Ideological and aesthetic principles of the culture of classicism. What is ideology? (Thesis lecture)

1. The essence of ideology, its origin.

2. Political ideology, its specifics, functions.

3. National and state ideology, components and mechanism of formation.

1. The development experience of many states shows that they cannot develop successfully without their ideology. This also applies to the Republic of Belarus. During the ten-year independent life of our state, the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, the basic principles of domestic and foreign policy, were developed, and the totality of the ideas, principles, ideals and symbols contained in them forms the core of the state ideology.

State ideology is a specific type of ideology. It is this ideology that should ensure the consolidation of society and become the most important source of consent among various social and political forces. In order to transform the Republic of Belarus into a country of dynamic and sustainable development, it is necessary to form a new model of thinking, to find ideals and goals that could unite society on the path of national formation and democratization of society. The experience accumulated by the country urgently requires comprehension of what has been passed and determination of strategic goals for future development. There is an urgent need to develop a corresponding new ideology of statehood and social development, which could provide a detailed justification for the state’s development strategy.

The state must have a stable ideology, independent of the current situation, enriched by the historical experience of the people.

In the conditions of democratization of society, on the one hand, the pluralism of ideologies is expanding, and on the other, the problem of finding the foundations of identity is increasing. In these conditions, the state can and should become the spokesman and main instrument for the realization of specific interests and their consolidation. The set of ideas, perceptions and beliefs can be called state ideology. The principle of coordinating individual, group and common interests becomes dominant in its formation. State ideology in a democratic state is nothing more than a concentrated expression of the interests of the majority of citizens or national interests.

In the process of studying this topic, we will encounter a number of terms, such as “ideology”, “political ideology”, “state ideology”, “national idea”, etc. Their differences and characteristics will be made below. The term “ideology” [from the Greek idea– thought and logos- word, concept] was introduced by the French scientist Destutt de Tracy in his work “Etude on the Ability to Think” and developed it in his work “Elements of Ideology” (1801–1815, Vol. 1-4). In his understanding, ideology is a theory of ideas, i.e. the doctrine of the origin of human ideas, their interaction and transition from one to another.

The concept of “ideology” was originally used to designate the science of ideas as an independent field of knowledge, the subject of which is the patterns of emergence and evolution of ideas, and with them the entire set of theories that study the human psyche and consciousness. Destutt de Tracy and his contemporaries saw ideology as a special science that clarifies the causes and laws of the formation of ideas and forms the basis of such sciences as politics, pedagogy, and law.

A comprehensive analysis of ideology as a social phenomenon was carried out by K. Marx and F. Engels. They devoted a special work to this problem, “German Ideology (1845–1846).” Under ideology they understood the totality of ideas that make up the content of contemporary German philosophy. Since its initial principle is the position according to which the world is the embodiment of ideas, they called it “idealistic.” They qualified this idea as a false, perverted reflection of reality. This approach was contrasted with their own, according to which the thoughts and ideas of people are a product of their material life process. “It is not the consciousness of people that gives rise to their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness” (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Vol. 13, p. 7).

The classics of Marxism interpreted ideology as a class phenomenon rooted in the real contradictions of an antagonistic society. Consequently, in their opinion, specific class interests determine the nature of a particular ideology.

The application of the principle of historicism to the study of spiritual phenomena, the division of ideologies into progressive and reactionary, and the disclosure of the nature of their internal transformation led to an analysis of the process of the emergence and change of forms of ideologies, the disclosure of the process of formation of bourgeois ideology, its transformation from progressive to reactionary. The elements of the progressive social role that bourgeois ideology acquired in the early period of its establishment were revealed, and the thesis was proven that it subsequently lost its progressive role and became a brake on development. Thus, Marxism asserted the need to overcome the false and reactionary bourgeois ideology and create a new objective theory of society.

Marx and Engels put forward their theory as an alternative to bourgeois ideology to the ideological bourgeois consciousness, calling it scientific socialism, a proletarian worldview. They did not use the term “ideology” in relation to their theory, since in their understanding ideology was associated with false, untrue forms of consciousness. However, objectively, Marxism should be considered the ideology of the proletariat, striving and claiming the historical mission of transition from capitalism to socialism.

Marx and Engels did not consider their teaching an ideology. They emphasized that, unlike the ideologists, they were able to find a scientific method for understanding social processes. The term “scientific ideology” belongs to V.I. Lenin, who applied this concept to Marxism, the ideology of the proletariat. In the USSR, Marxist-Leninist ideology was adopted as the official state ideology. Classical Marxism arose in the concrete historical conditions of the mid-19th century. philosophical, socio-economic and sociological theory, with special claims to objectivity, scientificity, exclusivity, which later led in practice to the absolutization of a number of ideas and views.

A significant contribution to the development of the concept of ideologists was made by the German sociologist Karl Mannheim. In his book “Ideology and Utopia,” published in 1929, he analyzes the essence of ideology and tries to create a concept that explains the specifics of the reflection of social reality. K. Manheim believes that the prerequisite for the emergence of ideology is the feeling of mistrust and suspicion that a person usually experiences towards his opponent at each given stage of historical development.

