivated land was occupied by grain and fodder crops. Of the total cereal area, 40% was corn and almost 40% was winter wheat. Other crops include legumes, tobacco, potatoes and vegetables. Grapes, citrus and other fruits, as well as tea occupy 34% of fertile land. The most important agricultural product after cereals is wine grapes. Georgian vineyards accounted for 1/8 of all vineyards in the USSR, and more than 10% of the total agricultural production came from grape products. Georgia produces 500 different varieties of wine, although only a few brands are exported abroad. Winemaking is concentrated mainly in the east of the country, in Kakheti. Citrus gave approx. 8% of the value of all agricultural products in Georgia. Subtropical fruits accounted for another 8%, while tea, whose plantations occupied only 2% of the cultivated area, provided almost 20% of the total production. The specialization of animal husbandry in Georgia is determined by the breeding of cattle, pigs and sheep. Poultry farming is widespread. Further growth of animal husbandry is not very effective due to the high density of animals on the ground, the low level of mechanization and the practice of distant sheep breeding. Sheep and pigs are raised mainly in the mountains and foothills. By mid-1994, about half of all cultivated land was in private hands. In an attempt to alleviate the protracted food crisis, the government distributed small plots of land free of charge to residents of large cities. Privatization completely destroyed efficient agricultural enterprises and left private landowners without the necessary agricultural equipment and implements. The collapse of the supply chain, high fuel prices and deteriorating roads and railroads have contributed to lower living standards in many rural areas. The revival of agricultural production began only in 1995. Since 1995, there has been a curtailment of humanitarian food aid and an expansion of local agricultural production through cooperation with international organizations. The first major step in this direction was taken by the European Union by providing Georgia with a credit line to support developing grain-trading commercial structures and private farms growing crops through short-term loans. The implementation of the Georgian Agricultural Project of the World Bank, the International Development Association (IDA) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is also the result of the development of a new strategy for cooperation with international organizations. This project, with a $21.5 million loan ($15 million from IDA and $6.5 million from IFAD), authorized a credit line for privatized agricultural and food industries, the development of rural credit unions, a pilot programs for land registration and scientific research in the field of agriculture. Collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been strengthened. The Winter Wheat Distribution project has already been implemented and is estimated at $346,000. 300 tons of high-quality wheat seeds have been distributed among farmers' associations established in Georgia under this project. In 1997, the Georgian government received a grant of 500 million yen (5 million dollars) under the Japanese program "Increasing Food Production in Developing Countries." In this regard, Georgia will receive agricultural equipment and phosphate fertilizers necessary for the development of grain farming. The Japanese Chamber of Commerce won the tender for the supply of these types of products. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is funding a project called the Wholesale Market. Its goal is to increase the role of small enterprises in the new system of distribution and sale of fruits and vegetables based on the principles of a market economy. The project envisages the opening of a central wholesale market in Tbilisi and three regional markets in Akhaltsikhe, Gurjaani and Marneuli. As Georgia's agri-food sector demonstrates commercial viability, the EBRD is financing interesting investment projects worth more than $5 million, guaranteed by the Georgian government. Cooperation with the United States has expanded significantly. In 1997, an agreement was signed between the USDA Commodity Credit Corporation and the Georgian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. The United States provided an export credit of $20 million to supply Georgia with 95,000 tons of milling wheat. Regulation of the use of toxic chemicals in agriculture. During the Soviet period, there was a centralized system for the distribution and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, which operated in accordance with all-Union guidelines, instructions and state standards. For example, one of the organizations in the system of the Ministry of Agriculture of Georgia was responsible for the centralized distribution of pesticides and chemical fertilizers to agricultural producers. In addition, there were 22 district stations that organized the storage, distribution and transportation of pesticides, as well as provided advisory control over their use and regulated their use. Surveys in 1995-1996 showed that pesticides are used by many state agricultural enterprises as well as in the private sector. There is a massive illegal trade in products in which pesticide residues are found. Since a large number of small private farms have sprung up instead of 1,200 collective farms, the number of users has increased significantly and the old system of control over the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has proved ineffective. Although in 1994 the Parliament adopted a number of laws and regulations on the regulation of the use of toxic substances in agriculture, they are not provided with an organizational base and a mechanism for influencing their violators. Tourism in Georgia has great growth potential. Back in the early 1980s, many seaside, ski and mineral water resorts, the warm climate and picturesque mountain landscapes of this republic annually attracted more than 170 thousand foreign tourists. In the late 1980s, tourism employed 1.5% of the working-age population, and by the mid-1990s, less than 1%. The decline in the tourism business is associated with armed conflicts, crime and general instability in the country. In 1994, when the political and economic situation began to stabilize, a revival of tourist activity began. Georgians, whose hospitality is well known, are trying to attract tourists and provide them with decent living conditions. Although large state hotels have been temporarily given over to housing for refugees from Abkhazia, new private hotels have appeared in the country. The Georgian government is making plans to increase the influx of tourists to previously created national parks (Borjomi - Kharagauli, Tbilisi) and other beautiful places in the country.
Transport. Due to its geographical position between European Russia and Asia, the territory of Georgia is of great transit importance. In particular, it provides neighboring countries - Azerbaijan and Armenia - with the shortest access to the Black Sea. During the Soviet period, Tbilisi became a major junction of railways and highways in the Caucasus region. Railways are the main means of domestic freight transport. In 1913 their length was 795 km, in 1955 - 1300 km, and in 1993 - 1580 km (all of them are electrified). The backbone of the railway network is formed by the sublatitudinal Transcaucasian Mainline, built as early as 1883 and connecting Baku with Poti and Batumi. From it the main branches were drawn to Tkibuli, Borjomi, Chiatura, the Kakheti road and the line to Yerevan. Communication with Russia was maintained in the east - through Baku and in the west - along the Black Sea coast. There is a railway connection with Turkey through the territory of Armenia. For the development of the peripheral regions of the republic, railway lines Natanebi - Makharadze, Ochamchire - Tkvarcheli, Brotseula - Tskhaltubo, Gori - Tskhinvali, Borjomi - Akhaltsikhe - Vale, Grakali - Tedzami, Kachreti - Tsiteli - Tskaro, etc. were built. Due to the position of Georgia on the southern border the former Russian Empire and the USSR, highways were considered important strategic objects. Since 1914 their length has grown 10 times. In 1989 Georgia had 37,600 km of paved roads, of which only 1/10 were paved. Among the most picturesque is the famous Georgian Military Road through the Cross Pass (one of the four highways crossing the highland zone of the Greater Caucasus). The most developed road connecting Georgia with Turkey passes through Sarpi, south of Batumi. Public transport is well developed in the country (Tbilisi has a subway). Since car ownership in Georgia is of great importance for a person's social status, the number of private cars is growing rapidly. The poor condition of the roads and the indiscipline of drivers lead to numerous car accidents. Georgia has a number of ports on the Black Sea. Prominent among them are Batumi, the main oil terminal and container port, and Poti, an important naval base. Before the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict, Sukhumi played the role of the main tourist and resort port. Most of the cargo transported through Georgian ports is crude oil. Despite the international status of the port of Batumi, a significant part of the trade is limited to the Black Sea region. Georgia has a well-developed air connection between regional centers, and Tbilisi is connected by international airlines with most capitals of the CIS and Europe. Georgia's transport, like other service industries, is experiencing a crisis after the collapse of the USSR. Due to an acute shortage of fuel in 1991-1993, air communication with almost all regional centers of the former USSR was interrupted, which greatly complicated the development of foreign and domestic trade. In 1994 some air services were restored by private airlines. In general, the volume of freight traffic by all modes of transport in 1993 decreased by 31% compared to 1992. However, due to the interest of Western European and other investors in the ports of Poti and Batumi, the volume of processed cargo in 1993 increased by 33% and 46%, respectively, compared to 1992. The work of Georgia's railway transport is hampered by such problems as the destruction of rolling stock, damage to tracks, the lack of automatic blocking systems and single-track sections of the track. Only two main highways connecting Tbilisi with the western part of the country are suitable for heavy traffic flows, but even they are not able to handle large cargo flows if a freight transit system is established. The rest of the roads are in very poor condition. In the ports of Poti and Batumi, it is necessary to build new terminals and other modern port facilities, incl. modernization of railway sidings for the supply of goods, spare parts for cranes and equipment for cargo handling, uninterrupted power supply and increased staff motivation. Airports are also in need of reconstruction, and the existing Georgian airlines are experiencing an acute shortage of working capital, modern aircraft, spare parts and equipment. The main direction of transport development (be it railways, highways or pipelines) is the development of transportation from the east to the west of the country. It is encouraged not only by historical traditions (in the Middle Ages, one of the branches of the Great Silk Road passed through Georgia), but also by a real opportunity in which Georgia can become a bridge between the Caspian and Black Sea regions. For railways, the top priorities are to refurbish existing lines and their supporting facilities that can efficiently handle traffic loads. There is a project to extend the southern (Meskhetian) branch of the railway, firstly through Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki and further south to Turkey and, secondly, westward to Ozurgeti and the ports of Poti and Batumi. The reconstruction and use for commercial purposes of existing military airfields (eg Senaki) and naval ports open up new opportunities for the development of air and sea transport. The World Bank specifically allocated $12 million as a loan for the restructuring of Georgia's rail and road transport.
