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Ideas of Enlightenment in Russian Fine Art Nikitin. Russian art of the Enlightenment canons of the baroque front

Ideas of Enlightenment in Russian Fine Art Nikitin. Russian art of the Enlightenment canons of the baroque front

23.06.2020

The main theme of the art of the eighteenth century is glorification of the monarchical state system , in honor of which not only solemn odes were composed, but also solemn architectural ensembles were created. Exactly architecture becomes the most vivid exponent of the spirit of the Enlightenment in Russia. The social prerequisites and the nature of the architectural order have not changed compared to previous decades, although there is a noticeable shift in their interests towards the nobility. According to the eminent historian V. O. Klyuchevsky , "the state is closed in the palace". A shade of barbarian splendor was reflected in the palace construction, which received a grandiose scale. Public buildings were almost never built during these years. During this period, the construction of new fortress cities continued ( Rostov-on-Don, Orenburg, Izyum ). A number of regional architectural schools were formed. However, the most outstanding achievements in architecture are associated with the capitals, with the activities Petersburg and Moscow masters.

The heyday of Russian architecture in the middle of the 18th century is associated with a single stylistic basis - baroque, which reflected the glory of the state, its wealth and power. This is the baroque of a triumphant monarchy, state exaltation, with which spectacles, the splendor of buildings and the art of painting are associated. This time was characterized by a synthesis of art, where all its types coexisted: architecture, sculpture, monumental and decorative painting, applied art. Eclecticism (a mixture of different types and genres) was invariably present in the baroque of this period - this is a mosaic of culture, where antique and medieval, church and secular, folk and aristocratic were whimsically combined - all this was embodied in construction palace complexes. Architecture, painting, sculptural decoration, emblems and allegories, the art of the gardener and fountain maker merged here with songs, music and carnival. Everything was geared towards delivering "A feast for the eyes, food for the mind, a feast for the senses."
The largest architect of the middle of the XVIII century was F.-B. Rastrelli , which in Russia was lovingly called "Bartholomew Varfolomeevich". One of Rastrelli's outstanding discoveries is the complex of ceremonial interiors, filled with light pouring through huge windows and reflected in mirrored pilasters and mirrors placed in the piers. Gilded carvings and stucco, bronze and picturesque plafonds, grand staircases - all this complemented the magnificence of the palace premises. The formation of his style took place already in the first buildings - palaces
E. Biron in Mitau (1738–1740) and Ruenthal (1736–1740); castle
M. Vorontsov in St. Petersburg (1749-1757). The best country buildings of the architect include Grand Palace in Peterhof (1745 - 1755) and Grand, or Catherine's Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (1752–1757) with an extensive regular park and park pavilions. The famous creation of Rastrelli became Winter Palace in St. Petersburg (1754-1762), the monumentality of the facades of which was supposed to reflect the glory and power of the Russian Empire. The great masters of Russian architecture of that time were in St. Petersburg - S. Chevakinsky (St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral - 1753-1762) and in Moscow D. Ukhtomsky : the heyday of the school is associated with his name - the workshop in which famous architects were brought up A. Kokorinov, V. Bazhenov,
M. Kazakov.

The painting of this period was not as representative as the architecture. It should be noted that the first half of the 18th century in Russia mainly worked foreign artists. Some of them played a big role in the artistic life of Russia. Among the painters called by Peter I from abroad, the most prominent place was occupied by Johann Gottfried Tannauer And Louis Caravaque . Tannauer worked in Russia until the end of his life, performing numerous portraits here: Peter I, Tsarevich Alexei , an associate of Peter Alexandra Menshikova and other representatives of the era. One of his best works is a portrait of a diplomat Count P. A. Tolstoy , which is distinguished by the integrity of the pictorial solution and the pronounced individual characteristics of the model. Portraits of Caravacca of the 1930s and 1950s in most cases have a ceremonial character. The immovable figures of empresses Anna Ioannovna and Elizabeth Petrovna in magnificent clothes, with attributes of imperial power, they fill the entire space of the canvas.

L. Caravacc. Portrait of L. Caravacca. Portrait of Anna Ioannovna Elizaveta Petrovna

To a greater extent, these images are idealized, which corresponded to the spirit of the glorification of monarchical persons. The purpose of such portraits is to create a majestic image of the majestic "autocrat".
Among the Russian painters of the era, it should be noted Alexey Antropov . Diverse and rich portrait miniature, in which they found the development of the tradition of miniatures of manuscripts and books of Ancient Rus' and painting on enamel . Its largest representatives were considered Andrey Ovsov And Gregory of Musikiy . The works of these masters
Peter I gave to his entourage as a sign of special mercy.
Russian art of this time is also represented by its other types.
So, in 1738 the first ballet school In Petersburg. In 1750 in Yaroslavl, on the initiative F. G. Volkova opened the first Russian professional theater , which, at the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna, soon moved to St. Petersburg, and since 1756 was transformed into Russian theater (He was appointed director A. P. Sumarokov ).
Significant for Russian art was the middle of the eighteenth century: in 1757 a decree was issued on the establishment in St. Petersburg Academy of Arts.
In the first half of the Enlightenment century, a new Russian literature and socio-political thought , which was connected with the appearance of the first major writers on the literary Olympus of Russia -
A. D. Cantemira (1708 – 1744), V. K. Trediakovsky (1703–17690),
A. P. Sumarokova (1717–1777). They became the first representatives classicism in Russian literature. It should be noted that the formation and development of classicism in Russian culture took place much later than in European culture, but in relatively similar historical conditions of formation. absolutist state. appeared in Russia European classicism(primarily French).
Its dominant is the recognition of the decisive role enlightened monarch in establishing a just public order based on approved laws. The most characteristic features of classicism include rationality, abstractness and conventionality in the construction of an artistic image. At the same time, Russian classicism was distinguished by features unique national identity, which was expressed in the reflection of topical problems of social development and accusatory orientation. Classicism in Russian literature was formed in the struggle against the baroque and the entire legacy of medieval literature. Its main characteristics were: predominantly civic themes; unity of time and place of events; pomp and splendor of poetry, the existence of ancient images. The forms of poetry were also classical - odes, satires, fables. Let us give illustrations in favor of the stated assertions. The beginning of classicism in Russian literature is associated with creativity A. D. Cantemira . He was the author of numerous satires “on the topic of the day”, among which we will name: “On those who blaspheme the teachings” (1729), “On the difference in human passions,
“To the Archbishop of Novgorod” (1731), “On the danger of satirical writings. To his muse”, “On a person” (1737). For the first time, his works by this author were published in Russia in 1762. A. D. Kantemir in accusatory poems - satires - sharply ridiculed adherents of antiquity, enemies of education, science, although it must be admitted that this was done by the writer often too straightforwardly and without recognizing the deeply moral basis of traditional "Russian antiquity". It is impossible not to mention one of the founders of modern versification, writer, poet, prose writer, translator, literary theorist
V. K. Trediakovsky (1703 - 1769), who wrote solemn odes to empresses. The most famous work of recent years was his poem "Telemachiad" (1766), which denounced "evil kings".
The first Russian professional writer was a descendant of an old noble family, A. P. Sumarokov (1717–1777). In his work, he relied on the achievements in the literature of Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. Sumarokov proclaimed the principle equivalence of all genres of literature, while he wrote in all poetic genres. He wrote nine tragedies, among them: "Horeev" ( 1747), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750), "Semira" (1751), "Dimitri the Pretender" (1771), "Mstislav" (1774) and others. In the tragedies, A.P. Sumarokov denounced the tyrant kings, opposing the despotic royalty ideal bearers of royal power, which corresponded to the logic of the era. He wrote twelve comedies, among which Tresotinius (1750), "Guardian" (1765), "Likhoimets" (1768) and others; libretto of two operas and a ballet; Sumarokov also wrote "parables" - fables, songs, and was engaged in satirical journalism. With his satirical orientation, the writer-denunciator "made" many enemies among the clergy, landlords, officials, and in court circles.
After the death of Peter I, the dependence of culture on the government, which he had established, was further developed. The government and the court began to implement a tougher cultural policy. In fact, in the 1730s-1750s, "the sphere of application of the power of art and thought" was primarily castle , which played the role of a political and cultural center, as well as a noble club and a temple of the monarchy, a theater in which a magnificent spectacle was played in order to demonstrate the power and greatness of earthly power. In general, Russia of this period was characterized by further secularization, secularization in the field of politics, culture, art, and everyday life. A new type of social consciousness continued to form, inextricably linked with significant changes in the socio-economic, political, ideological and philosophical life of society. The socio-political thought of this time is presented primarily in the works of the already named cultural figures -
A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov and a prominent Russian historian Vasily Nikitovich Tatishchev . Their work raised the question on the improvement of the state structure Russia. So, Tatishchev, like others, considered it possible to achieve economic progress in Russian society within the framework of the existing system. However, the question of any radical
political changes or the elimination of serfdom
relations in the works of the mentioned authors were not posed.
In the second half of the 18th century, Russian autocracy reached its apogee, entering into era of enlightened absolutism . To the greatest extent, the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment in the policy of absolutism manifested itself in the field of culture. Gradually, a single national culture took shape, in the creation of which the leading role belonged to the nobility, the emerging intelligentsia. Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky eloquently described one of the features of the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796): "The century of our history, begun by the carpenter king, ended with the writer empress." It is worth noting that during the life of Klyuchevsky, the Academy of Sciences published 12 volumes of the Empress's works, about which the historian-scientist commented as follows: “Her works do not reveal an original talent. But she was very impulsive, she now and then hears echoes and rehashings of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Molière, Madame Ravigne ... ". Another statement of Klyuchevsky about Catherine the Great deserves attention: “No matter what society Catherine moved in, no matter what she did, she always felt like she was on stage and therefore did too much for show ... Catherine was lucky, upon accession to the throne, among all kinds of people to find at hand
those with whom one could do business well.
To briefly summarize the main achievements of culture era of Catherine the Great, then it is reasonable to draw the following conclusions:

