Artistic features of classicism. On the way to classicism of the 18th century: features of classicism, appearance in Russian literature

Propylaea by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze (1784-1864) - the Athenian Parthenon is taken as the basis. This is the entrance gate of the Königsplatz square, designed according to the antique model. Königsplatz, Munich, Bavaria.

Classicism begins its reckoning from the 16th century in the Renaissance, partially returns to the 17th century, actively develops and gains positions in architecture in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Between early classicism and late, the dominant positions were occupied by the baroque and rococo styles. The return to ancient traditions, as an ideal model, occurred against the backdrop of a change in the philosophy of society, as well as technical capabilities. Despite the fact that the emergence of classicism is associated with archaeological finds that were made in Italy, and the monuments of antiquity were located mainly in Rome, the main political processes in the 18th century took place mainly in France and England. Here the influence of the bourgeoisie increased, the ideological basis of which was the philosophy of enlightenment, which led to the search for a style that reflects the ideals of the new class. Ancient forms and organization of space corresponded to the ideas of the bourgeoisie about the order and the correct structure of the world, which contributed to the appearance of features of classicism in architecture. The ideological mentor of the new style was Winckelmann, who wrote in the 1750s-1760s. works "Thoughts on the imitation of Greek art" and "History of the arts of antiquity". In them, he spoke of Greek art, filled with noble simplicity, calm majesty, and his vision formed the basis of admiration for ancient beauty. The European educator Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (Lessing. 1729-1781) strengthened the attitude towards classicism by writing the work “Laocoon” (1766). which they considered baroque and rococo. They also opposed the academic classicism that dominated the Renaissance. In their opinion, the architecture of the era of classicism, true to the spirit of antiquity, should not have meant a simple repetition of ancient samples, but be filled with new content that reflects the spirit of the times. Thus, the features of classicism in the architecture of the 18-19 centuries. consisted in the use of ancient shaping systems in architecture as a way of expressing the worldview of the new class of the bourgeoisie and, at the same time, supporting the absolutism of the monarchy. As a result, France during the Napoleonic period was at the forefront of the development of classicist architecture. Then - Germany and England, as well as Russia. Rome became one of the main theoretical centers of classicism.

The residence of the kings in Munich. Residenz Munich. Architect Leo von Klenze.

The philosophy of architecture of the era of classicism was supported by archaeological research, discoveries in the field of development and culture of ancient civilizations. The results of the excavations, set out in scientific works, albums with images, laid the foundations of a style whose adherents considered antiquity to be the height of perfection, a model of beauty.

Features of classicism in architecture

In the history of art, the term "classic" means the culture of the ancient Greeks of the 4th-6th centuries. BC. In a broader sense, it is used to refer to the art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The features of classicism in architecture draw their motifs from the traditions of antiquity, which was personified by the facade of a Greek temple or a Roman building with a portico, colonnades, a triangular pediment, partitioning the walls with pilasters, cornices - elements of the order system. The facades are decorated with garlands, urns, rosettes, palmettes and meanders, beads and ionics. Plans and facades are symmetrical with respect to the main entrance. The color of the facades is dominated by a light palette, while the white color serves to focus attention on architectural elements: columns, porticos, etc., which emphasize the tectonics of the building.

Tauride Palace. St. Petersburg. Architect I. Starov. 1780s

Characteristic features of classicism in architecture: harmony, orderliness and simplicity of forms, geometrically correct volumes; rhythm; balanced layout, clear and calm proportions; the use of elements of the order of ancient architecture: porticoes, colonnades, statues and reliefs on the surface of the walls. A feature of classicism in the architecture of different countries was the combination of ancient and national traditions.