Foreign and domestic trade. Until the early 1990s, domestic trade was divided into state (64%), cooperative (29%) and private (7%, collective farm markets). During the Soviet period, prices were controlled by the state and almost all retail outlets and centers were state-owned. State monopoly and a highly inefficient system of centralized distribution forced much of the domestic trade into the black market. The government of independent Georgia began to implement a policy of demonopolization and privatization of trade. Before the collapse of the USSR, 67% of the products produced in Georgia were exported outside the republic, and 65% of all consumed goods were imported from outside, mainly from other Soviet republics. About half of Georgia's trade with the rest of the USSR was in food and light industry products. More than 95% of black tea produced in Georgia, 62% of wines, 60% of champagne, 66% of mineral waters and 70% of canned products were exported to other Soviet republics in the 1980s. Important exports were manganese, textiles and trucks. At the same time, Georgia imported steel and cast iron in the amount of 75% of its needs, 63% of the necessary engineering products and 70% of chemical industry products. Georgia had a small amount of foreign trade, mainly due to food exported to the socialist countries of Europe. After 1991, Georgia joined a number of international trade organizations and offered investment projects to foreign firms aimed at expanding foreign trade activities. However, the investment climate in the country remained unfavorable, and by the end of 1992 only 37 out of 271 registered joint ventures were operating. The lack of a hard currency forced most of the trade to be done through barter. In the early 1990s, "spontaneous privatization" resulted in much of the domestic retail trade falling into private hands. In 1993, the share of employees employed in the private sector increased to 30%, and the private sector became the main source of income for a quarter of Georgian families. But Georgia's foreign trade deficit in 1993 was 30% of the country's net material production. About 80% of imports were fuel, and 56% of exports were ferrous metals. Turkey became a major new trading partner, and its share in Georgian exports rose to 12% in 1993. Foreign trade is an excellent example of the changing structure of the Georgian economy. The volume of foreign trade decreased from 911.1 million dollars in 1992 to 533.4 million dollars in 1995. The total volume of trade with the countries of the former USSR decreased by an average of 1.9 times, while imports decreased by 2.4 times due to the termination of natural gas supplies from Turkmenistan. The share of the countries of the former USSR in foreign trade decreased from 52.8% in 1992 to 46.9% in 1995 and 33.4% in the first quarter of 1996. In 1995, against the background of a general decline in foreign trade (exports by 60%, and imports by 50%) there was a reduction in the foreign trade deficit to 224.6 million dollars (in 1994 it was 363.2 million dollars). Russia now ranks second in terms of foreign trade (18.1% in 1995). The share of Russia in Georgian exports decreased from 67% in 1991 to 30.5% in 1995. A negative trade balance developed with Russia (2.25 million dollars), Turkmenistan (34.3 million dollars) and Azerbaijan (30. 5 million dollars), which is due to the import of energy products from the last two countries. In 1995, Turkey accounted for 21.6% of the volume of foreign trade and the largest export in the amount of 80.2 million dollars. Turkey is the second largest (after Russia) importer of Georgian goods. This is due to the well-established transport links with Turkey and the favorable prospects for the economic development of this country. There are no restrictions on trade between both countries, and the border is actually open. Many everyday foodstuffs (sunflower oil, margarine, pasta, biscuits, cheap sweets), as well as a large amount of clothes, shoes and a wide range of electrical appliances are imported from Turkey. Huge sectors of the local consumer market are actually in the hands of the Turks. Bulgaria also supplies food and manufactured goods and ranks third among Georgia's importers. The second place in import belongs to Romania ($28.2 million in 1995), which supplies liquid fuel. The structure of imports is dominated by liquid fuels (28.2% of total imports), natural gas (19.2%), although its share in imports has sharply decreased, and foodstuffs (18.3%). The structure of Georgian exports does not reflect the structure of the economy and is based on the re-export or sale of scrap metal and raw materials from Russia. Thus, ferrous metals make up 33.4% of exports, while the factories operating in the country produce only 20-30% of the previous production volume. Exports of various chemicals ($13.1 million) exceed those of food ($12.9 million), which was the leading export in the late 1980s. The share of beverages is 14.3% of total exports. All these data do not reflect unregistered imports and exports, which are known to make up a significant share of the total volume of foreign trade. It is estimated that at least 70% of medicines are imported through private unregistered channels (mainly from Russia, Bulgaria and Poland). The same applies to shuttle trade with various free economic zones (for example, the United Arab Emirates, etc.), which supply Georgia with high-quality household appliances, clothing and other consumer goods. Since January 1997, imports from the CIS countries are not subject to customs duties (with the exception of petroleum products, which are subject to a 20% value added tax and 12% customs duty), and exports to the CIS countries are subject to value added tax. Excise duties apply to goods imported from the CIS countries.
The state budget. The draft state budget for 1995 was Georgia's first streamlined budget in the post-Soviet period. Symbolizing an important step towards the return of the public administration system, it was held to international standards in accordance with the requirements of the IMF and the World Bank. The Law on the State Budget of Georgia in 1996 was a step forward compared to 1995. The new budget embodied the ideology of the so-called. fiscal federalism, which meant not only certain spheres of influence of central and local governments, but also granted the latter the right to develop partially independent financial and budgetary policies. In contrast to 1995, when local budgets were merged into the central budget, since 1996 each of these institutions of power has a separate budget, with established norms for payments to and from local budgets for all payments of republican significance, especially in Tbilisi. In some cases, 100% of locally collected revenues were kept in local budgets. These include taxes on securities transactions, taxes on pollution, customs duties, fixed fees on currency exchange and a tax on private capital. The 1996 budget was tighter than the previous one. The government has also undertaken a major restructuring of extrabudgetary funds under the auspices of special state funds, including the social security fund, the health fund and the employment fund.
Credit, finance and banking. In April 1993, a temporary monetary unit, the coupon, was introduced in Georgia. After the catastrophic recession of the Georgian economy, by mid-1994 one dollar was exchanged at the rate of 900,000 coupons (in mid-1993 it cost 600 coupons). Hyperinflation depreciated the coupon, so people in most cases paid for their purchases in Russian rubles or US dollars. In the period from 1992 to 1994, the National Bank of Georgia provided the Ministry of Finance with a loan in the amount of 28,812 billion coupons on favorable terms. It functioned as a money-printing machine, not as an organization to keep the economy stable by controlling the money supply. An unsecured money supply, together with civil conflicts and political instability, became the main cause of hyperinflation in 1992-1994, which was further exacerbated by the growth of corruption and chaos. In September 1995, the government introduced the long-awaited new monetary unit, the lari, into circulation. Residents of the country were given a week to exchange coupons at the rate of 1 million coupons for one lari, which corresponded to 1.3 dollars. In general, the monetary reform was successful and was completed in December 1995. In October 1995, the National Bank's foreign exchange reserves increased from 97.6 million lari to 212.6 million lari, or by 217.8%, mainly due to the sale of lari by the National Bank for Russian rubles and dollars. The National Bank bought 6.4 million dollars, the rest of the currency came through the system of commercial banks. In 1995, the net foreign assets of the National Bank increased by 84.8 million lari. Net domestic assets increased by 26 million lari, i.е. by 100%. The total money supply in circulation increased by more than 500% (110.7 million lari). With the advent of the single currency, monetary policy was facilitated. The next stage of economic reform began in 1996. The government focused on the process of structural transformation of the economy and building a market-oriented economy in a more stable macroeconomic environment. With the introduction of the lari, the governing monetary institutions switched to a floating exchange rate system. In the late 1980s, ca. 86% of Georgia's revenues came from the public sector, mostly in the form of turnover taxes on state-owned enterprises (ca. 40% of all revenues) and corporate income taxes (ca. 30%). The rest of the income came from the pension tax and personal income tax. Expenses went mainly to the social sphere (ca. 51%) and investments in the public sector (ca. 45%). Social spending included education (25%), pensions (23%) and healthcare (12%). Lending and finance were controlled by the Georgian Department of the State Bank of the USSR, which was responsible for regulating the money supply, distributing loans and controlling the activities of specialized banks in the republic. In 1991, the management of the State Bank was transformed into the National Bank of Georgia. After the collapse of the USSR, the budgetary and financial system of Georgia experienced a severe crisis. In 1993, the budget deficit was almost 80%. The absence of a special tax collection system, the decline in industrial production, massive National Bank credit issues and the explosive growth of the black market prevented the state from introducing a value added tax. The debt of enterprises to banks and suppliers in the first two months of 1994 reached 