At the end of the 18th century, a new period in the history of Russian education began: a general educational, class system of education was being formed, reflecting the granting of practically unlimited privileges to the nobles and further increasing the gap between the culture of the nobility and the culture of the lower strata. A significant role in the theoretical substantiation of the class system of education was played by I.I. Betskaya (1704-1795);

in the 60s of the eighteenth century. the Russian Enlightenment is born (as defined by Prof. A.A. Aronov), represented by A.N. Radishcheva received the most radical anti-serfdom, anti-feudal orientation; democratic, humanistic features characterized the work of such prominent writers and public figures as N.I. Novikov, D.I. Fonvizin, S.E. Desnitsky,
A.A. Polenov, Ya.P. Kozelsky ;

For four decades (until the end of the 60s) Russian culture was dominated by classicism, closely related to enlightenment which brought democratic features to Russian culture. In the last third of the 18th century, a new method began to take shape in literature - realism, who won the first success in dramaturgy. In the last decade of the century, the dominant trend in noble literature was sentimentalism , whose founder is N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) - the creator in Moscow of a kind of center for the new school;

The last third of the 18th century was marked by the creation of a scientific center for the study of the Russian language and literature - the Russian Academy, which existed from 1783 to 1841. The first President of the Academy was Ekaterina Dashkova . The main merit of the Academy is the compilation and publication Dictionary of the Russian language : in 1789-94 its first edition was published in 6 volumes, and in 1806-1822. – second edition, significantly enlarged;

The marked period is characterized the heyday of the noble estate , which is also explained by the granting of exclusive privileges to the nobility. In this regard, it is important to note that the Russian noble estate is of interest not only from the point of view of architecture, sculpture and painting and other types of art, but also in terms of development private libraries, art collections and collections. Many noble estates are inextricably linked with the life and creative activity of major representatives of the national culture: these are Avdotino N.I. Novikova, Zvanka G.R. Derzhavina, Mikhailovskoye and Boldino A.S. Pushkin, Tarkhany M.Yu. Lermontov and many others;

The last third of the 18th century is the period of prosperity of the palace and park culture: Marfino at P.S. Saltykov , Arkhangelsk at N.B. Yusupov , Kuskovo And Ostankino under the graph
N.P. Sheremetev ; magnificent ensembles in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, built for the royal family - Pavlovsk, Petergo;

The obvious achievements of the period under review include masterpieces of Russian classicism, created in different types of art: these are works A.F. Kokorinova, Wallen-Delamot, I.E. Starova,
D. Quarenghi, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakova, A.N. Voronikhina,
I.A. Ermeneva, D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotova, A.P. Losenko ;

Paradoxically, but the power of Russian culture is such that even in the Catherine period, when the position of the peasantry was very, very difficult, and according to some researchers (Prof.
A.A. Aronov) and critical, folk crafts flourish, which are currently widely recognized and especially valued in world culture: Palekh, Gzhel, Khokhloma, Fedoskino, Mstera , and others;

a unique phenomenon of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century, which actually has no analogue in world practice, is the formation of the so-called "serf intelligentsia" , which appeared due to the development of the phenomenal talent of many ordinary people and despite the existing serfdom (!)

We tried to generalize the positive results of the Catherine's period, but it is also impossible not to recognize the obvious negative, sometimes even disgusting features of the era. Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky writes about this: “The whole system of Catherine was a system of elegant facades with untidy backyards, the consequences of which were a complete deterioration of morals in the upper classes, oppression and ruin of the lower ones, and a general weakening of Russia.” This impartial conclusion, alas, has not lost its relevance in our days.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. to replace the Russian Renaissance. A new era is coming, called by specialists the Russian Enlightenment. There is a radical reorientation not only of Russian culture, but also of Russian society from the Byzantine East to the European West. The leading role is shifting from religious to secular art. Through the strict schemes of the icon, the first contours of a secular portrait and landscapes are visible. From the depths of icon painting, painting comes to light for a long time and painfully. Sensuality is replaced by rationalism. From feudalism, Russia is slowly turning towards capitalism, and therefore, towards a new economic structure, a new way of life. There were changes in the ruling aristocracy: the Rurik dynasty was replaced by a completely different, unrelated dynasty of the Romanovs (1613 - 1917).

The Russian Enlightenment can be conditionally divided into two stages: the 17th century, which is only a transitional era, and the 18th century, that is, the Enlightenment itself, the beginning of which was marked by the grandiose reforms of Peter I, and the highest point was the activity of Catherine II.

The greatest contribution to the Russian Enlightenment belongs to Catherine the Great, who, like other enlightened monarchs, played a key role in supporting the arts, sciences, and education. Although in Russia, as in other European countries, significant changes took place in this era, the difference between Russia and the Western Enlightenment lies in the fact that not only did there not be a shift in public opinion towards the development of liberal ideas, but, on the contrary, they were met with extremely wary.

In the 18th century, the foundations of a secular worldview were laid: a system of secular education was being formed, art and science were developing. However, the process of restructuring Russian society was completed only in the 19th century. Throughout the 18th century, there was a struggle between the old and the new, pre-Petrine orders and European customs, and painstaking work on the education of a person was invisible to the eye.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by a rapid transition from the national artistic tradition, dating back to Byzantine origins, to the Western European tradition of art. Russia began an energetic assimilation of the experience of world culture, familiarization with its achievements. That is why in Russian art of the 1st quarter of the 18th century. There is neither that depth of spiritual content, nor that organic unity of the ideological and figurative structure with artistic forms that are characteristic of the art of Ancient Rus'.

Culture of the first quarter of the XVIII century. nourished by the ideas that the basis of historical progress, the strength of the state is science, education. The knowledge gained in the course of practical activities helps to better understand nature, society, man, to identify patterns, logic in their development. The power of reason is capable of revealing the most rational forms of social organization and creativity.

How did you get acquainted with Western art?