Osterley's London mansion is a classicist park. It combines the order system traditional for antiquity and echoes of Gothic, which the British considered the national style. Architect Robert Adam. Start of construction - 1761

The architecture of the Classical era was based on norms brought into a strict system, which made it possible to build according to the drawings and descriptions of famous architects not only in the center, but also in the provinces, where local craftsmen purchased engraved copies of exemplary projects created by great masters and built houses according to them. . Marina Kalabukhova

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many architectural rules and canons from ancient art.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they used them even in the construction of private mansions. Palladianism took root in England, and local architects followed the precepts of Palladio with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. On his return to his homeland, he was made royal architect in 1762, but in 1768 he left this position because he was elected to Parliament and took up architecture and building with his brother James. He was greatly impressed by the archaeological research of Italian scientists. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function. This returned to the architectural stucco decoration (and architectural elements in general) the rigor of lines and the alignment of proportions.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" is used - empire style. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular, with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic.

Brief description of the architectural style classicism

Character traits: A style that turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model. Restrained decor and expensive high-quality materials (natural wood, stone, silk, etc.) are characteristic. Most often there are decorations with sculptures and stucco moldings.

Dominant colors: saturated colors; green, pink, magenta with a gold accent, sky blue.

lines: strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion; smooth generalized drawing; symmetry.

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic and architectural style, a trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism went through three stages in its development:

* Early Classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s)
* Empire (from French empire - "empire")
Empire - the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades of the 19th century; replaced by eclectic currents.

Although such a phenomenon in European culture as classicism touched all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will consider classicism in architecture and interior design.

The history of the emergence of classicism

Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous rococo, a style that had already been widely criticized since the middle of the 18th century for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerism, for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, the ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with the richest artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. The new style - classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

Famous architectural buildings of classicism:

• David Mayernik
  Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Robert Adam
  An example of British Palladianism is London's Osterley Park mansion " target="_blank"> osterley park osterley park
• Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
  Customs outpost on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> customs outpost customs outpost
• Andrea Palladio
  Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda

The main features of classicism

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.

Architects of classicism

Andrea Palladio (Italian Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - the great Italian architect of the late Renaissance. Founder of Palladianism and Classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.

Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) is a master of French classicism architecture, anticipating many principles of modernism. Blondel's student.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French counterparts, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamote, the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.

In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel build up Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

Types of buildings in the style of classicism

The nature of the architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls are divided from the outside and from the inside by small pilasters and cornices. Symmetry prevails in the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to reveal architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant town-planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, resorts are laid.

Classicism in the interior

Furniture of the era of classicism - sound and respectable, was made of precious wood. The texture of wood is of great importance, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Pieces of furniture were often finished with carved inserts made of precious wood. Decor elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

• David Mayernik
  Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Elizabeth M. Dowling
  Modern interior design in classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classic Modern classic
• Classicism
  Modern interior design in classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall
• Classicism
  Modern interior design of a dining room in a classic style " target="_blank"> Dining room Dining room

"Class!" - we talk about what arouses our admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin, the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismcalled the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.

What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict trend in art, it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect C. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When you can only like this and nothing else? Do not rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, to give direction, to show samples and to sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: the norms that had taken root over the course of several centuries had outlived their usefulness and were torn apart.
However, we have already jumped ahead. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of genres of classicism. We will only say that as a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century. A feature of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of genres of classicism

In classicism, a strict hierarchy of genres is established, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the greatest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherba, who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy had to be respected three unities: the unity of time (the action must take place within one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (there must be one storyline in the work). The French tragedians Corneille and Racine became the leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of "three calms".

"The theory of three calms" M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of the three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, which distinguishes between high, medium and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three "styles" according to Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Medium - elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly compositions.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: the ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism, an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. This we find in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires A.D. Cantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, odes to M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin.
At the end of the XVIII century. the tendency to see in art the main force of human education intensified. In this regard, a literary trend arises sentimentalism, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - let's remember his famous "Poor Lisa"!
But in the direction of classicism, works were created in the 19th century. For example, "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov. Although in this comedy there are already elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then some kind of model is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. It was the highest example. There was also a reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance, which also saw a model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected the conflicts of the individual and society, the ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which testify to the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin "Dance to the Music of Time" (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. It circles (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the two-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fleeting human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, while the old face is turned to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to the music of which the round dance is spinning, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby who holds an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers in her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin, State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist depicted in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a formal portrait, traditional for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, this is evidenced by his uniform and awards.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Bryullov. His work came at a time when classical works of form were filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called academism. In the middle of the XIX century. the young generation gravitating towards realism began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism reached its highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Louvre in Paris and in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova "Three Graces". Saint Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas of beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two extreme faces face each other (and not the viewer) and the girlfriend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged into an embrace, they are united by the interweaving of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a bone carver of the Kholmogory carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models naked, while the norms of morality modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. It includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of the elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London's Osterley Park mansion. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov.