1 trillion. coupons ($4 million), and revenues for the same period amounted to less than 20% of the planned amount for the first quarter of 1994. The Georgian leadership hoped that the country's participation in the IMF and various European organizations would open access to badly needed loans and foreign assistance. Therefore, the stabilization of the monetary unit has become absolutely necessary for the effective operation of the new private banks and credit institutions. The National Bank of Georgia managed to successfully organize and carry out the monetary reform of 1995 thanks to the support of international financial organizations. In private banking, the situation is different. There are two main types of such banks: Soviet-style state-owned banks that have been converted into commercial ones; and banks recently established. The first group of banks have large cash reserves, but old-style management and heavily indebted legacies, while newer banks tend to be thin capitalized and have more limited banking experience. As of January 1, 1996, 103 commercial banks were registered by the National Bank. Net domestic assets in December 1995 amounted to 282.2 million lari, of which 146.4 million lari (or 52%) were loans intended for various sectors of the economy. Of this amount, 45.2 million lari (or 16% of total assets) were non-performing loans, which grew by 37% in 1995, but did not increase in the first quarter of 1996. In 1995, the net foreign exchange assets of commercial banks decreased by 130% ( 34.5 million lari), and in 1996 increased by 21%. The former state-owned banks had more experience in paying bills and were restructured both in terms of banking management and technology. The five main state-owned banks were transformed into joint-stock companies, but 51% of the shares were still retained by the state. In 1995, the five major banks controlled 75% of the loan funds. Industry Bank, which had the highest rating in August 1995, has 100 branches in Tbilisi and regions. Initially, he conducted active operations with enterprises of heavy and light industry, but since 1994, like many others, he began to play in the foreign exchange market. In 1995, Industria Bank merged with two other large state-owned banks - Eximbank, based on a branch of the former Vnesheconombank, and Sberbank with almost 90 branches that worked with savings accounts. This merger was aimed at creating a large banking structure, although there was a danger of an unwanted monopoly. Thus, a two-tier unified banking system was gradually created in Georgia. One of the most important components of macroeconomic reform is the process of capital accumulation, which will subsequently be converted into bank capital and investment. In 1995, commercial banks carried out operations on deposits of joint-stock companies with a total amount on accounts of 91.9 million lari (35.4% of liabilities). Citizens' deposits totaled 4.9 million lari (1.7% of liabilities). The reluctance of depositors to keep their money in Georgian banks is due to several reasons, the main of which was the bankruptcy of 126 investment and trust companies from autumn 1993 to April 1995. The population, due to insufficient experience in the financial sector, was attracted by fraudulent schemes of investment pyramids that promised to pay annual percent of 800% and above. The lack of proper control by the National Bank and other government agencies led to a crisis of depositors in April 1995, when 17 bankrupt banks and trust companies failed to pay private depositors approx. 11-12 million dollars. The share of foreign currency deposits in total deposits in commercial banks has grown since the beginning of 1996, when deposits in lari decreased by 7% by March 1996, while deposits in foreign currency increased by 70%. Merchants held larger sums of money to pay for imports from foreign currency accounts rather than cash or non-cash lari. This fact testified to the growth of confidence in banks. In 1995 the government took drastic measures to regulate the banking system. The minimum starting capital of commercial banks was to be at least $500,000. dollars, and by December 1996 - 830 thousand dollars. This measure suspended the activities of many commercial banks. In addition, in accordance with the recommendation of the IMF, the law "On Commercial Banks" was adopted. One of the main goals of the banking and financial reform is to restructure the accounting system in accordance with international standards. In 1995, banks from several regions of Georgia entered the unified electronic settlement system. In 1996, a regional intra-bank network of non-cash payments was formed and the existing electronic system of non-cash payments was modernized. In 1995, Georgian commercial banks connected to the international telecommunications network of SWIFT bank accounts. By 1996, some banks had applied for membership in information systems such as Reuters.
SOCIETY
After independence, the economic downturn led to a labor market crisis, deteriorating public health and reduced opportunities for education and social mobility. The traditional values ​​of friendship and family support are becoming increasingly important for survival in difficult conditions, as the state has lost the ability to pay wages, provide employment and provide social benefits. The incomes of most families have fallen below the officially recognized poverty level. Refugees, almost 800,000 pensioners and single mothers, found themselves in the most difficult situation.
Lifestyle. Men play a leading role in social and family life. However, when a woman marries, she can keep her maiden name, and the husband will not be stigmatized if he lives with his wife's parents. Social life is centered in the family. Children are brought up in a fairly structured environment that instills in them respect for family values ​​and the elderly. Young people are supposed to marry early and, when the time comes, take care of their parents. In cities, families are small, consisting of parents and an average of two children, but relatives always live nearby. Georgians are very fond of organizing lavish feasts in their homes, where all family members and close friends gather to exchange rumors, traditional praises and commemorate deceased relatives. Georgians are distinguished by European manners of behavior and have many similarities with neighboring Mediterranean ethnic groups in terms of culinary preferences and the specifics of social relations. They observe the customs of hospitality associated with the traditions of the cultures of the Middle East, pay special attention to foreign guests and respect education. Georgians retain a strong regional identity, with many ethnic groups such as Mingrelians, Gurians, and Kakhetians, who differ widely and even speak distinct dialects. In different parts of the country, the peculiarities of national cuisine, dances, music and folklore have been preserved, but all Georgians have a passion for singing and dancing. The most popular sport is football.
The life of society in the transitional period. Economic hardship has meant that many people can no longer afford to participate in a fulfilling social life, which in Georgia means attending traditional gatherings of relatives and friends, receiving guests and showing hospitality, giving gifts for birthdays and weddings. The possibility of such participation is an important indicator of social status, as well as the subject of moral obligations. The inability of most people to socialize negatively affected the cohesion of society. Social ties between families have weakened, people are embarrassed to invite friends and relatives, because due to poverty they cannot give them a decent reception. Migrants and internal refugees are sometimes completely rejected by local communities. Members of these communities envy them because they receive humanitarian aid and have some privileges, which makes them a special social stratum.
Social structure and labor. In 1989, 49% of Georgians worked in the public sector, and 35% were included in "auxiliary agriculture" (i.e., they worked on their land plots). About 14% were dependent on the state (for example, pensioners, widows and war veterans) and 2% lived on a stipend. After 1991, large-scale land privatization, the encouragement of private enterprise, and the growth of cooperatives transformed Georgia's social fabric. The rapid growth of the private sector, the introduction of higher education fees and rising housing prices have reshaped the structure of society and led to its stratification. Previously, all workers were united in 24 state trade unions, organized according to sectoral principles. Trade unions defended the interests of their members in the field of organizing working conditions, life, recreation, healthcare, cultural and sports activities, providing preschoolers with places in nurseries and kindergartens, and older children with vouchers for summer health camps. There was no right to strike, and trade union leaders worked closely with the management of enterprises under the general control of the Communist Party. Workers accounted for 54% of the employed, employees - 30%, collective farmers - 16%. After 1991, the Independent Confederation of Trade Unions replaced the official trade unions, and the Social Democratic Party began to claim the right to defend the political interests of the workers. Life has shown that both of these organizations proved to be ineffective in the struggle to improve living conditions. Subsequently, a system of labor exchanges was established to deal with the problems of rapidly rising unemployment. But until mid-1993, the system of payment of unemployment benefits was not yet organized. During the reign of Gamsakhurdia, an arbitration court appeared to resolve labor disputes. Employees organized independent trade unions, which marked the beginning of an independent civil service. Georgia has the only confederation of trade unions, which consists of approximately 30 branch associations. However, in the context of the economic crisis, the number of trade union members has declined. In October 1995, the government raised the minimum wage to 6 lari ($4.8) and the maximum wage to 25 lari ($20.1). Those working in the private sector have higher salaries.
The position of women. In 1989 women made up almost 53% of Georgia's population. The majority of women work, but despite the wide opportunities to arrange a career, their low social status remains. In industries such as public education and medicine, women are much more numerous, but they almost always occupy low-paid positions. In the 1970s and 1980s, women made up about half of all students in higher education. In the fields of medicine, education and the humanities, the number of women reached 70-80% of the total number of students. About 16% of women marry at the age of 20 or younger, and 55% before the age of 25. Divorces are frowned upon in Georgia (in 1989 there were only 4% of divorced women). Usually in the manufacturing sector and in other places that do not require high qualifications, women work when their children are already grown up. At present, due to the difficult economic situation in the country, many women are forced to take on additional earnings, as their husbands are either unemployed or receive low wages. In addition, the household is on the shoulders of women.