In the workshops of the Armory Chamber in the second half of the 17th century, foreigners worked side by side with Russian craftsmen. The contracts concluded with them specifically stipulated a clause according to which they had to teach Russian students “everything they themselves can do”: how to build a deep space, calculate the proportions of a human figure, convey it in the correct perspective, that is, in reduction, with a complex turn and movement. The models for our icon painters were engraving, which was then called "fryazhsky sheets". Anyone could buy them on the bridge near the Spasskaya Tower of the Kremlin, as well as in the markets of large Russian cities. True, Western European engraving, which has become firmly established in artistic use, is being thoroughly reworked in the Russian way.

In the XVIII century. traditional Russian iconography is gradually falling into decay. It is increasingly influenced by oil painting penetrating from the West, which by this time had come a long way from the Renaissance to the Baroque. Among the most famous representatives of icon painting of this period are G.T. Zinoviev, A. I. Kazantsev and S. S. Nekhlebaev. So the “Europeanization” of Russian icon painting in the 18th century gradually led to the emergence secular painting, which did not exist before.

Along with it, a new genre appears - the image of a certain person, "person", the so-called parsuna, which laid the foundations of the portrait art of the XVIII century. It was formed in the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin - the center of the country's artistic life in the middle of the 17th century. The best painters of their time worked here: B. Saltykov, I. Bezmin, V. Poznansky, I. Maksimov, K. Ulanov, T. Filatiev, I. Pavlovets, F. Kozlov. Here I. Vladimirov And S. Ushakov The first theoretical treatises on painting in the history of Russian art were written.

The first Russian artists in the modern sense of the word, such as I. N. Nikitin and A. M. Matveev, studied abroad. Others (Schluter, Caravak) were invited from abroad and worked as court painters. They not only created a national school of painting (I. Ya. Vishnyakov, A. P. Antropov, A. I. Belsky), but also laid the foundation for the tradition, which in modern art history is called rossika, the image of Russian life by Western European painters (Rotary, Grotto, Roslin).

After the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757, Russian painting of the Enlightenment era reached its peak in the works of outstanding masters D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, F. S. Rokotov.

The 18th and early 19th centuries are marked by two world-class cultural achievements: the architecture of St. Petersburg and portraiture. The emergence of world achievements in the field of secular culture testified to two facts: 1) secular art has become an independent cultural event in the life of society, no less. Than religious; 2) from now on, all or most cultural innovations should have been expected from secular, and not from religious culture. Secular culture has firmly taken the lead and has never lost it again. The great epoch of Russian ecclesiastical culture is gone, the great epoch of Russian secular culture has begun.

Russian art is mastering new means of conveying the image of the surrounding world. A direct perspective is used to convey the appearance of the surrounding world. A direct perspective is used to convey the depth and volume of the image depicted on the plane. Artists think about the relationship between light and color, about the role of color as one of the means of constructing volume and space. The ability to depict a specific material - fur, fabric - and to show the features of the surface of the face and hands, the sparkle of the eyes, the softness of the hair begins to be appreciated.

In the Petrine era of favoritism, when the greatness and wealth of a person could quickly increase and just as instantly he could fall into insignificance, many wealthy people wanted to leave their portrait to posterity, to be depicted in memory of their importance and panache in a luxurious wig, with orders, in uniform , in suits decorated with gold embroidery; or they wanted to have an image of their benefactor (king) in order to express their respect and devotion.

Russian portrait art reaches a special development in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. This is the time of work of outstanding portrait painters, whose fame spread far beyond the borders of Russia: F.S. Rokotova, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, I.N. Nikitin.

The first major master of this genre was I.N. Nikitin(1680 - not earlier than 1742). A master of personal affairs, a favorite artist of Peter I, I. N. Nikitin was an example of the emperor’s patriotic pride in front of foreigners, “so that they know that there are good masters from our people.” And Peter was not mistaken: the painter Ivan was the first Russian portrait painter of the European level. His work is the beginning of Russian painting of the new time (“Princess Praskovya Ivanovna”, 1714, “Portrait of a Cossack in a red caftan”, 1715, “Portrait of Peter the Great”, 1725). Nikitin is one of the first Russian artists who moved away from the traditional icon-painting style of Russian painting and began to paint with perspective, as they did in Europe at that time. Thus, he is the founder of the tradition of Russian painting, which continues to this day.

F.S. Rokotov(1735 - 1808), comes from a family of serfs, is one of the best masters of the Age of Enlightenment. The gallery of his portraits is a poetic world in the image of his contemporaries, immersed in dreamy thoughtfulness, in subtle hidden movements of the soul.

Along with F.S. Rokotov and V.L. Borovikovsky D.M. Levitsky is considered one of the largest Russian portrait painters of the 18th - 19th centuries. In his youth he painted icons, and in 1771-1787. headed the portrait class of the Academy of Arts. The pinnacle of his art is a series of portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute, "Smolny". In the picture, they play music, dance, communicate with each other, playing a crafty pictorial theater in front of the viewer. Among the best works of Levitsky are bust portraits of D. Diderot, M.A. Dyakova, N.I. Novikov and Catherine II, which is represented in the ancient temple of the goddess of justice.

portraits V.L. Borovikovsky(1757 - 1825) features sentimentalism, a combination of decorative subtlety and grace of rhythms with a true transfer of character ("M.I. Lopukhina"). He received his initial art education from his father, an icon painter. After military service, he was engaged in religious painting in the traditions of the Ukrainian baroque. Having moved to St. Petersburg, he became close to the outstanding intellectuals of that time. He painted icons and ceremonial portraits in the style of baroque and classicism. In 1804 - 1811. paints religious paintings for the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. In the later period, Borovikovsky was actively involved in teaching, organizing something like a private school at home (A.G. Venetsianov was among the students).

During the 18th century, the formation of the landscape genre took place, significant progress was made in graphics, which sought to capture the appearance of the young capital. M.I. Makhaev(1718 - 1770) - the author of a large number of views of St. Petersburg and its environs. Paintings were made according to his drawings, and the Twelve "most notable" perspectives of St. Petersburg, drawn by him, were engraved at the Academy of Sciences. Makhaev accurately conveys the appearance of this or that building, captures it with almost photographic accuracy. Often the artist works with architectural projects, according to which he creates facades of already non-existent or still unfinished buildings.

Makhaev's works create an image of a place, the nature of his daily life. The figures of people are combined into genre scenes and correspond to the compositional center - the building: courtiers at the Summer Palace, carriages of dignitaries and horsemen in front of the State Colleges, a crowd of city people and cabbies near the Stock Exchange. Trees complement the image of the city, which gradually acquire greater concreteness and are more boldly introduced into the composition.

The art of engraving became widespread in the Petrine period. It is represented by the design or illustrations of books, or independent sheets. They were dominated by battle scenes and the urban landscape.

A major engraver of the early 18th century. was A.F. Zubov. He performed Panorama of St. Petersburg of extraordinary complexity and grandeur. In another of his engravings, "The Gangut Triumph", the return of the Russian fleet to St. Petersburg, leading the Swedish ships captured in the battle, is depicted. A number of engravings are dedicated to the solemn acts and amusements of that time.

The main engraving center was at first the Armory, and since 1711 - the St. Petersburg Printing House.

Sculpture did not exist in the pre-Petrine period, this was due to the fact that, according to the Orthodox church canon, statues and relief images were not included among the sacred objects of religious art.

In the Petrine period, the most famous sculptor was K.B. Rastrelli(1675-1744). On behalf of Peter I, he made statues for the Summer Garden. Rastrelli (father) worked hard on the image of Peter I. Back in 1719, he removed his mask and fashioned a wax bust. In 1723, he creates a bronze bust of Peter I. In his image, the sculptor emphasized the mind, will, and energy.

Art of the first quarter of the 18th century. Distinguished by a pronounced complexity, syntheticity. The overall impression is created by the efforts of architecture, painting, sculpture, garden art, fountain work, vocal and instrumental music.