Carl Barthalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
Rossi's outstanding architectural and urban planning skills are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with its adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff building and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829). -1834), Alexandrinsky Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two uniform long buildings of Theater Street (now the street of the architect Rossi).

The building of the General Staff on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. It was required from her: the balance of parts of the work, the careful finishing of details, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, the classical composition of parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the works of I.S. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reformist operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are nevertheless associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much broader. It includes not only the music of the period of the era of classicism, but also the music of the past in general, which has withstood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

Classicism in architecture and urban planning.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

In Venice, Palladio, commissioned by the Church, completed several projects and built a number of churches (San Pietro in Castello, 1558; the cloister of the church of Santa Maria della Carita [now the Academy Museums]; the facade of the church of San Francesco della Vigna, 1562; San Giorgio Maggiore on the same name island, 1565 [completed by V. Scamozzi by 1610]; "Il Redentore", that is, [the church] of the Savior, on the island of Giudecca, 1576-1592; Santa Maria della Presentatione, or "Le Citelle"; Santa Lucia, taken apart in middle of the 19th century during the construction of the railway station). If Palladio's villas as a whole are united by the impression of harmony and tranquility of forms, then in his churches the main thing is the dynamics of forms, sometimes - agitated pathos.

Robert Adam (who worked in collaboration with his brother James) became the most sought after architect in Britain. Connoisseurs of beauty admired the freedom with which he combined classical elements that were previously considered incompatible. A fresh approach to the layout of familiar architectural techniques (thermal window, serliano) testified to Adam's deep penetration into the essence of ancient art. Buildings: Kedleston Hall, Sion House, Register House, Osterley Park.

Classicism in painting.

The few paintings by Agostino Carracci (the best of them are the frescoes in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, made together with his brother Annibale, "Communion of St. Jerome" and "Ascension of the Virgin" in the Bologna Pinacothek) are distinguished by their correct drawing and light, cheerful coloring.

Agostino was a more famous engraver than his brother Annibale. Imitating Cornelis Court, he reached great heights in the art of engraving. The most famous of his engravings are: The Crucifixion (with Tintoretto, 1589), Aeneas and Anchis (with Barocchio, 1595), The Virgin and Child (with Correggio), The Temptation of St. Anthony", "St. Jerome" (with Tintoretto), as well as some engravings from his own work.

Claude Lorrain depicted with great skill the play of the sun's rays at different hours of the day, the freshness of the morning, the heat of midday, the melancholic shimmer of twilight, the cool shadows of warm nights, the brilliance of calm or slightly swaying waters, the transparency of clean air and the distance covered with light fog. In his work, two manners can be distinguished: the paintings relating to the early period of his activity are painted strongly, thickly, in warm colors; later - more smoothly, in a chilly tone. The figures that usually enliven his landscapes.

Lorrain, unlike Poussin, went beyond the metaphysical (read - academic) landscape. Light is always important in his work. He is the first to investigate the problem of sunlight, morning and evening; the first who was seriously interested in the atmosphere, its light saturation. His work influenced the development of the European landscape, in particular, William Turner

Classicism in music

The music of the Classical period, or the music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music between about 1730 and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for a more detailed discussion of issues related to the allocation of this framework). The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

A distinctive feature of Mozart's work is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of enduring significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many links with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless, it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

Mozart is one of the greatest melodists. Its melody combines the features of Austrian and German folk songs with the melodiousness of the Italian cantilena. Despite the fact that his works are distinguished by poetry and subtle grace, they often contain melodies of a courageous nature, with great dramatic pathos and contrasting elements. The most popular operas were The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute.