The youth. Almost 1/3 of the population of Georgia is under 19 years old. After the collapse of the USSR, young people began to create clubs and youth groups. They took an active part in the revolutionary events in Georgia 1989-1992 as members of new political parties. In independent Georgia, unemployment hit young people particularly hard. According to 1995 statistics, children from poor families often drop out of school or simply do not attend school because they do not have shoes or suitable clothing, especially winter clothes, textbooks and school supplies, or because they are forced to work and help their families. . One of the difficult problems that have arisen in independent Georgia is "street" children who spend most of the day, and sometimes even the night, on the streets. They are made up of children of the poor who cannot feed them, and orphans who have escaped from boarding schools and orphanages.
Social Security. Under Soviet rule, housing, health care, and education were free, while food prices and transportation rates were heavily subsidized by the state. Almost half of Georgia's entire budget in 1985 was spent on education and social security. Despite the benefits of public provision (partially paid maternity leave for one and a half years and unpaid maternity leave for up to three years, retirement at age 55 for women and 60 for men, state pensions after 20 years of work for women and 25 years for men), support from the state was insufficient, and the quality of services in free institutions - polyclinics, hospitals, schools, kindergartens and nurseries - was at a low level. Many older people could not live on their pensions and continued to work. Despite the world's highest number of physicians per capita (53.7 per 10,000 inhabitants), life expectancy remained low and infant mortality rates high by Western standards. There were not enough medicines. The collapse of the USSR led to a crisis in the system of social and medical care. The government of independent Georgia carried out the privatization of education, healthcare and social insurance. Expenditure on them in the state budget has decreased from more than 45% to 18%. Due to hyperinflation, pensions and student scholarships have depreciated. Inflation and the economic crisis have seriously affected the standard of living. Although officially the minimum wage was 1,700 rubles a month, in reality the subsistence minimum for an average family in January 1993 was 22,160 rubles. In mid-1994, 27% of families had a monthly income of less than 100,000 coupons (0.67 dollars), and 28% - from 100,000 to 300,000 coupons (0.67-2.0 dollars). According to the results of a survey in mid-1994, it turned out that after the country gained independence, the financial situation of 83% of families worsened. According to official statistics at the same time, only 60% of Georgian families lived below the poverty line. Rising unemployment and underemployment, meager salaries and social security benefits, the energy crisis, the massive influx of refugees (especially from Abkhazia), the collapse of the social services system (including health care and education) led to widespread poverty, which could not be coped with neither the government nor the newly emerging private sector. Wages in the public sector in 1995 ranged from 3 to 5 dollars a month, which was barely enough for a half-starved existence. Pensions and benefits received by refugees and other socially unprotected groups of the population did not exceed 2-3 dollars. The decrease in income was reflected in the amount of food consumed. Since 1990, food production and quality have declined. The activities of state institutions were paralyzed due to lack of budgetary funds. An essential factor in survival was the informal support provided to each other by members of large families and relatives.
CULTURE
The cultural life of Georgia is fed by Middle Eastern, European and local traditions. Georgian polyphonic singing, both secular and church, dates back to the 5th century. After the creation of the Georgian State Dance Ensemble at the end of the 19th century. Georgian dances have won recognition all over the world. Until now, traditional handicraft art has been preserved, including painting on enamel and artistic processing of metals (jewellery, chasing). Despite the cultural influence of Persia and Turkey, Georgians have always gravitated toward Europe. Georgia in the 11th-12th centuries experienced a renaissance, when monks in academies, churches and monasteries put forward new humanistic ideas. The heyday of secular culture occurred in the 19th century, when Georgian writers and artists, under the influence of European ideas, enriched the literary language and created a rich national literature. Education in Georgia has old traditions. Medieval monasteries and academies were important centers of learning and preserved the national heritage even in times of foreign oppression. In 1915 there were 1648 schools of all types in Georgia, but the majority of the population remained illiterate. The Soviet period was characterized by a rapid and massive expansion of education. Thanks to free and compulsory education in schools, illiteracy was eliminated. In 1979 almost a third of the employed had a higher or specialized secondary education (the highest figure in the USSR). The majority of children between the ages of 7 and 18 attend schools, with 3/4 of schools teaching in Georgian, and in higher educational institutions almost entirely in Georgian. In the early 1990s, due to political and economic instability, the entire education system was thrown into chaos. After gaining independence, Georgia faced problems of financing and maintaining the education system.
Preschool education. Pre-school education has suffered the most from the crisis. The proportion of children aged 3 to 6 attending kindergartens fell from 42% in 1989 to 28-31% in 1993. from parents a fee of 12-15 dollars per month. Children whose parents are not able to pay such money attend cheaper kindergartens, which, accordingly, have a lower quality of food and care. It is a common practice to rent part of the premises of kindergartens in order to find funds to pay teachers and attendants. During the crisis, the number of children in kindergartens in urban areas was almost twice as high as in rural areas (respectively 35% and 19% of the total number of children of the corresponding age). In the cities, kindergartens are better supplied, more qualified personnel work in them. Secondary school education is in the most deplorable state, as it covers a large number of students and requires significant costs for maintenance and reforms. New private schools have appeared. Tuition fees in most of them are quite high, but they provide students with better conditions, and sometimes a better education. The same can be said for the few public schools that have managed to find a Western partner or local sponsor to compensate for the costs and provide conditions for a high level of teaching. The number of schools of both types is gradually increasing, and although they have a minority of students, they create healthy competition due to innovations that are absent in the public education system. Comparison of data for the 1992/1993 academic year with data for 1994/1995 shows that the number of secondary general education schools decreased by 64 (or 2%), students - by 32.5 thousand (4.4%), teachers - by 7 thousand (8%), and the ratio of students per teacher increased from 8.4 to 8.9. Higher education currently consists of a network of public universities and private "for-profit" institutions. In the 1995/1996 academic year, more than 90,000 students studied at 28 state universities (approximately 50,000 full-time students, and the rest in the evening department), another 3,000 people studied postgraduate studies in 59 specialties. In addition, there are 250 private institutions (185 in Tbilisi alone). State universities have a highly qualified staff of professors and teachers. However, some of them, in order not to lose their prestige and retain their staff, opened paid branches. New institutions based on international partnerships have been created. The European School of Management (sponsored by the Shevardnadze Foundation) provides high-quality education in management and finance (tuition fee of $600 per year, quite high for Georgia). A joint Georgian-American educational institution, a branch of the American University of Hawaii, has been opened in Tbilisi. This university provides education in public administration, law and diplomacy, business and media. Although fees are very high (over $5,000 for a bachelor's course), 20 students were enrolled in the 1994/1995 academic year. The Institute of Public Administration, a joint educational institution with the US National Academy of Social and Political Sciences, prepares masters of public administration based on American programs, textbooks and with the invitation of foreign teachers. According to statistics, the number of graduates of vocational schools in 1995 amounted to 12.5 thousand people (almost 40% of the 1988 level), which is considered a good indicator in the current state of the economy. In Abkhazia, instruction in Georgian-language schools is gradually decreasing. Since 1995, children enrolled in the first grades of schools in the Gali district of Abkhazia have been taught only in Russian. As a result, in grades 1-3, teaching was mainly in Russian, although the majority of the population of this area are Georgians. In the Georgian language, high school students studied in only nine Georgian schools in the area. The goal of such a policy is the elimination of the Georgian language as the language of instruction and the introduction of education in Russian. The Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia in 1995 approved the state education reform program and the plan for its implementation, and the Parliament in 1996 approved the "Law on Education in the Republic of Georgia".
Literature and art. The first Georgian literary monuments date back to the 5th century. AD Many outstanding personalities have enriched the literary heritage of Georgia. These include Shota Rustaveli (12th century); Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, author of an explanatory Georgian dictionary (1716); Ilya Chavchavadze, Alexander Kazbegi and Akaki Tsereteli (19th century); Galaktion Tabidze, Konstantin Gamsakhurdia, Niko Lordkipanidze, Mikhail Javakhishvili and Anna Kalandadze (20th century). Vivid works of prose and poetry, such as the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin, the poem by Merani Nikoloz Baratashvili (19th century), 40 epic works by Vazha Pshavela, (Guest and his host, Wedding of a dandy, etc. (19-20 centuries) ; Gamsakhurdia's novel The Hand of the Great Master and Tabidze's poems Mtatsminda's Moon and the Wind Blows are universally recognized masterpieces.The works of poets and writers of Georgia have been translated into Russian by many poets, including Boris Pasternak and Yevgeny Yevtushenko.