Thus, Russian art of the 18th century was a new stage in the development of Russian culture, when European trends were assimilated and synthesized with national artistic traditions, and a decisive shift took place in the spiritual culture of society, which led to the onset of the “golden age” of Russian art and literature at the beginning of the 19th century.

Russian Art and the Age of Enlightenment

It is known that the Age of Enlightenment was a time of profound change in the economic and social life of all of Europe. Manufactories are being replaced by large factories using machines. With the emancipation of the oppressed classes, more and more attention is paid to the public welfare. The economic needs and aspirations of progressive minds bring closer the abolition of the feudal order. Differences are known between the defenders of various doctrines: defenders of reason and defenders of the exact sciences, adherents of antiquity and admirers of the human heart. If the age of Enlightenment can be considered the era that ended with the abolition of the old order, then in fact the bourgeois revolution took place only in France.

Russia remained a predominantly agrarian country. True, E. Tarle has long noted that in the 18th century she was not indifferent to the industrial development of Europe (E. Tarle, Was Russia under Catherine an economically backward country? - Modern World, 1910, May, p. 28.) "Enlightenment quickly spread throughout the country. But the third estate, which in France led the struggle against the privileged classes, was poorly developed in Russia. The successes of capitalism did not improve the living conditions of the serfs. On the contrary, the participation of landowners in trade led to an increase in corvée and dues. During During the second half of the 18th century, the peasants rebelled several times.Pugachevshchina threatened the empire.Although the government dealt with the rebels, their resistance did not weaken.

In France, in the complaints of rural residents, there is a certainty that by satisfying their petitions, their situation can be improved (E. See, La France economique et sociale au XVIIIe siecle, 1925, p. 178.). In Russia, according to one contemporary, the peasants were not even able to realize the full extent of their oppression (G. Plekhanov, Works, vol. XXI, M.-L., 1925, p. 255.). One folk song of that time says that the masters used to treat them like cattle. In order to understand the Age of Enlightenment in Russia, one cannot bypass this main contradiction.

banned it in France. Catherine felt the need to support public opinion in Europe. She urged the nobility to be more prudent so as not to cause an uprising of the oppressed ("Reader on the history of the USSR", vol. II, M., 1949, p. 173.) But all her domestic policy, especially in the second half of her reign, tended to strengthen police regime (“The Eighteenth Century”. Historical collection published by P. Bartenev, vol. Ill, M., p. 390.). Education became the privilege of the nobility. Liberation ideas were severely persecuted. After 1789, suspicions of Jacobin sympathies could ruin anyone.

and demanded that the nobility be more efficient and virtuous. Only the fulfillment of civic duty can justify his privileges (P. Berkov, L. Sumarokov, M.-L., 1949. "). The conservative nobility thought only about amendments to what existed, not allowing the thought of changing the social order.

Another layer of the nobility, disappointed with the state of affairs, was inclined to such an attitude to life, which can be defined by the modern term "escape" (flight). Russian Freemasons sought to improve their own personality. Tired of court and secular life, the nobility was ready to admire the impulses of the heart and sensitivity , as well as the charms of rural nature (G. Gukovsky, Essays on Russian literature of the XVIII century, M. - L., 1937, p. 249.).

The most radical revolutionary views were defended by A. Radishchev. Formed under the influence of Enlightenment thinkers, Radishchev goes further than his inspirers. Sympathizing with the suffering of the human race, Lorenz Stern shines in "Sentimental Journey" most of all in the analysis of his deeply personal experiences. In "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev is completely captured by the picture of the suffering of the people (A. Radishchev, Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow. Vol. I -II, M. -L., 1935.). All his thoughts and aspirations are aimed at improving the lot of oppressed people in all latitudes of the world, including the New World. Novikov's satire exposed the vices of the privileged classes and thus had a strong impact on the minds (G. Makagonenko, N. Novikov and enlightenment in Russia in the 18th century, M.-L., 1951.).

". In the West, it was argued that it was necessary first to liberate the soul, that is, to educate the people before liberating their body. Russian enlighteners treated ordinary people with great confidence. Radishchev was convinced that as soon as the people received freedom, he would give birth to heroes.

secular society. The modest gift received by Radishchev from a blind beggar is regarded by him as a sign of his heartfelt agreement with the people.

Representatives of the third estate in France paid little attention to the needs of the peasantry, and this became a source of their constant disagreement. In Russia, the progressive representatives of the nobility were destined to defend the interests of the people. With their interest in epic poetry, in fairy tales, in folklore, the Russians outstripped Schlegel and Percy. The composer of the 18th century E. Fomin, whose significance was discovered quite recently, was the author of the opera "Coachmen", entirely woven from folk tunes (B. Dobrokhotov, E. Fomin, M.-L., 1949.).

guessed the talents of poets and artists who surrounded her throne. One might think that in Russia in the 18th century everything happened in art at the will of sovereigns and in their honor.

In reality, crowned patrons and their associates were by no means always sensitive to the needs of art. E. Falcone faced resistance from the imperial bureaucracy ("Falconet's Correspondence". Collection of the Imperial Russian Historical Society, St. Petersburg, 1879.). The Grand Duchess reproached Cameron for violating the "rules of architecture" (L. Hautecoeur, L "architecture classique a Saint-Petersbourg a la fin du XVIIIe siecle, Paris, 1912, p. 60.). But the main thing is that the meaning of the art of this era cannot be reduced to the glorification of the monarchy and serfdom. Lomonosov and Derzhavin were forced to dedicate their odes to empresses, but most of all they were inspired by the glory of the motherland, the riches of its nature, the fate of the people. The great architects of the XVIII century, Russian and foreign, built palaces for sovereigns and nobles. But at the court, shy etiquette and servility dominated, overwhelming luxury. Meanwhile, in the park and in the pavilions of Pavlovsk reign noble simplicity and a sense of proportion worthy of a sage who has left a depraved world.In his recent book, Rudolf Zeitler rightly notes the inner relationship between the utopias of this time and the statues and paintings of classicism (R. Zeitler, Klassizismus und Utopie, 1914). Many palaces and parks of the 18th century look like the embodiment of the dreams of the humanists of the Enlightenment (P. Chekalevsky, Discourses on the Free Arts with a Description of the Works of Russian Artists. St. Petersburg, 1792. The author praises the artists of Ancient Greece, “since they did not humiliate their mind in order to to decorate with trifles the house of a rich man according to his taste, since all works of art then corresponded to the thoughts of the whole people. "In this statement one can guess the aesthetic program of the Russian artist of the 18th century).

There is no way to associate each individual artist with a certain social stratum and consider it a representative (V. Bogoslovsky, The social nature and ideological essence of the architecture of Russian classicism in the last third of the 18th century. - "Scientific Notes of the Leningrad University". Series of Historical Sciences, vol. 2, 1955, 247.). It is more essential not to lose sight of the general dependence of the art of the Enlightenment on social issues, the constant dependence of the best minds of the era on that ferment of thought. The Russian artists of the Enlightenment served the task of freeing mankind from the diseases of the age. Imagining a social order based on truth , nature, justice, they painted ideal pictures of the desired harmony in their work.This is the connection between art and the historical prerequisites of the era.

Petersburg is the most regular city among all the capitals of Europe, it is more imbued with the spirit of Enlightenment than others. The Europeanization of Russian art was facilitated by the stay in Russia at that time of first-class Western masters and, on the other hand, by the educational travels of young Russian artists to France and Italy. The Age of Enlightenment was deeply imbued with the belief that the same moral and aesthetic principles could find application in all latitudes. The French language, as the universal language of the “Republic of Fine Literature,” strengthened this confidence. As a result, the national character of culture was often forgotten. It was not for nothing that Frederick II, an admirer of everything French, did not show sensitivity to the German culture of his time.

art of the 18th century in all European countries. Until recently, it was generally accepted that Russia was no exception to this rule. At one time, A. Herzen believed that in the 18th century Russian civilization was entirely European. “There is only a certain rudeness left in it,” he said, “(A. Herzen, On the development of revolutionary ideas in Russia. - Collected works, vol. VII, M., 1956, pp. 133-262.) A close study of both the Russian culture of that time and other European countries convinces us that each of them had its own characteristics.