Questions and tasks:

1) Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

There are two stages in the development of classicism: the 17th century. and XVIII - early XIX century. In the XVIII century.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music - classicism is represented.

2) From a building-monument they come to a building that expresses a certain social function, the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or round squares. The idea of ​​the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city in the introduction of wide green areas, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state after the revolution. The reduction of architecture only to the fulfillment of urban planning tasks entails the simplification and typification of its forms.

3) The architect of classicism rejects the "whipped cream" of the Baroque and insists on the standards of harmony, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Actually, for him there was no question whether art is objective or not. Of course, objectively, but he himself serves eternity and everything immutable. Hence the alignment to the order system, the regularity of planning and symmetry. Man, as we remember, it sounds proud. And regularity and clarity is exactly what distinguishes the creation of man from the spontaneous asymmetry of nature. For buildings and parks, all this meant the appearance of rows of columns going into perspective, perfectly trimmed bushes and tens of meters of perfect sculptures. And curls, architectural folds and ruffles - from the evil one. The architect of classicism was most often a tourist and traveled to Italy and Greece to look at the ruins, the creations of Palladio, Scamozzi and the drawings of Piranesi, and then carried this knowledge to his own country. So, in particular, it happened with Inigo Jones, responsible for planting classicism in Britain, and with Robert Adam, who changed the face of Scotland. The Germans Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, having gone crazy over the beauty of the Parthenon, built up Munich and Berlin in the neo-Greek spirit with grandiose museum and other public buildings.

The French Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet created their own versions of classicism: the former more and more mastered the spaces around the building, while Ledoux and Boulet were carried away by the radical geometrization of forms. The French (and after them the Russians) in general of all Europeans turned out to be the most sensitive to the luxury of imperial Rome and, without hesitation, copied the triumphal arches and columns.

4) See question #3.

5) A distinctive feature of Mozart's work is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of enduring significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many links with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless, it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

6) Nicolas Poussin. Master of chased, rhythmic composition. One of the first to appreciate the monumentality of the local color.

Born in Normandy, he received his initial art education in his homeland, and then studied in Paris, under the guidance of Quentin Varen and J. Lallemant. In 1624, already a fairly well-known artist, Poussin went to Italy and became close friends in Rome with the poet Marino, who instilled in him a love for the study of Italian poets, whose works gave Poussin abundant material for his compositions. After Marino's death, Poussin ended up in Rome without any support. His circumstances improved only after he found patrons in the person of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Cavalier Cassiano del Pozzo, for whom he wrote the Seven Sacraments. Thanks to a series of these excellent paintings, Poussin was invited to Paris in 1639 by Cardinal Richelieu to decorate the Louvre Gallery. Louis XIII elevated him to the title of his first painter. In Paris, Poussin had many orders, but he formed a party of opponents, in the person of the artists Vue, Brekier and Mercier, who had previously worked on decorating the Louvre. The school of Vue, which enjoyed the patronage of the queen, was especially intriguing against him. Therefore, in 1642, Poussin left Paris and returned to Rome, where he lived until his death.

Poussin was especially strong in the landscape. Taking advantage of the results achieved in this kind of painting by the Bologna school and the Netherlands living in Italy, he created the so-called "heroic landscape", which, being arranged according to the rules of a balanced distribution of masses, with its pleasant and majestic forms, served for him as a stage for depicting an idyllic golden age. . The landscapes of Poussin are imbued with a serious, melancholy mood. In the depiction of figures, he kept to the antiques, through which he determined the further path that the French school of painting followed after him. As a historical painter, Poussin had a deep knowledge of drawing and a gift for composition. In the drawing, he is distinguished by strict consistency of style and correctness.

"The Magnanimity of Scipio", "The Shepherds of Arcadia", "Tancred and Erminia".

The generosity of Scipio.

The painting is based on the capture of New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Spanish stronghold of the Punians during the second Punic War, which Scipio captured along with countless treasures, hostages from the Spanish tribes and a large supply of provisions. In one day, by the way, captured.

Actually, Scipio's generosity consisted in the fact that he freed the hostages and organized their sending home, and also saved the honor of noble girls from these Spanish tribes, which won the friendship and favor of many Spaniards who went over to the side of Rome.