Theater. Georgia has a long dramaturgical tradition starting with Giorgi Eristavi (1813-1864), and the troupe of the Drama Theater named after. Rustaveli is widely known in the modern theater world as one of the most creative and talented groups. Vaso Abashidze (1854-1926), comic actor, became the first editor of the Theater magazine. Veriko Anjaparidze (1897-1987) was one of the most famous actresses in Georgia. She has played approximately 100 theater and 30 film roles. The most successful are the roles of Desdemona, Cleopatra and Ophelia in the plays of Shakespeare and Medea in the play of Euripides. Ramaz Chkhikvadze has acted in over 100 plays, including leading roles in Richard II and King Lear, and gave a gala performance at the Haymarket Theater in London in 1988. Kakhi Kavsadze played Fortinbras in Hamlet, Jim in The Threepenny Opera, Simone Chachava in the Caucasian Chalk Circle, Lord Hastings in Richard III and Kent in King Lear. Guram Sagaradze played in more than 100 performances, including the role of the jester in King Lear. Cinematography originated in Georgia at the beginning of the 20th century. (the first film was made in 1912). Georgian films enjoy international recognition. Film directors such as Eldar Shengelaya (film by Shirekilebi), Georgy Chkheidze (Pirosmani) and Tengiz Abuladze (Repentance), Georgy Danelia (Do not Cry!), Otar Ioseliani (Favorites of the Moon), Irakli Makharadze (Riders of the Wild West - Georgian dexterous horsemen) received for his work a number of international awards. Georgia is famous for wall paintings of the 7th-13th centuries, which have been preserved in the Gelati Monastery, Atensky Zion and in churches in Betania, Kintsvisi, etc. Such Georgian artists as the legendary Niko Pirosmanishvili (Pirosmani), Gigo Gabashvili, David Kakabadze, Lado Gudiashvili are famous , Kornely Sanadze, Elena Akhvlediani, Sergey Kobuladze, Simon Virsaladze and Ekaterina Baghdavadze. The Georgian State Museum of Modern Art features paintings by artists such as Elena Akhvlediani, Alexander Bandzeladze, Vladimir Grigolia, Lado Gudiashvili and others. Georgian art and music are distinguished by their sophistication, combining both local and European styles. Artists such as Lado Gudiashvili, David Kakabadze and Elena Akhvlediani worked in Paris in the 1920s. Such Georgian sculptors as Elguja Amashukeli, Irakli Ochiauri and Zurab Tsereteli are world famous. Georgian architects, although not as individual as the masters who created the majestic temples of the pre-Soviet period, made Tbilisi one of the most architecturally attractive cities of the former USSR. Georgian folk music, which has existed for over 1500 years, strikes with an amazing combination of eastern and western influences. Georgian polyphony is characterized by a special vocal technique and the use of tones close to each other. Usually men sing in Georgia. A typical Georgian song is performed in three voices. The Tbilisi Conservatory has earned a reputation as an educational institution that trains excellent performers of classical music. Pianists Alexander Toradze and Eliso Virsaladze, violinist Liana Isakadze, bass Paata Burchuladze, singer Nani Bregvadze, pianist and music teacher Manana Doijashvili, violinist and music teacher Marina Iashvili stand out among them. Georgia has its own symphony orchestra. Georgia is also famous for its composers. Dimitri Arakishvili (1873-1953), composer, musicologist and ethnographer, known for one of the first Georgian operas The Tale of Shota Rustaveli (1919); Meliton Balanchivadze 1862-1973), author of the first Georgian romances (1888) and the opera Tamara Insidious (in the last production by Darejan Insidious), Giya Kancheli (b. 1935) - author of the opera Let there be music, several symphonies and concerts, as well as music for a big the number of films and performances (Caucasian Chalk Circle according to Brecht, Richard III according to Shakespeare). Bidzina Kvernadze (b. 1928) composed music for opera, ballet and drama performances, films, symphonic and piano music, as well as a number of compositions for chorus and romances. Composer Zakhary Paliashvili (1871-1933) is known for his collection of Georgian folk songs and as the author of the operas Abesalom and Eteri and Daisi based on folk legends.
Museums, libraries and scientific institutes. There are 118 museums in Georgia. The most famous is the State Museum of Georgia, transformed in 1919 from the Caucasian Museum (founded in 1852), which contains exhibits demonstrating the development of the civilization of Georgia and the Caucasus as a whole. The Historical and Ethnographic Museum with a collection of ancient Georgian dwellings and the State Museum of Arts of Georgia with its "golden fund" are very interesting. This museum has five main sections: ancient Georgian art (with the famous Khakhul triptych enamels and the central enamel icon of the Mother of God), Russian, Soviet, Western European and Oriental art. The largest libraries in Georgia are the National Library, founded in 1846, with a fund of more than 7 million items; libraries of the Tbilisi University and the Georgian Academy of Sciences, as well as the central libraries of the autonomous republics of Abkhazia and Adjara. The most prestigious institution in the country is the Georgian Academy of Sciences, which separated in 1941 from the USSR Academy of Sciences. The structure of the Academy includes departments of natural, humanitarian and social sciences with 55 institutes. In 1991 the Academy had 57 academicians and 89 corresponding members. Georgia has produced a galaxy of world-famous scholars: Nikoloz Berdzenishvili (1894-1965) published the first textbook on the history of Georgia; Mose Janashvili (1855-1934), author of many scientific and popular works on history, ethnography and linguistics, most of which are devoted to Russian-Georgian relations; Nikoloz Muskhelishvili (1891-1976), mechanic and founder of the Georgian school of mathematics, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in 1941-1972; Alexander Tsagareli (1844-1929), the first Georgian professor-philologist, member of the scientific societies of Russia, Norway, Italy, France, one of the founders of the State University of Georgia; Ilya Vekua (1907-1977), mathematician and mechanic, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in 1972-1977.
Mass media. The first printed books in Georgian appeared in the 17th century. In the late 1980s, there were more than a dozen state-owned publishing houses. Almost 80% of the books were published in Georgian, the rest - in Russian and minority languages. In 1985, 82 magazines (70 in Georgian) and 145 newspapers (127 in Georgian) were published. Regular radio broadcasting began in 1927, and television broadcasting in 1956. Until the collapse of Soviet power, the media were strictly controlled by the CPSU. After 1991, independent newspapers and broadcast programs appeared. There is no official censorship, and print journalists widely promote opposition to the government and criticize President Shevardnadze. Newspapers are published mainly in Georgian. The largest among them are the daily newspaper "Rezonansi" (leading among the independent press), "Sakartvelos Respublika" ("Georgian Republic", reflecting the official point of view of the government, "Free Georgia" (daily newspaper in Russian), "Vecherniy Tbilisi" "Kavkasioni ", "Droni", "Iveria-express", "7 days". Among other newspapers, the "Georgian Times" (in English) and the monthly independent "Adamianis Uplebebi" ("Human Rights") stand out. In Tbilisi and other cities there are local radio stations State radio stations broadcast mainly in Georgian Radio Liberty makes weekly programs in Georgian and English Several television channels broadcast programs in Georgia - Georgian channels 1 and 2, Rustavi 2, Iberia, Evrika, the first stereo channel, Sakartvelos Khma and Russian TV channels 1 and 2. Cable TV broadcasts in different parts of Tbilisi Programs (MTV, Euro News, NBC and CNN) can be received through the satellite system of the television company Aeti .
Sport. Football is the national sport in Georgia. The best Georgian team of the 1970s and 1980s was Dynamo Tbilisi, which won the USSR Championship twice and the European Cup in 1981. Now Georgian football teams have their own league. Athletes of Georgia have achieved fame in basketball, mountain climbing and skiing (popular in the mountain resorts of the country - Bakuriani and Gudauri). Georgia is one of the centers of mountain climbing; the most famous of the conquered mountain peaks are Kazbek (5033 m), Tetnuldi (4853 m) and Shkhara (5068 m). From 1952 to 1980, Georgian athletes, speaking at the Olympic Games as part of the Soviet team, won 23 gold medals. At the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, two Georgian athletes won bronze medals in wrestling. For more than 30 years, Georgian chess players have retained the title of world champions.
Holidays. After the collapse of the USSR, the new government replaced the old communist holidays with patriotic and religious ones, such as Independence Day (May 26) and St. George (November 23). Many Georgians celebrate Christmas and Easter.
STORY
The first traces of the presence of a primitive man on the territory of Georgia probably belong to the Middle Paleolithic. In the Early Eneolithic (7300-6100 years ago), a large center of agriculture arose in eastern Georgia. The oldest monuments of the Bronze Age in the Akhaltsikhe region appeared c. 5000 years ago. In the middle of the Bronze Age, the largest cultural center existed in the Trialeti region. At the end of the Bronze Age (about 3,000 years ago), Kurgan cultures spread, with which the migration of Proto-Georgian tribes (Diaukhs, Tabalis, Muskhs and Kolkhs) from the south is associated. They knew how to smelt iron and process metal, and their exploits were reflected in the Greek myths of the Golden Fleece and Prometheus. According to the stories of the Greeks, these symbols of wealth and knowledge were located in the Caucasus. The Assyrians, who invaded the Caucasus and pushed the ancient Georgian tribes to the north, reigned in the 8th-7th centuries. BC. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) noted that the Assyrian king Sargon II moved to Colchis with part of the Israelite population, which he brought from Palestine in 722 BC. The western Georgian kingdom of Colchis and the eastern Kartli (Iberian) kingdom were formed around the 6th century. BC. Both of them had political and economic ties with the Greeks, the Achaemenid and Parthian states. According to the instructions of Strabo and Pliny, both states prospered. In the 1st century BC. Roman legions under the command of Pompey the Great established Roman power in Colchis and forced Kartli to sign treaties with Rome. Around 330 AD Christianity was introduced to Kartli. This state was conquered by the Sassanid Empire in 523 AD and Colchis was annexed to the Byzantine Empire in 562 AD. At the beginning of the 7th c. Byzantium established its power over Kartli as well. Most of Georgia was captured by the Arabs in the period from the middle of the 7th to the 9th centuries.