According to the plan for the reconstruction of the Kremlin, worked out by V. Bazhenov in 1769-1773, this sanctuary of the Mother See was to be turned into the center of the entire Russian empire (M. Ilyin, Bazhenov, M., 1945, p. 41; A. Mikhailov, Bazhenov, M. ., 1951, p. 31.). The main arteries of the country, the roads from St. Petersburg, from Smolensk and from Vladimir, were supposed to converge on the main square of the Kremlin. This to a certain extent resembled the arrangement of three roads that converged in front of the Palace of Versailles. In the residence of the French monarch, his luxurious bedchamber was to serve as the center. Bazhenov's idea was more democratic in nature. The palace remained aloof, the center of the Kremlin was occupied by a wide round square, intended to serve as a place for national holidays. This semblance of an amphitheater was supposed to be filled with a crowd of spectators. In the words of the Russian architect, the rebuilt Kremlin was supposed to serve "for the joy and delight of the people." Bazhenov's contemporaries guessed the utopianism of this project. Karamzin compares Bazhenov with Thomas More and Plato (N. Karamzin, On the sights of Moscow. - Works, vol. IX, 1825, p. 252.). Bazhenov's project remained unfulfilled. Only a wooden model gives some idea of it. But the architectural thought of the great master was reflected later, in the semicircular square of K. Rossi in front of the Winter Palace (A. Mikhailov, decree, op. , p. 74.).

Bazhenov was not alone. The Tauride Palace, erected by I. Starov for the favorite of Catherine Potemkin, was considered by contemporaries as an attempt to revive the glory of the capitals of the ancient world. Indeed, crowned with a dome supported by columns, its central hall appears to have been designed to rival the Roman Pantheon. The classicists of Western Europe did not set themselves such grandiose tasks. The interior of the Parisian Pantheon by J. Soufflot is more dissected, lighter and does not make such an impressive impression. A notable feature of Russian domed buildings is their pyramidality. Palaces, like ancient Russian temples, seem to grow out of the ground, constituting an inseparable part of the nature around them. This is the epic power of Russian architecture.

Gothic architecture, at that time almost forgotten. Just four years after him, V. Bazhenov, who himself sought to get closer to folk traditions, recognized the artistic value of Russian medieval architecture and was inspired by it in his own creation.

In his buildings of the royal residence in Tsaritsyn near Moscow, this was most clearly reflected. One of the buildings of Tsaritsyn, the so-called Khlebnye Vorota, gives an idea of the method of the remarkable architect. In it one can see a kind of fusion of the classical three-span arch of Septimius Severus and a purely Russian type of church - a tower crowned with kokoshniks and a dome. One should not think that the artist limited himself to a mechanical combination of antique and medieval motifs. The interaction and interpenetration of heterogeneous elements gives the creation of the Russian master a unique originality.

Meanwhile, there are no openwork structures characteristic of the Gothic. Bazhenov's architecture is more juicy, full-blooded, the wall retains its significance in it. The Tsaritsyno bridge is closer to ancient Russian traditions. It resembles the mosques and aivans of Central Asia with their mighty lancet arches and colorful tiles.

beautiful, but somewhat cold forms of vases are preserved, especially in Gzhel ceramics, more archaic, colorful types of jars of a purely national character. One of the buildings in Tsaritsyn is crowned with a round disk with the monogram of Catherine, which does not find analogies in classical architecture. But it is very similar to the so-called "wooden suns" with which folk carvers decorated ships.

In his word, when laying the foundation stone for the Kremlin Palace, Bazhenov mentions the bell tower of the Novo-Devichy Convent, a characteristic monument of the so-called “Naryshkin style”, as the most beautiful building in Moscow. But Bazhenov’s aspirations to revive national forms did not find support from the authorities. meanwhile, at the same time as Bazhenov, another Russian architect, I. Starov, was building the Potemkin Palace in Ostrov on the Neva as a kind of medieval castle. He revived in it the whiteness and smoothness of the walls of ancient Novgorod architecture (A. Belekhov and A. Petrov, Ivan Starov, M., 1951, p. 404.).

type (V. Taleporovsky, Ch. Cameron, M., 1939; G. Loukomsky, Ch. Cameron, London, 1943; M. Alpatov, Cameron and English classicism. - "Reports and messages of the philological faculty of Moscow University", I, M ., 1846, p. 55.). It is surrounded by an English park. But the location of the palace on a high hill above the Slavyanka River dates back to the ancient Russian tradition. The cubic volume of the building does not suppress the surrounding nature, does not come into conflict with it. It seems that it grows out of soil, like his dome - from the cube of the building.C. Cameron had the opportunity to learn Russian tradition and Russian tastes when, after arriving in Russia, he built a cathedral near Tsarskoye Selo (S. Bronstein, Pushkin City Architecture, M., 1940, fig. 146, 147.).

Russian classicism of the 18th century prefers a freer arrangement of architectural masses than classicism in other European countries. The architectural mass of his buildings produces a more organic and lively impression. The Small Trianon of A. J. Gabriel forms a cube, clear, balanced and isolated; a graceful cornice separates the top edge from the space. In the Palace of the Legion of Honor, architect P. Rousseau, the cornice is more emphasized than the dome above it. There is nothing like this in the Pashkov house, created in 1784-1789 by Bazhenov. True, its graceful decoration is reminiscent of the so-called Louis XVI style (N. Romanov, Bazhenov's Western teachers. - "Academy of Architecture", 1937, No. 2, p. 16.) But the location of the building on a hill, its slender pyramidal silhouette, emphasized by the side outbuildings, the aspiration to the top of its middle building, finally, its relief thanks to the belvedere (unfortunately, damaged in the fire of 1812) - all this, rather, goes back to the traditions of the folk architecture of Ancient Russia.In the western architecture of the XVIII century, you can find palaces with belvederes, but the organic growth of the building does not reach such a force of expression as in the building of Bazhenov and some of his compatriots.Here we must also recall the works of Bazhenov's contemporary and friend M. Kazakov.His church of Metropolitan Philip of 1777-1788 in Moscow belongs to Palladian classicism with all elements of its architecture: the portico , rectangular windows and windows with architraves, and finally, a light rotunda - all this is taken from the repertoire of classical forms.But the silhouette of this temple, its resemblance to a stepped pyramid, involuntarily brings to mind the Naryshkin temples that were before the eyes of Moscow architects and always attracted their attention.

Western architects preferred symmetry in their buildings, or at least a stable balance of parts. Two identical buildings on the Place de la Concorde in Paris are examples of this. On the contrary, Russian architects of that time often deviated from the strict order. The educational house in Moscow, built in 1764-1770 by the architect K. Blank, was conceived in the spirit of the pedagogical ideas of the Enlightenment and, accordingly, had a clear, rational plan. At the same time, the building is strongly elongated along the embankment of the Moskva River. The smooth white walls above which the tower rises are reminiscent of the monasteries of Ancient Rus', these impregnable fortresses located on the banks of lakes and rivers, with white stone walls and towers at the corners. These features give originality to Russian urban planning of the 18th century: there is less order, balance and symmetry in it, but more sensitivity to harmony between the building and the vast expanses of the country and the virgin nature surrounding the city.

The Academy of Arts of the French sculptor Gillet at the end of the 18th century formed a whole galaxy of Russian masters. Falcone's masterpiece "The Bronze Horseman" also contributed to the development of a taste for this type of art. However, Russian masters did not limit themselves to imitation.