№21 Worldview foundations in educational culture. Enlightenment in Europe and America

The formation of a new ideology is associated with the formation of a new social stratum. Convinced of the ideas of rationalism, educated. Not aristocrats. They state the poverty and humiliation of the people, the decomposition of the upper strata and set themselves the goal of changing the situation, using a scientific worldview that can influence the mass mood. (Troublemakers-serfs they are)

They stand up for the recognition of the rights of the individual, so the natural law doctrines appear. They appear in the teachings of Hobbes, Locke, Grotius in the 18th century. Hobbes's original idea of ​​natural law is that the nature of man is evil and selfish. “Man is a wolf to man”, the natural state is “the war of all against all”. In this war, man is guided by his natural right - the right of force. Natural law is opposed by natural laws, which are the reasonable moral principle of man. Laws of self-preservation and satisfaction of needs. Since the war of all against all threatens humanity with self-destruction, there is a need to change the natural state to civil. There should be a social contract. People voluntarily cede part of their rights and freedoms to the state, agree on the observance of laws. Thus the natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws. Thus, the state is a necessary condition of culture. Locke believed that the truth of social life does not lie in the state, but in the person himself. People unite in society in order to guarantee natural rights to man. This, according to Locke, is the right to life, property, work. Labor and property give people freedom and equality. The state is obliged to protect the free private life of a person. From the very beginning, natural law theories had an anti-church and anti-feudal orientation, since the natural origin of law is emphasized. Which opposes the theory of divine right in which religion is the source of the feudal state, social inequality. The term enlightenment is first used by Aviary. The priority in the development of education belongs to France. And Herder, together with Voltaire, came up with this hat - enlightenment. Kant wrote that enlightenment is a way out of a person's state of minority, in which he was of his own free will. Immaturity of one's own free will is one whose causes lie not in defects of reason, but in a lack of determination and courage to use it without the guidance of someone else. The motto of enlightenment according to Kant is to have the courage to use your own mind.

The ideas of enlightenment are based on the ideas of rationalism. It is no coincidence that literature and art glorify the mind, the power of the human mind - this is an optimistic worldview. Faith in the power of the human mind. Povillon - "Wonders of the Human Mind" At the center of the enlightenment concept of man is the idea of ​​a natural man, a huge role in its formation was played by Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" - a man in a natural state. This is a story about the life of mankind, which has gone from savagery to civilization. It is the state of nature that educates Robinson. J.-J. took over from him. Rousseau. In a treatise on reasoning about the sciences and arts, he says that the natural person is enlightened, but not by the sciences and arts that despots need to break the resistance of people. Civilization was able to create only happy slaves, Rousseau contrasts them with the savages of America. They are invincible by hunting only. No yoke can be imposed on people who do not have needs. Rousseau also develops the concept of natural man in treatises on the origin and foundations of inequality between people, on the social contract. The origin of inequality is explained historically. Voltaire and Montesquieu sharply criticized the idea of ​​the sacredness of the power of the clergy. God discredited himself because for a long time the oligarchs used his name to deceive the people and strengthen their power. Then the enlighteners were engaged in the development of social utopias.

First, the reorganization of society is built, and then the theory of a universal society. Everyone tried to define the natural state of man, which was seen in the social reality of material well-being. Rousseau believed that in a state of material well-being, wealth, human abilities develop, ideas expand, feelings are ennobled, the soul rises.