Middle Ages. At the end of the 10th c. King Bagrat III united the eastern and western parts of Georgia into a single state. His descendants (Bagratids) ruled in Georgia until 1801. The monarchy and united Georgia were finally strengthened under David IV the Builder (1089-1125) and Queen Tamara (1184-1213). The 12th century became the "golden age" of the country's cultural and political development. This was the era of prosperity of the large Georgian academies in Gelati and Ikalto, at this time the bright talent of the poet Shota Rustaveli (who dedicated the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin to Queen Tamara) manifested itself, the goldsmiths Beka and Beshken Opizari worked. Many temples were built. Georgian warriors participated in the crusades, and Georgian scientists were known in the monasteries of Palestine and Greece. By the beginning of the 13th century. The Georgian kingdom, stretching from the Black to the Caspian Sea, became one of the most powerful states in the region and had trade ties with both Europe and the East. The period of his greatness ended with the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in the 1220s, and the Georgian kings and aristocracy were unable to maintain the integrity of the country, except for the short period of the reign of George V the Brilliant (1314-1346). After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world, and subsequently subjected to Turkish and Persian conquests. Even under such great kings as Vakhtang VI (1703-1712 and 1719-1724), who systematized Georgian laws, and Heraclius II (1744-1798), who reunited Eastern Georgia, the Georgians were not able to effectively defend themselves against the raids of mountain tribes from the north and Muslims from the south.
Russian rule. In 1783, Heraclius II concluded an agreement with the Russian Empress Catherine II, which placed the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti under the protection of Russia. In 1801 Russia annulled the treaty and annexed the kingdom. The last king of the Bagration dynasty, George XII of Kartli-Kakheti, died shortly before the announcement of the annexation. Western Georgia in 1803-1864 was partly incorporated into the Russian Empire, especially after the Russian-Persian wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 and the Russian-Turkish wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. Periodically flaring up anti-Russian uprisings were quickly and brutally suppressed. In the 19th century great changes took place in the social and political life of Georgia. The abolition of serfdom, the growth of cities, the improvement of education and the development of industry influenced the formation of the Georgian nation. Tbilisi (Tiflis) became the administrative and commercial center of the entire Caucasus. By rail, peasants came to the cities to look for work. Nationalist intellectuals, inspired by European ideas of freedom and self-determination, led the campaign for autonomy. Georgia experienced a second wave of literature and art revival based on new ideas and works discussed in Russia and the rest of Europe. In the 1890s, a Marxist group called the Mesame-dasi (Third Group) campaigned for a national uprising against the Armenian businessmen and Russian officials who dominated Georgia's political life. By 1905 the Georgian section of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) proved to be the strongest socialist organization in the Russian Empire. After the RSDLP broke up in 1903 into factions of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, the majority of Georgian Marxists joined the Menshevik faction. After the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy in 1917, power passed into the hands of the Provisional Government of Russia and the Georgian soviets, in which the Mensheviks predominated. Shortly after the resignation of the Provisional Government, the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia. After a short period of federalism with neighboring Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Georgian government, led by the Mensheviks, on May 26, 1918, declared the country's independence. With the consent of the Mensheviks, in June 1918 German and Turkish troops occupied Georgia; in December they were replaced by British troops, who remained here until July 1920. In February 1921, the Bolsheviks raised an armed uprising and, with the help of the Red Army, overthrew the Menshevik government.
Soviet period. In 1921 Georgia became a Soviet republic. In December 1922, along with Armenia and Azerbaijan, it was included in the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as part of the USSR (formed on December 30, 1922). In 1936, the TSFSR was liquidated, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR. In the 1920s, the reconstruction of the economy began with the construction of 20 large industrial enterprises. By 1926 industry and agriculture reached the level of 1913 and the transport system was restored. A program was carried out to eliminate illiteracy, the social status of skilled workers and the intelligentsia was raised, and scientific and educational institutes were created. However, the hopes for Georgia's political autonomy within the Soviet state were destroyed by the policies of I.V. Stalin. Opposition to Stalin's dictatorial methods of government and his campaigns of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization of agriculture was especially strong among the Georgian communists. To eliminate this opposition, Stalin appointed L.P. Beria as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia, who held this post from 1931 to 1938, and later became the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. Under Beria, collectivization in the countryside was carried out with particular brutality, and the opposition was eventually destroyed through mass purges, during which tens of thousands of people died (party activists, intellectuals, specialists, and anyone who was suspected of dissatisfaction with the Stalinist regime). In 1941-1945, approx. 300 thousand Georgians. In 1944, approximately 100,000 Meskhetians (a mixed group of Muslim Georgians and Turks) were deported from South Georgia to Central Asia on the basis of false accusations of collaboration with the advancing Germans, who in fact had never crossed the Greater Caucasus. After the death of Stalin and the execution of Beria in 1953, state terror ceased in Georgia. Many Georgians respected their compatriot I.V. Stalin, and in March 1956 they had to resort to military force to suppress mass demonstrations that broke out in protest against the exposure of Stalin's personality cult. Nevertheless, Khrushchev weakened the oppressive centralized government, and Georgia gained greater autonomy in managing the economy and cultural life. When V.P. Mzhavanadze was the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia in 1953-1972, nationalism and corruption flourished in the republic. Mzhavanadze was removed from his post. He was replaced by E. A. Shevardnadze, who had previously been the chairman of the KGB of Georgia. In the 1970s, a dissident movement emerged in Georgia led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Merab Kostava. The course towards perestroika, proclaimed in the late 1980s by M.S. Gorbachev, led to a rapid change of leaders of the Communist Party of Georgia. On April 9, 1989, a demonstration in support of Georgia's independence was brutally suppressed by Soviet troops in Tbilisi. During this action, 20 young Georgians were killed. In the multi-party elections in October 1990, Zviad Gamsakhurdia's coalition, the Round Table - Free Georgia bloc, won. With the majority of seats in the new Supreme Council, which met in November 1990, Gamsakhurdia's supporters elected him to the post of Chairman of the Supreme Council. At the first meeting, the Supreme Council decided to liquidate the autonomous region of South Ossetia, declared it illegal to recruit Georgians into the Soviet armed forces, and established an independent National Guard. In March 1991, the Georgian government refused to hold a referendum on the future of the USSR in the country; instead, it held a referendum on Georgia's independence. 95% of the electorate took part in the referendum, and 93% of those who took part in the referendum voted for independence. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council adopted the Act on the Restoration of the State Independence of Georgia.
Independent Georgia. At the end of April 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia adopted a new constitution and elected Zviad Gamsakhurdia to the post of President of the Republic. Direct presidential elections took place on May 26, with Gamsakhurdia receiving nearly 87% of the vote. However, in a very short time, the president's helpless economic policy and his struggle with internal opposition led to popular discontent, and in December 1991 fighting broke out between supporters of the president and the opposition, which included the National Guard. After several weeks of fighting in the central part of Tbilisi, in January 1992 Gamsakhurdia was removed from his post and fled the country. The military council, headed by Tengiz Kitovani, commander of the National Guard, took power into his own hands, dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution. In March 1992, the Military Council announced its dissolution and the creation of the State Council, which consisted of approximately 70 representatives of 36 opposition parties. EA Shevardnadze became the Chairman of the State Council. In October 1992, elections were held for a new parliament. Shevardnadze, who received 96% of the votes, was elected its chairman. In July 1992, Shevardnadze stopped the 18-month war with the Ossetian minority, which began after the South Ossetian Autonomous Region was liquidated, but could not stop the war with the Abkhazians that suddenly broke out in August 1992. The Abkhazians, like the Ossetians, pursued a policy aimed at secession from Georgia. To interfere with separation. The war in Abkhazia was complicated by the intervention of Russian troops stationed at military bases in the autonomous republic and irregular armed forces sent by the Confederation of the Peoples of the Caucasus (an organization established by extremely radical elements in the Russian autonomous republics of the North Caucasus). In 1994, the Abkhazians defeated the Georgian government troops and forced them out of Abkhazia. Gamsakhurdia's supporters launched a partisan struggle immediately after his dismissal. During 1992-1993 they carried out terrorist attacks on state leaders and strategic economic targets. They enjoyed especially strong support in Western Georgia. In the fall of 1993, Gamsakhurdia tried to return to power, initiating a short but bitter civil war. Shevardnadze was forced to call on Russian troops for help. Gamsakhurdia was killed under unclear circumstances in January 1994. In exchange for Russian military assistance, Georgia agreed to join the CIS. After 1995, Georgia entered a period of stabilization. Significant progress has been achieved in the negotiations on the Ossetian-Georgian conflict. The Georgian parliament is carrying out economic reform in cooperation with the IMF and the World Bank and is betting on the restoration of the Ancient Silk Road - the Eurasian Corridor, using Georgia's geographical position as a bridge for the transit of goods between Europe and Asia. Currently, Russian peacekeepers and UN monitors are stationed in Abkhazia, but both groups are forced to limit their activities for fear of being blown up in minefields or coming under fire from guerrillas. Meanwhile, representatives of the UN and other peacekeeping organizations are encouraging the restoration of an atmosphere of cooperation and trust in the region. As a result, 20,000 refugees returned to the Gali region. Since 1996, there have been no large-scale armed clashes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, but the activities of partisans in Abkhazia do not stop.