" M. Kozlovsky, like many other masters of his time, was inspired by the ancient group "Me-lai with the body of Patroclus" in the Uffizi. But in the work of the Russian master there is not a trace of that sluggish and artificial classicism that was planted then at the Academy. Ajax's tense body, in contrast to the body of his dead friend, looks stronger. The molding is underlined. The drama of the position of the hero, saving a friend in the midst of a hot battle, is of a romantic nature. M. Kozlovsky anticipates the sculptural experiments of T. Gericault. There is nothing surprising in the fact that, unlike his contemporaries, Kozlovsky highly appreciated Michelangelo (V. Petrov, Sculptor Kozlovsky. - Journal of Art, 1954, No. 1, p. 31.) Perhaps in his posture Ajax indirectly reflected something from the valor of Suvorov's warriors, which then caused general delight, something from that faith in man, which underlies the "art of winning" the great Russian commander.

In the 18th century, the peasant genre nowhere had such a peculiar character as in Russia. French painter J.-B. Leprince, as a foreign traveler, did not notice the miserable existence of Russian serfs. The interior view of a peasant hut in his drawing of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts looks like a mythological scene in the spirit of Bush. The hut is spacious and illuminated, like a palace hall, and, accordingly, the figures of its inhabitants are easily and gracefully conveyed. We find something completely different in the drawings of I. Ermenev, a Russian draftsman of the 18th century, until recently almost unknown, who at the present time has occupied almost the same place in Russian art as Radishchev in literature (About Yermenev: "Russian Academic Art School", M.-L., 1934; "Literary heritage", vol. XXIX-XXX, M., 1937, p. 385.). (To understand Ermenev's mindset, one must remember that when he was in France, he witnessed the storming of the Bastille and captured this event in one of his drawings.) The plight of the Russian peasants, the poor, the blind, is expressed by Ermenev with merciless truthfulness. The balance of the composition, the lapidarity of the forms enhance the impact of these drawings, in which the master did not have to resort to the methods of grotesque and hyperbole. This Enlightenment artist, in fact, anticipated much of what later attracted the Wanderers. His small drawings look like sketches for monumental frescoes. Their power of influence surpasses even the epic images of M. Shibanov in his paintings "Peasant Wedding" and "Peasant Dinner" in the Tretyakov Gallery.

"A person is very convexly expressed in it. This creation of the serf artist Ivan Argunov captivates with deep humanity, which secular portraits often lacked (I. Danilova, Ivan Argunov, M., 1949; T. Selinova, I. P. Argunov. - Zhurn. "Art", 1952, September-October). The prettiness of a young woman, her spiritual purity - all this anticipates the peasant images in Venetsianov and in the novels of Turgenev and Tolstoy. It is necessary to compare this still somewhat timid and constrained image of a serf woman with the graceful secular portraits of the 18th century by F. Rokotov and D. Levitsky in order to measure the depth of the abyss that divided the then Russian society.

1. I. Argunov. Portrait of a peasant woman in Russian costume. 1784. Moscow, Tretiakov Gallery. (I. Argounov. Paysanne en costume russe (Portrait d "une actrice). 1784, Galerie Tretiakov, Moscou.)

2. J.-B. Leprince. The interior of a peasant hut. Ink, Moscow, Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin. (Jean-Baptiste Le Prince. Interieur d "une izba paysanne. Encre de Chine. Musee des Beaux-Arts Pouchkine, Moscou.)

5. Church of the Intercession in Fili in Moscow. 1693 - 1694. (Eglise de 1 "Intercession de la Vierge de Fili. Moscou. 1693 - 1694.)

7. Sun. Folk carving. 18th century Moscow, Historical Museum. (Soleil. Sculpture sur bois folklorique. XVIIIe s. Musee d "Histoire de Moscou.)

8. M. Kazakov. Church of Metropolitan Philip in Moscow. 1777 - 1788. (M. Kazakov. L "Eglise du Metropolite Philippe. 1777 - 1788. Moscou.)

10. V. Bazhenov. Pashkov House in Moscow. (State Library of the USSR named after V. I. Lenin). 1784-1786. (V. Bajenov. L "h6tel Pachkov. Bibliotheque nationale Lenine. 1784-1786. Moscou.)

20. Jug. Gzhel ceramics. 1791 Moscow, Historical Museum. (Cruche, Ceramiques de Gjelsk. 1791. Musee d "histoire, Moscou.)

Russia remained a predominantly agrarian country. True, E. Tarle has long noted that in the 18th century she was not indifferent to the industrial development of Europe ( E. Tarle, Was Russia under Catherine an economically backward country? - "Modern World", 1910, May, p. 28.). Enlightenment quickly spread throughout the country. But the third estate, which in France led the struggle against the privileged estates, was poorly developed in Russia. The successes of capitalism did not improve the living conditions of the serfs. On the contrary, the participation of landowners in trade led to an increase in corvée and dues. During the second half of the 18th century, peasants revolted several times. Pugachevism threatened the empire. Although the government dealt with the rebels, their resistance did not weaken.

In France, in the complaints of rural residents, one can see the certainty that, by satisfying their petitions, one can improve their situation ( E. See, La France economique et sociale au XVIIIe siecle, 1925, p. 178.). In Russia, in the words of one contemporary, the peasants were not even able to realize the full extent of their oppression ( G. Plekhanov, Works, vol. XXI, M.-L., 1925, p. 255.). One folk song of that time says that the masters used to treat them like cattle. In order to understand the Age of Enlightenment in Russia, one cannot bypass this main contradiction.

In its legislative initiatives and reforms, the government of Catherine II widely used the ideas of the Enlightenment. The order of the Commission of Representatives was carried out in such radical terms that the royal censorship banned it in France. Catherine felt the need to support public opinion in Europe. She urged the nobility to be more prudent so as not to cause an uprising of the oppressed ( "Anthology on the history of the USSR", vol. II, M., 1949, p. 173.). But her entire domestic policy, especially in the second half of her reign, tended to strengthen the police regime ( "The Eighteenth Century". Historical collection published by P. Bartenev, vol. Ill, M., p. 390.). Education became the privilege of the nobility. Liberation ideas were severely persecuted. After 1789, suspicions of Jacobin sympathies could ruin anyone.

The Russian government relied on the nobility and the higher administration. But among the nobility there were people who were aware of the approaching crisis of the monarchy. They rebelled against venality and moral decay and demanded that the nobility be more efficient and virtuous. Only the fulfillment of civic duty can justify his privileges ( P. Berkov, L. Sumarokov, M.-L., 1949.".). The conservative nobility thought only of amendments to what existed, not allowing the thought of changing the social order.

Another layer of the nobility, disappointed with the state of affairs, was inclined to such an attitude to life, which can be defined by the modern term "escape" (flight). Russian Freemasons sought to improve their own personality. Tired of court and secular life, the nobility was ready to admire the impulses of the heart and sensitivity , as well as the delights of rural nature ( G. Gukovsky, Essays on Russian literature of the 18th century, M. - L., 1937, p. 249.).

The most radical revolutionary views were defended by A. Radishchev. Formed under the influence of Enlightenment thinkers, Radishchev goes further than his inspirers. Sympathizing with the suffering of the human race, Lorenz Stern shines in "Sentimental Journey" most of all in the analysis of his deeply personal experiences. In "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev is completely captured by the picture of the suffering of the people ( A. Radishchev, Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow. T. I-II, M.-L., 1935.). All his thoughts and aspirations are aimed at improving the lot of oppressed people in all latitudes of the world, including the New World. Novikov's satire exposed the vices of the privileged classes and thus had a strong impact on the minds ( G. Makagonenko, N. Novikov and education in Russia in the 18th century, M.-L., 1951.).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Mably recognized the right of the people to rise up against feudal abuses. But Voltaire doubted the mental strength of the people and did not hide his contempt for the "mob". In the West, they argued that it was necessary first to free the soul, that is, to give the people an education, before freeing their body. Russian enlighteners treated ordinary people with great confidence. Radishchev was convinced that as soon as the people get freedom, it will give rise to heroes.

In search of a golden age, Western thinkers turned to the primitive society of the Arabs and Indians. Russian thinkers guessed in the working and patriarchal life of Russian peasants the wisdom that secular society lacked. The modest gift received by Radishchev from a blind beggar is regarded by him as a sign of his heartfelt agreement with the people.