Claude Helvetius formulated the concept of virtue, which he measured by utility, and not by self-denial, as was the case in Christian morality. That is, a person should enjoy life, and not serve God with self-denial characteristic of a Christian. This idea was supported by the English educator Bentham, who believed that virtue should be based on personal benefit, taking into account the public interests of society. Thus begins a new stage in the development of enlightenment, which as a whole has undergone evolution: from scattered attempts to establish the idea of ​​enlightenment, to the unification of the forces of enlighteners; from the deism of Walter to the atheism of Denis Diderot. From the idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy, passion for the English system to the development of a revolutionary change in the French social system to the establishment of the idea of ​​a republic, the principle of equality. The most important slogan is "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity". In general, enlighteners create a harmonious picture of the world, since it is optimistic. The idea of ​​universality, world culture is being formed. The most famous was Johann Herder. He affirms the equality of cultures of different peoples and eras. At the same time, the ground for the development of Eurocentrism appears. For a long time, Europeans did not know foreign cultures, and conquering the peoples of America and Australia, they acted as conquerors. Neglected the culture of enemies. Whereas with the development of the idea of ​​universality to compare cultures as equal, however, one's own turns out to be more important, higher than someone else's. The development of Rousseau's ideas by the French revolution testified to a new attitude towards man, therefore, socially, ideas began to appear that contradicted the ideas of slavery.

The Rights of Man by Thomas Pen came out in 1791.

"Defending the rights of women" Ounstonecraft 1792. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. Then in 1794 France banned it. In 1807 slavery was abolished in the British Empire. Enlightenment ideas determined the development of American culture. Philadelphia becomes the center of education in America; the first library in America and the first legal journal were created here. The first medical school and hospital, the educational activities of Benjamin Franklin, who formulated the classical principles of bourgeois morality, are associated with this city. The hero of the new time is a person who owes everything only to himself. He is characterized by sobriety of mind, rationality, focus on real life, with its material joys. It is he who owns many aphorisms that speak of bourgeois culture, bourgeois morality: “Time is money”, “Thrift and work lead to wealth”, etc.

Enlightenment culture is based on the ideas of Cottan Mather and Jonathan Edwards.

The ideology of enlightenment contributed to the development of education. Enlighteners believe that education in the spirit of modern science, modern knowledge can improve people's lives, it is no coincidence that Diderot combined the creation of an explanatory dictionary or Encyclopedia of sciences, arts and crafts in the forces of the enlighteners Voltaire and Montesquieu.

Gradually, a more favorable situation for education is emerging in America than in the old world. This explains the appearance of the founding fathers of the republic.

Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. He became the American interpreter of Locke's teachings. He saw the purpose of the state - to protect human rights: the rights to life, property, freedom, happiness. The people can overthrow the state. The main thing is to properly distribute power. Freedom is intertwined with responsibilities.

Disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment was expressed by Jonathan Swift's novel "Gulliver's Travels" - a satire on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Swift questioned scientific progress.

The era of enlightenment lasted about 100 years, then comes the reaction to the results of the French Revolution. The thinking part of European humanity felt that the ideal of a person, formed by the culture of rebirth, does not correspond to reality.

№22,23 Romanticism as a cultural paradigm, Romanticism in Europe

In the 18th century, pre-romanticism was formed, a special role in the formation of which was played by J. - J. Rousseau, primarily with his famous confession. The age of reason spoke of the primacy of feeling, of the originality and uniqueness of each person. In Germany, romanticism feeds on the ideas of the Sturm und Drang literary and social movement. Creativity of the early Goethe, Schiller. Fichte's philosophy with its absolutization of creative freedom can be named as important sources. And Arthur Schopenhauer with his idea of ​​a blind, unreasonable will that creates the world according to its will. Reality seemed unfavorable, sometimes terrible, and this is not corrected by the mind. The worldview of romantics is irrational. The idea of ​​the existence of otherworldly forces is a product of fantasy, not controlled by the enlightening mind. This trend manifested itself in the work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. It reflects new themes, calls into question the worship of the human rational principle, faith in the original humanity. Human affairs inspire deep doubts in the former assertions. Goya refuses to divide life into right and wrong, high and low. The experience of the new era, shaken by the revolution, wars, refuted the idea that the dark and the light beginnings are incompatible. Life turned out to be more complicated and everything that exists - the people, history, man, with his dreams, fantasies, are involved in a continuous process of change and formation. On the one hand, Goya shows courage, steadfastness, greatness of soul, on the other hand, he knows how to show crime, inhumanity. Romanticism arises as a reaction to the French Revolution, to the idea of ​​their cult of reason. And also the cause of its development is the national liberation movement. Initially, the term romanticism was used in the literature of the Germano-Roman peoples, later it covered music and the visual arts. The main thing for romantic art was the idea of ​​duality, that is, the comparison and opposition of the real and depicted worlds. Real life or the prose of life, with its lack of spirituality, utilitarianism, is regarded as an illusion unworthy of man, opposed to the true world. The affirmation of the deployment of a beautiful ideal as a reality realized at least in dreams is the main feature of romanticism. Modern reality is rejected as the repository of all vices, so the romantic runs away from it. Escape is carried out in the following directions:

1. Going into nature, therefore nature is a tuning fork of emotional experiences, the embodiment of real freedom, hence the interest in the village, criticism of the city. Interest in folklore, ancient myths, legends, epos.
2. Escape to exotic countries, not spoiled according to romantics bourgeois civilization.
3. In the absence of a real territorial address of flight, it is invented, constructed in the imagination.
4. Escape to another time. Most of all, romanticism seeks to escape into the Middle Ages. There is a beautiful knightly ideal.

It is in the life of the heart that romantics see the opposite of the heartlessness of the outside world. In painting, a romantic portrait, a self-portrait, develops. The heroes of the portraits are extraordinary creative personalities. Poets, writers who have an extraordinary inner world. The image of the inner world becomes dominant. One of the first image of a free person was embodied by the writer, poet Byron "The Journey and Pilgrimage of Child Harold". The image of a free person was called the Byronic hero. He has such traits as loneliness, egocentric. Free from society, this hero is unhappy. Independence is dearer to him than comfort and peace. The theme of loneliness is reflected in the work of Caspar David Friedrich, when he depicts lonely human figures against the backdrop of nature. Hector Berlioz became the founder of French. In this regard, it becomes a fantastic symphony. Fantastic is the reflection of the inner world of the lyrical hero, a lonely, unrecognized runaway poet, tormented by unrequited love. Romantic worldview was expressed in two versions: 1) the world seemed to be an endless, faceless cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts as the beginning of creating world harmony. This is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, a sublime feeling. 2) Human subjectivity, which is in conflict with the outside world, is considered. This attitude is characterized by pessimism.

National forms of romanticism, in the presence of common features, are original. So German romanticism is serious, mystical. In Germany, the theory and aesthetics of romanticism (Fichte, Schopenhauer) took shape. At the same time, masterpieces in music and literature are born here, aimed at self-deepening. French romanticism is impetuous and freedom-loving. First of all, he manifested himself in genre painting. In historical and everyday painting, in the portrait genre, in romance. Sentimental sensual English Romanism used fantastic, allegorical, symbolic forms of displaying the world, irony, grotesque.