- a state in Southwest Asia in the Transcaucasian region. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Black Sea. In the north it borders with Russia, in the east - with Azerbaijan, in the south - with Azerbaijan, Armenia and Turkey. Georgia includes two autonomous republics (Adzharia and Abkhazia) and the autonomous region of South Ossetia.

The national name is Sakart-velo (Kartvels - "Georgians").

Official name: Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo).

Capital:

The area of ​​the land: 69.7 thousand sq. km

Total population: 4.4 million people

Administrative division: Georgia consists of 65 regions.

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: President elected for a term of 5 years.

Composition of the population: 70.1% - Georgians, 8.1% - Armenians, 6.3% - Russians, 5.7% - Azerbaijanis, 3% - Ossetians, 1.8% - Abkhazians, Kurds, Adjarians, Greeks also live.

Official language: Georgian, but many speak Russian.

Religion: 65% are adherents of the Georgian Orthodox Church, 10% - the Russian Orthodox Church, 11% - Islam, 8% - the Armenian Orthodox Church.

Internet domain: .ge

Mains voltage: ~220 V, 50 Hz

Phone country code: +995

Country barcode: 486

Climate

Subtropical in the west, transitional from subtropical to temperate in the east. Throughout the country, the climatic situation is complicated by the influence of mountains, but since most of the ranges run from west to east, even in the most remote areas, the influence of warm Black Sea air masses is noticeable.