Catherine, during her lifetime, won European fame with her patronage. This fame remained for a long time after her death. Catherine knew how to take advantage of the huge means at her disposal, and guessed the talents of the poets and artists who surrounded her throne. One might think that in Russia in the 18th century everything happened in art at the will of sovereigns and in their honor.

In reality, crowned patrons and their associates were by no means always sensitive to the needs of art. E. Falcone faced resistance from the imperial bureaucracy ( "Falconet Correspondence". Collection of the Imperial Russian Historical Society, St. Petersburg, 1879.). The Grand Duchess reproached Cameron for violating the "rules of architecture" ( L. Hautecoeur, L "architecture classique a Saint-Petersbourg a la fin du XVIIIe siecle, Paris, 1912, p. 60.). But the main thing is that the meaning of the art of this era cannot be reduced to the glorification of the monarchy and serfdom. Lomonosov and Derzhavin were forced to dedicate their odes to the empresses, but most of all they were inspired by the glory of their homeland, the richness of its nature, and the fate of the people. The great architects of the 18th century, Russian and foreign, built palaces for sovereigns and nobles. But the court was dominated by shy etiquette and servility, overwhelming luxury. Meanwhile, in the park and in the pavilions of Pavlovsk, noble simplicity and a sense of proportion reign, worthy of a wise man who has left the depraved world. In his recent book, Rudolf Zeitler rightly notes the inner relationship between the utopias of this time and the statues and paintings of classicism ( R. Zeitler, Klassizismus und Utopie, 1914.). Many palaces and parks of the 18th century look like the embodiment of the dreams of the humanists of the Enlightenment ( P. Chekalevsky, Discourses on the Liberal Arts with a Description of the Works of Russian Artists. SPb., 1792. The author praises the artists of Ancient Greece, “because they did not humiliate their mind in order to decorate the rich man’s house with trifles according to his taste, since all works of art then corresponded to the thoughts of the whole people.” In this statement one can guess the aesthetic program of a Russian artist of the 18th century.).

There is no way to associate each individual artist with a certain social stratum and consider him a representative ( V. Bogoslovsky, Social nature and ideological essence of the architecture of Russian classicism in the last third of the 18th century. - "Scientific Notes of the Leningrad University". Series of Historical Sciences, vol. 2, 1955, p. 247.). It is more essential not to lose sight of the general dependence of the art of the Enlightenment on social questions, the constant dependence of the best minds of the age on that ferment of thought. Russian artists of the Enlightenment served the task of liberating mankind from the diseases of the age. Imagining a social system based on truth, nature, justice, they drew in their work ideal pictures of the desired harmony. This is the link between art and the historical premises of the era.

The revival of the classical order and the veneration of the column in architecture, mythological motifs and allegories in sculpture, the features of court secularism in portraiture - all this was more or less characteristic of the art of the 18th century in all European countries. Until recently, it was generally accepted that Russia was no exception to this rule. At one time, A. Herzen believed that in the 18th century Russian civilization was entirely European. “The national thing left in her,” according to him, “is only a certain rudeness” ( A. Herzen, On the Development of Revolutionary Ideas in Russia. - Collection. soch., vol. VII, M., 1956, pp. 133-262.). A close study of both the Russian culture of that time and other European countries convinces us that each of them had its own characteristics.

According to the plan for the reconstruction of the Kremlin, developed by V. Bazhenov in 1769-1773, this sanctuary of the Mother See was to be turned into the center of the entire Russian empire ( M. Ilyin, Bazhenov, M., 1945, p. 41; A. Mikhailov, Bazhenov, M., 1951, p. 31.). The main arteries of the country, the roads from St. Petersburg, from Smolensk and from Vladimir, were supposed to converge on the main square of the Kremlin. This to a certain extent resembled the arrangement of three roads that converged in front of the Palace of Versailles. In the residence of the French monarch, his luxurious bedchamber was to serve as the center. Bazhenov's idea was more democratic in nature. The palace remained aloof, the center of the Kremlin was occupied by a wide round square, intended to serve as a place for national holidays. This semblance of an amphitheater was supposed to be filled with a crowd of spectators. In the words of the Russian architect, the rebuilt Kremlin was supposed to serve "for the joy and delight of the people." Bazhenov's contemporaries guessed the utopianism of this project. Karamzin compares Bazhenov with Thomas More and Plato ( N. Karamzin, On the sights of Moscow. - Works, vol. IX, 1825, p. 252.). Bazhenov's project remained unfulfilled. Some concept of it is given only by a wooden model. But the architectural thought of the great master was reflected later, in the semicircular square of K. Rossi in front of the Winter Palace ( A. Mikhailov, decree, op., p. 74.).

Classicism of the 18th century in all European countries revered the ancient order with all its elements as an unshakable dogma. However, Goethe was already ahead of his time, admiring in 1771 the Strasbourg Cathedral and the beauty of Gothic architecture, at that time almost forgotten. Just four years after him, V. Bazhenov, who himself sought to get closer to folk traditions, recognized the artistic value of Russian medieval architecture and was inspired by it in his own creation.

The departure from the classical canons also makes itself felt in the Tsaritsyn Bridge, built of pink brick, with its lancet arches. Bazhenov's style in Tsaritsyn is usually called pseudo-Gothic or Neo-Gothic. Meanwhile, there are no openwork structures characteristic of the Gothic. Bazhenov's architecture is more juicy, full-blooded, the wall retains its significance in it. The Tsaritsyno bridge is closer to ancient Russian traditions. It resembles the mosques and aivans of Central Asia with their mighty lancet arches and colorful tiles.

Bazhenov's architecture was prepared by the search for architects B. Rastrelli, S. Chevakinsky and D. Ukhtomsky, who worked before him in Russia. In Russian applied art of this time, along with strictly classical beautiful, but somewhat cold forms of vases, more archaic, colorful types of jugs of a purely national character are preserved, especially in Gzhel ceramics. One of the buildings in Tsaritsyn is crowned with a round disk with the monogram of Catherine, which does not find analogies in classical architecture. But it is very similar to the so-called "wooden suns" with which folk carvers decorated ships.

In his word, when laying the foundation stone for the Kremlin Palace, Bazhenov mentions the bell tower of the Novo-Devichy Convent, a characteristic monument of the so-called “Naryshkin style”, as the most beautiful building in Moscow. But Bazhenov’s aspirations to revive national forms did not find support from the authorities. meanwhile, at the same time as Bazhenov, another Russian architect, I. Starov, is building the Potemkin Palace in Ostrov on the Neva as a kind of medieval castle. He revived in it the whiteness and smoothness of the walls of ancient Novgorod architecture ( A. Belekhov and A. Petrov, Ivan Starov, M., 1951, p. 404.).

Russian taste in architecture was reflected not only in the nature of the scenery and walls, but also in the general arrangement of buildings. The palace in Pavlovsk, created by the great English master C. Cameron, dates back to the Palladian type ( V. Taleporovsky, Ch. Cameron, Moscow, 1939; G. Loukomsky, Ch. Cameron, London, 1943; M. Alpatov, Cameron and English classicism. - "Reports and messages of the philological faculty of Moscow University", I, M., 1846, p. 55.). It is surrounded by an English park. But the location of the palace on a high hill above the Slavyanka River goes back to the ancient Russian tradition. The cubic volume of the building does not suppress the surrounding nature, does not come into conflict with it. It seems that it grows out of the soil, like its dome - from the cube of the building. C. Cameron had the opportunity to learn Russian tradition and Russian tastes when, after arriving in Russia, he built a cathedral near Tsarskoye Selo ( S. Bronstein, Architecture of the city of Pushkin, M., 1940, fig. 146, 147.).