K. Manheim recognized Marx’s position about the dependence of consciousness on their being, their system of views, i.e. ideology from real social, especially economic relations. At the same time, he believed that the views of various social groups were dictated by their immediate interests. In his opinion, the history of social thought is a clash of class-subjective worldviews, each of which is a “partial ideology,” i.e. a deliberately distorted and incomplete reflection of social reality. Consequently, any ideology represents the views of a class interested in maintaining the status quo, and therefore it is an apology (defense) of the existing social order. The ideological views of the ruling class are opposed by the equally biased and biased views of disadvantaged social strata, the essence of which is the justification for the need to destroy the existing order. K. Manheim designates their ideas not as ideology, but as utopia.

Currently, the understanding of ideology as a form of expression of opposing social groups and communities has become established. Ideology is a system of views and ideas that recognize and evaluate people’s attitudes to reality and to each other, social problems and conflicts, and also contain goals and programs of social activity aimed at consolidating or changing these social relations. In this context, ideology includes a worldview, slogans and action directives related to the living conditions and practical aspirations of certain communities of people.

The idea of ​​ideology was formed in ancient times, starting with mythological systems and religious teachings, because in them the attitude of people to reality and to each other was realized and assessed. Subsequently, the idea of ​​ideology developed into the form of systematized, logically interconnected ideas and concepts, the classic examples of which were liberalism, conservatism and socialism.

Since the emergence of ideology, there have been different ideas about its role. However, despite all the divergent views on ideology, various theorists, neither K. Mannheim, nor R. Michels, nor G. Mosca, nor V. Pareto, did not deny the commonality that ideology is an effective and indispensable social tool. With the help of ideology, the goals of social development are developed, social communities are united, and the social energy of people is accumulated. This means that ideology fulfills goal-setting, integrating And mobilizing functions(although various sources name up to 6-7 functions), therefore it plays a vital role in the life of society.

Hence, ideology is like this social tool, without which the functioning of the state is impossible. In modern conditions, any social activity presupposes as prerequisites certain ideas of people about the existing conditions of life, their awareness of unsatisfied needs and interests, goals and aspirations, and justification for the choice of means necessary to achieve it. Without this, any social actions are meaningless and hardly possible. Ideology consolidates the efforts of people to create the preconditions for their activities and gives the necessary meaning to the social activity of individuals, groups and communities. If individuals and their groups are free from any ideological ideas, then they are not social subjects. They become such as they become carriers of certain views. It is no coincidence that K. Marx wrote that “theory becomes a material force as soon as it takes possession of the masses” (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. T.1. P.422).

As a form of consciousness, ideology is complex. While claiming to be a systematic presentation of its content, ideology essentially does not have its own system of concepts and uses the concepts of all the humanities. Any ideology is a set of philosophical, political, economic, legal, ethical, aesthetic and religious ideas, views, ideas, the bearers of which are individuals, social groups and communities, the content of which meets their interests. Therefore, unlike other forms of social consciousness, the content of ideology is heterogeneous, sometimes creating the impression of eclecticism and inconsistency of its elements.

Ideology always represents a certain system of views and ideas in which people’s attitudes to social reality and to each other are recognized and assessed. Therefore, the external forms of its expression are socio-political doctrines, teachings and concepts. Moreover, ideology can be fixed in the form of one systematized teaching (world religions, Marxism) or can be scattered in the form of diverse texts. Mixed options may arise between them.

Ideology has certain internal patterns of its own development. Any ideological construction arises on the basis of the use of concepts and ideas that existed in other forms of consciousness (in religion, science, art) and, being framed in the form of a theoretical concept, begins its independent development. Such a set of ideas developing over a more or less long historical time is called an ideological movement.

The peculiarity of ideology as a form of consciousness is the close connection of its content with the interests of certain social groups and communities. Therefore, its types are distinguished: slave, feudal, bourgeois, proletarian and petty-bourgeois; and also on the other side: national, state, party, political, official, opposition, etc. According to the spheres of social life, ideology is classified into humanitarian, economic, social. There are also other types of classifications.

We can conclude that each social subject is trying to present his system of socio-political views as an expression of the interests of the entire society: accurate or distorted, objective or subjective, but society as a whole. Moreover, this applies equally to both ascending, progressive social subjects and descending, reactionary political subjects. In fact, according to K. Marx, the ideology of the dominant social force is the dominant system of ideas, ideals and values ​​in society.

2. Political ideology represents one of her species, has its own specifics. This is a relatively systematized set of concepts, ideas and representations in which various subjects of political relations - individuals, social groups, classes, nations, societies - realize their position in the system of social relations, evaluate the existing socio-political reality, express their interests and justify ways and the means of their implementation with the help of state power. Or in other words, it is a system of ideas and ideas that justifies the claims of a particular social group to power or its use in order to realize its interests.