In the western regions affected by the Black Sea, summers are humid and warm, with mean July temperatures of 22–24°C. Winters are mild, with January mean temperatures of 4–7°C. maximum in Adjara (up to 3200 mm). Most of the precipitation falls in the spring.

The Likhi Range intercepts the moisture of air masses moving from west to east. In the eastern regions of Georgia, the climate is formed under the influence of continental air masses. On the plains, summers are longer and hotter, with average July temperatures of 23–25°C. Winters are cool, with an average January temperature of +1 to –2°C. summer.

On the slopes of the mountains of Georgia, the average July temperatures drop to 4–6 ° C, in the highlands, the average January temperatures can reach –10–16 ° C. The average annual precipitation ranges from 1600–2800 mm in the west to 1000–1800 mm in the east of the Greater Caucasus and up to 600–700 mm in the South Georgian Highlands. The weather in the mountains changes quickly. Sudden cold snaps are accompanied by heavy snowfalls, downpours, hail and foehns (strong, warm winds blowing from the mountains to the valleys), causing significant damage to the economy.

Geography

From the West Georgia is washed by the Black Sea. The coastline (308 km) is slightly indented, describes a smooth arc, the coast is devoid of significant bays and peninsulas. Georgia borders with Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkey, Russia.

The landscape of Georgia is diverse. The high-mountainous region of the Greater Caucasus is characterized by the presence of mountain-forest, black-meadow and non-vald belts, the presence of dark coniferous forests. The Colchis lowland - humid subtropics, the flat-hilly and forest-steppe region of Iberia determines the forest-steppe and steppe nature of the landscape.

In the Middle Mountain region of the Lesser Caucasus, in addition to mountain-forest and mountain-meadow belts, there are areas with dark coniferous forests with abundant moisture and less humid areas. The highest points in Georgia are the mountains Shkhara (5068 m), Kazbek (5035 m), Ushba (4700 m). The longest rivers (km) are Alazani (90), Kura (351), Rioni (333); lakes (km²) - Paravani (37.5), Paliostromi (18.2), etc.

The soils are varied. Red earth soils are distributed mainly in Adzharia and Guria, yellow earth, chernozem, chestnut, brown and gray-brown soils are characteristic of the eastern part of the intermountain depression.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

The vegetation in Georgia is very diverse: there are more than 5,000 species of flowering plants alone. Depending on the climatic features and the absolute height of the area, several zones and vertical belts of vegetation (from steppe to alpine) are distinguished.

Forests are distributed mainly in the mountains and occupy about a third of the country's area. In the west of Georgia, they descend to the very sea, and in the east, their lower border is at altitudes from 600 to 800 m above sea level. The forests of Western Georgia are especially rich and diverse.

Their lower belt (up to 1000–1200 m) is dominated by broad-leaved species (oak, hornbeam, chestnut, maple, beech, etc.) with evergreen undergrowth of Pontic rhododendron, laurel cherry, boxwood, Colchis holly, Colchis needle, Caucasian blueberry. This type of forest, called Colchis, is characterized by an abundance of lianas - ivy, clematis, and obitnik; in places it becomes impassable.

In the swampy forests of the Colchis Lowland, alder predominates and there is almost no undergrowth. In some parts of the coast of Abkhazia, endemic species are found, for example, Pitsunda pine, a relic of the Tertiary Crimean-Caucasian flora. Over the past millennia, grapes and fruit crops have been cultivated in the valleys.

In Western Georgia, above the belt of Colchis forests and up to the upper forest line (1700–1800 m), mixed forests are common, which combine beech and spruce-fir, less often pine stands. At the upper border of the forest there are birch forests with an admixture of mountain ash and thickets of rhododendron.

The forests of Eastern Georgia are floristically less rich. In the upper belt of mountains (up to 2300–2400 m), spruce-fir stands are common, occurring west of the river. Ksani, and in the more eastern regions - only pine and pine-birch forests. Below, coniferous forests give way to beech, and then oak-hornbeam.

In the extreme east of the country there are small areas of dry steppes (fescue-feather grass and fescue-bearded with forbs) and xerophytic light forests with species such as carcass, pistachio, pomegranate, hold-tree. Wormwood semi-deserts with cochia and saltwort have an even more limited distribution. In the valleys of the Kura, Alazani, Iori and other rivers, floodplain tugai forests of aspen, willow, silvery poplar, oak, dogwood have been preserved.

Subalpine and alpine meadows in the west of Georgia rise to 2800–3000 m, in the east - up to 3600 m above sea level. The subalpine meadows of Western Georgia are characterized by lush tall grasses with a large proportion of Umbelliferae, Legumes and Labiaceae. Low grass alpine meadows are distributed in fragments, alternating with stone placers, rock outcrops and glaciers.

Animal world

The animal world of Georgia is diverse. It is represented by more than 100 species of mammals, 330 species of birds and 160 species of fish. Many representatives of the fauna are endemic or semi-endemic, for example, the Artvinian lizard and the Kuban tur (whose horns are used in Georgia as vessels for wine).

The fauna of the steppes of Eastern Georgia is very peculiar. Until recently, there was a goitered gazelle, which was preserved only in certain areas of the Shirak steppe. The striped hyena is found in the Gardabani steppe and the Alazani valley. Of the other predators, we note the fox, jackal, reed cat. Wolves are common in livestock areas. Rodents are typical for the steppes: jerboas, voles, hamsters. Among the birds are common sparrow, gray partridge, quail, steppe eagle. The abundance of lizards and turtles, as well as snakes (already ordinary and water, western boa constrictor, yellow-bellied snake) is characteristic. Gyurza is found in the Eldar and Shirak steppes.

The animal world of forests is the richest. In many areas, the Caucasian deer, roe deer, wild boar, hare, squirrel are common, and predators include brown bear, wolf, jackal, lynx, forest cat and fox. The badger causes great harm to agriculture.

The forests of Georgia are famous for the abundance and diversity of birds. Species such as chaffinch, black-headed tit, great tit, greenfinch, blackbird, etc. are common. Of the birds of prey listed in the Red Book of Georgia, there are (mainly in reserves) bearded vulture, golden eagle, griffon vulture, black vulture, etc. In In some areas of Colchis and Kakheti, you can still see a pheasant. Of the reptiles in the forests of Georgia, the most numerous are lizards, marsh turtles and snakes (snake, copperhead, Caucasian viper).

The alpine fauna is better preserved within the Main Caucasian Range. In its western part there is a Kuban tur, in the eastern part - a Dagestan one. Both species descend into the forest belt for the winter. The chamois is almost ubiquitous, and the bezoar goat is found in the east. Of the characteristic birds of the highlands, one can note the Caucasian black grouse, keklik, bearded vulture.

Lari (GEL) is equal to 100 tetri. In circulation are banknotes in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lari, gold coins in denominations of 500 and 1000 lari, as well as 5, 10, 20 and 50 tetri.

Banks are usually open on weekdays from 9.00-9.30 to 17.30-19.00.

US dollars are widely used, especially in the private sector. In Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Adzharia, rubles are accepted everywhere. Currency exchange can be done in banks and specialized exchange offices located almost everywhere. There is also a private currency exchange market, but using the services of private money changers involves some risk.

In Tbilisi, it is possible to use VISA, Eurocard/Mastercard and Cirrus/Maestro credit cards in large hotels and supermarkets. Major banks accept traveler's checks. In private shops, hotels and in provincial areas, their use is almost impossible.

Useful information for tourists

A large number of tourists are attracted by mineral springs (Borjomi, Tskhaltub, Menji, Saimre), as well as seaside climatic (Gagra, Pitsunda, Kobuleti, etc.), mountain climatic (Bakuriani, Bakhmaro, etc.) resorts.

Shops are usually open from 9.00 to 19.00, a large number of shops and supermarkets serve customers around the clock. Fairs and bazaars are open seven days a week.

The export of items of historical and cultural value is prohibited.