Theodore Géricault was the founder of French Romanticism. He overcomes the influence of classicism, his works reflect the diversity of nature. Introducing the human being into the composition, Gericault strives for the most vivid disclosure of the inner experiences, emotions of a person. Having retained the classicist craving for generalization, heroic images, Gericault for the first time in French painting embodies an acute sense of the conflict of the world. He embodies the dramatic phenomena of modernity, strong passion. Gériot's early works reflected the heroism of the Napoleonic Wars. "Officer of the horse rangers of the imperial guard going on the attack", "Wounded cuirassier leaving the battlefield." Dynamism of composition and color. One of the central in the work of Gericault is the "Raft of the Medusa". It was written on a topical story about the lost frigate "Medusa". Gericault gives a historical, symbolic meaning to a private event. The work reveals a complex range of feelings. From complete despair to complete apathy and passionate hope for salvation. The idea of ​​a romantic artist as a free, independent person, a deeply emotional person. Géricault expressed in a series of his portraits. (Portrait of twenty-year-old Delacroix) and self-portraits. A series of portraits of the mentally ill is of significance. The tradition of Géricault was picked up by Eugene Delacroix. "Dante and Virgil" or "Dante's Boat") The same passion, protest against any violence marked his later works. "Massacre on Yose" or "Greece on the ruins of Messalongi") The events of the defense of the Greeks from the Turkish invasion are reflected. "Freedom on the Barricades", written on the theme of contemporary events. Its romantic, revolutionary symbolism is expressed by the allegorical figure of freedom, with developing knowledge in hand. A number of works are inspired by a journey through North Africa. "Algerian women in their chambers", "Jewish wedding in Morocco", "Lion hunt in Morocco". Delacroix was fond of racing and horses. Delacroix paints portraits of composers (Chopin, Paganini). The expression of romanticism in German painting was the work of K. D. Friedrich. Already in the early works, the complete mystical atmosphere of his art was determined. These are such paintings as "The Hun's Tomb in the Snow", the Cross in the Mountains", "The Monk by the Sea". He depicts the viewer as a figure, detachedly contemplating landscape distances. A mysteriously silent nature is revealed before this contemplative. Various symbols of the supernatural being. (Sea horizon, mountain peak, ship, distant city, crucifix, cross, cemetery) For Friedrich, nature is the bearer of deep, religious experiences. The landscape was used as a means of displaying deep emotional experiences. There are four ages of life in the program work. Figures of people of various ages are depicted on a deserted Arctic shore and four ships approaching the shore. So the artist displayed the passage of time, the passage of time, the doomed mortality of man. The scene itself against the backdrop of sunset evokes a keen sense of melancholic nostalgia. The title of another work speaks for itself "The Crash of Hope". The Pre-Raphaelites are a brotherhood of English painters. (Rosetti, Milles, Hunt). Economic crises, the revolutions of the 1840s did not affect England. This is the heyday of British capitalism. Aesthetic dictate of England. The name Pre-Raphaelites appeared due to the fact that members of the society bowed before the art of the docinquecento. They rely primarily on the quattrocento, trecento. Pre-Raphaelite painting was a reaction to the pragmatism of the bourgeois world and was a criticism of capitalism from the standpoint of beauty. This is an attempt to create a better reality based on spiritual, physical, social harmony. The divine meaning of ideal beauty, the universal meaning of being, high spirituality are revealed in the nature surrounding a person and everyday life. Interest in the Middle Ages was due to the craving for religious renewal. "Bride" - Rosetti, the image of femininity appears. Hunt's paintings are permeated with symbolism. "The Hired Shepherd" A dead head is a symbol of retribution, an apple is a symbol of temptation. "Awakened Shame" Hunt. The "Light of the World" depicts the walking Christ. "Scapegoat" is an allegory of Christ in the desert. Milles "Christ in the parental home", the painting was otherwise called "carpentry workshop". Romanticism in America arose under the influence of European culture. There was a tendency to romanticize the American Revolution, which was presented as a path to the highest degree of development, putting the United States at the head of world progress. Thus the uniqueness of the path of America was affirmed. The biographical genre is developing. Washington was the first hero. The Father of American Biography is Gerard Sparks. He created 12 volumes about Washington, 10 volumes about Franklin. The rapid industrialization of the northern states destroyed the traditional.

№24 Value system and culture of industrial society

Democratic principles in the social structure, the development of experimental science and industrialization. It was created back in the 17th century. The result of the industrial revolution was the emergence of an industrial society. The ideals of which are labor, production, science, education, democracy. Saint-Simon dreams of a society organized like a huge factory headed by industrialists and scientists. The factory at that time changed the manufactory, leading to an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The introduction of technical innovations was accompanied by the consolidation of enterprises, the transition to the production of mass, standardized products. Mass production led to urbanization. (growth of cities) The prospect of accelerated development of capitalism has demonstrated the United States. The process became all-encompassing and more homogeneous, there was a process of turning history into world history. The formation of culture as a unity, diversity of national cultures and art schools. Traditional countries, such as Japan, are also included in this process. The problem of cultural dialogue acquires a special color. A new system of values ​​is emerging. Sensitivity is based on usefulness, prosperity, comfort. Progress is identified with economic progress. At the same time, the principle of utility transforms the concept of truth. The bottom line is that it is convenient and useful. Utilitarian character acquires etiquette. Regulation of relations between free partners by means of sale and purchase. The seller must be polite and courteous, but the buyer is not. Attention is paid only to those who are useful. Relationships are formalized.