Russian classicism of the 18th century prefers a freer arrangement of architectural masses than classicism in other European countries. The architectural mass of his buildings produces a more organic and lively impression. The Small Trianon of A. J. Gabriel forms a cube, clear, balanced and isolated; a graceful cornice separates the top edge from the space. In the Palace of the Legion of Honor, architect P. Rousseau, the cornice is more emphasized than the dome above it. There is nothing like this in the Pashkov house, created in 1784-1789 by Bazhenov. True, its elegant decoration recalls the so-called Louis XVI style ( N. Romanov, Western teachers of Bazhenov. - "Academy of Architecture", 1937, No. 2, p.16.). But the location of the building on a hill, its slender pyramidal silhouette, emphasized by the side wings, the aspiration to the top of its middle building, and finally, its relief thanks to the belvedere (unfortunately, damaged in the fire of 1812) - all this, rather, goes back to the traditions of the folk architecture of Ancient Rus' . In western architecture of the 18th century, palaces with belvederes can be found, but the organic growth of the building does not reach such a force of expression as in the building of Bazhenov and some of his compatriots. Here it is necessary to recall the works of M. Kazakov, a contemporary and friend of Bazhenov. His church of Metropolitan Philip of 1777-1788 in Moscow belongs to Palladian classicism with all the elements of its architecture: a portico, rectangular windows and windows with platbands, and finally, a light rotunda - all this is taken from the repertoire of classical forms. But the silhouette of this temple, its resemblance to a stepped pyramid involuntarily brings to mind the Naryshkin temples, which were before the eyes of Moscow architects and always attracted their attention.

As far as sculpture is concerned, Russia in the 18th century had no continuity with the tradition of the Middle Ages, which played an important role in all Western countries. However, thanks to the diligence of the professor of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, the French sculptor Gillet, a whole galaxy of Russian masters was formed at the end of the 18th century. Falcone's masterpiece "The Bronze Horseman" also contributed to the development of a taste for this type of art. However, Russian masters did not limit themselves to imitation.

In his terracotta sketch "Ajax Saves the Body of Patroclus", M. Kozlovsky, like many other masters of his time, was inspired by the ancient group "Mene-lai with the body of Patroclus" in the Uffizi. But in the work of the Russian master there is not a trace of that sluggish and artificial classicism that was planted then at the Academy. Ajax's tense body, in contrast to the body of his dead friend, looks stronger. The molding is underlined. The drama of the position of the hero, saving a friend in the midst of a hot battle, is of a romantic nature. M. Kozlovsky anticipates the sculptural experiments of T. Gericault. There is nothing surprising in the fact that, unlike his contemporaries, Kozlovsky highly appreciated Michelangelo ( V. Petrov, Sculptor Kozlovsky.- Zhurn. "Art", 1954, No. 1, p. 31.). Perhaps, in the posture of his Ajax, something indirectly reflected something from the valor of Suvorov's soldiers, which then caused general delight, something from that faith in man, which underlies the "art of winning" the great Russian commander.

In the 18th century, the peasant genre nowhere had such a peculiar character as in Russia. French painter J.-B. Leprince, as a foreign traveler, did not notice the miserable existence of Russian serfs. The interior view of a peasant hut in his drawing of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts looks like a mythological scene in the spirit of Bush. The hut is spacious and illuminated, like a palace hall, and, accordingly, the figures of its inhabitants are easily and gracefully conveyed. We find something completely different in the drawings of I. Ermenev, a Russian draftsman of the 18th century, until recently almost unknown, who has now occupied almost the same place in Russian art as Radishchev in literature ( About Ermenev: "Russian Academic Art School", M.-L., 1934; "Literary Heritage", vol. XXIX-XXX, M., 1937, p. 385.). (To understand Ermenev's mindset, one must remember that when he was in France, he witnessed the storming of the Bastille and captured this event in one of his drawings.) The plight of the Russian peasants, the poor, the blind, is expressed by Ermenev with merciless truthfulness. The balance of the composition, the lapidarity of the forms enhance the impact of these drawings, in which the master did not have to resort to the methods of grotesque and hyperbole. This Enlightenment artist, in fact, anticipated much of what later attracted the Wanderers. His small drawings look like sketches for monumental frescoes. Their power of influence surpasses even the epic images of M. Shibanov in his paintings "Peasant Wedding" and "Peasant Dinner" in the Tretyakov Gallery.

It must be assumed that D. Diderot would have approved of a portrait of a peasant woman, more precisely, a portrait of a serf actress Count Sheremetyev in a Russian folk costume (Tretyakov Gallery), since the “social state” of a person is very convexly expressed in it. This creation of a serf artist Ivan Argunov captivates with deep humanity , which was often lacking in secular portraits ( I. Danilova, Ivan Argunov, Moscow, 1949; T. Selinova, I. P. Argunov. - Zhurn. "Art", 1952, September-October.). The prettiness of a young woman, her spiritual purity - all this anticipates the peasant images in Venetsianov and in the novels of Turgenev and Tolstoy. It is necessary to compare this still somewhat timid and constrained image of a serf woman with the graceful secular portraits of the 18th century by F. Rokotov and D. Levitsky in order to measure the depth of the abyss that divided the then Russian society.

In world culture, the eighteenth century was marked by the Age of Enlightenment, which left its deep imprint on history. It was at this time that such a direction as baroque ends its existence, giving way to rococo. In Europe, a kind of conflict begins between a poorly educated, but thanks to books, active population and an educated government.

Born in England, thanks to the development of the intellectual movement, the basic ideas of the philosophy of enlightenment gradually began to spread to Germany, France, Russia and other European countries.

Particularly influential were the enlighteners from France - Diderot, Rousseau, D "Alamber, Helvetius, Voltaire, who called themselves "rulers of thoughts." They believed that an atheistic, rational way of thinking and knowledge could undermine the outdated order, change its moral and ethical foundations , and this will accelerate the course of the historical process and the coming social transformations.

The art of the Enlightenment, which propagated the greatness of Reason, Freedom and Happiness, actually tried to reflect these ideas. That is why literature brings to the fore such characters who are the embodiment of an inquisitive mind, a sense of justice, and are able to resist ignorance.

Literary rococo offers the reader colorfully described landscapes, word play, ironic speech, seasoned with allusions, frivolities and omissions. This style is especially noticeable in Voltaire, Montesquieu, Lesange.

In Russia, it began with Peter the Great. By the end of his reign, thanks to the reforms, the Russians were confidently moving towards "Europeanization", involved in the culture of the West. The development of science and education proceeded at a very rapid pace.

The era of enlightenment in Russia brought with it magazines, newspapers, and portraiture.

By the 18th century, Russian society, considered more or less educated, consisted only of representatives of the Moscow and St. Petersburg nobility, as well as very few intellectuals-raznochintsy.

For Europe, the standard was therefore the era of enlightenment in Russia made it possible to expand cultural ties with France, especially after the second half of the eighteenth century. The nobles were given the opportunity to get involved in art and literature during their travels abroad, and a decent command of the language of Diderot and Voltaire allowed them to easily study the works of these enlighteners. The educated Russian society read such works as "The Virgin of Orleans", "The Nun", "The Lame Demon", "Indiscreet Treasures", "Persian Letters" and many other masterpieces of the educational direction, which described "the fleeting holiday ruled by Venus and Bacchus" .

However, the Age of Enlightenment in Russia differed in many ways from the European version, and its seeds, "sprouted" on domestic soil, gave a somewhat different result than in the West.

The Russia of Peter the Great's time, and later under it, was very different from Voltaire's France. The brilliant empire, behind the facade of which there was an endless country with a population that did not raise its head from hard peasant labor, did not have a third estate, which, as in the West, would present its demands to the king.

The Age of Enlightenment in Russia was supported by the nobility and the autocracy, who used the new Western cultural trends to maintain the existing serf order.

And although after the death of Peter, Catherine ll continued his reformation, dreaming of becoming an “enlightened queen,” the true Russian enlighteners were Dashkova, Golitsyn, Sumarokov, Novikov, Fonvizin and others who tried to modernize Russian reality.