The specificity of political ideology is that the content of a particular ideology depends on the interests of the social subject from which this ideology comes. For this is an ordered system of ideas about existing reality or its changes from the point of view of a certain group, community. Therefore, it may be characterized by bias and subjectivity in assessing reality.

According to L.S. Sanisteban, when analyzing the content of any ideology, two plans should be distinguished: explicit and hidden. An explicit plan in the content of ideology is represented by openly put forward ideas, theses, and arguments. After establishing the explicit side in the content of ideology, the implicit, hidden side should be revealed. In other words, whose interests are expressed and whose political aspirations and actions are justified and protected by this ideology.

Since political ideologies are internally contradictory, this may be the reason for differences in understanding their content. Therefore, sometimes, on the basis of the same ideology, opposing political movements can arise, for example, social democracy and communism.

Political ideology as a form of social consciousness performs the following social functions.

Orientation function– sets a system of meanings and orientations of human activity.

Mobilization function– encourages active political activity and organizes society for their implementation.

Integrative function– gives meaning to any political action and gives it significance.

Shock absorption function– serves to ease social tension in a situation when a discrepancy arises between the needs of society and the real possibilities of meeting them.

Function of expressing and protecting the interests of a certain group (social)– arises on the basis of the interests of a social group and is expressed in the opposition of the interests of this group to the interests of other groups. Cognitive (cognitive) function - reflects, on the one hand, objective reality in the process of formation of socio-political theories, concepts and doctrines, and on the other, enables social services to obtain a certain amount of objective knowledge both about the socio-political reality itself and about its place in the system of social relations.

Legitimizing (justifying) function- lies in the fact that ideology, by its nature, always strives to provide justification for one or another political system.

Normative function– sets the social subject a system of norms of social behavior and thereby outlines value parameters, criteria for assessing certain political phenomena, events, processes.

To implement the function of ideology, it is important to determine the levels of political ideology.

Levels of political ideology:

· theoretical, conceptual level;

· program and political level;

· updated level.

Theoretical, conceptual level– the most abstract (scientific level), at which the ideals and values ​​of a certain class, nation, state are revealed, and basic provisions concerning the main spheres of society and human life are formed.

Program and political level– in it, the demands of the elite or counter-elite are translated from the language of socio-philosophical principles into the language of programs and slogans, and a normative basis is formed for making management decisions and political behavior of citizens. The requirement of this level is maximum accessibility to the largest possible number of people, orienting them towards political action.

Updated level– allows the elite (through the study of public opinion) to determine the degree of mastery of the ideas, goals, principles of a particular ideology, its influence on the practical activities of people, their political behavior.

There are moral needs to justify the activities of subjects of political relations, and political ideologies make it possible to avoid the feeling of guilt that can seize people who commit certain political actions. Therefore, all ideological and political teachings appeal to the values ​​of society and try to present the corresponding political actions in such a way that they are aimed at realizing the values ​​accepted in society. Political action no longer appears as an arbitrary expression of someone’s interests, but as the implementation of generally accepted moral, ethical, religious and other principles.

It should be noted that all ideologies are associated with the interests of various social groups that share them. Therefore, while defending certain provisions, they can distort reality. This limits the cognitive function of ideology. It is not enough to put forward the most correct, most grounded ideas; it is important to put them into practice. But socio-political reality is not always ready for this.

The specificity of ideology is that it is focused on the expression fundamental material interests of a significant social subject. And these are primarily economic and political interests. These are the interests of power, the desire to occupy a dominant role in any social stratum, class, society, state, etc. These are also financial and economic interests closely related to power, achieving wealth and material well-being. This means that the goal of any ideology, its nerve, is economic interest, power-financial, political essence. The most important object and interest of any ideology is state power, financial and economic power. The goals can be global or local (on the scale of the system, state, relations of various social groups), but the essence is the same - claims to economic and political power.

3. Nations, as state-organized communities of people, act as one of the main subjects of political relations. Consequently, they are also bearers of certain philosophical, economic, political, legal, ethical and religious ideas, in which they recognize themselves as an integrity, their position in the world around them, their interests as a whole, and with which they justify their socio-political aspirations and actions . Among such ideas, each people develops a certain amount of ideas regarding its past, ways of forming it into a single whole, ways of maintaining its integrity, forms of relationships with other peoples, goals of historical development. This set of views can be called national ideology.

The dominant ideas in the national consciousness, with which a given people expresses the meaning of historical consciousness, are called national idea. The content of the national idea is answers to questions concerning the meaning of life: the historical fate of the people, its history, place in the world, purpose of existence, historical cultural mission, relations with neighbors, etc.

Nations are not born, but become. Only those communities that are able to realize, express and constantly renew the historical meaning of existence prove their viability. On the one hand, it is the self-awareness, self-identification of the nation, and on the other, its message to the world about its existence, its interests and values ​​as a unique historical community of people. The national idea grows naturally from the totality of national traits and values ​​of a certain people.

National ideology as a form of expression of the self-awareness of the people appears in specific historical conditions, develops and is formed along with the restoration and development of the nation itself. In various historical conditions, from era to era, national ideology can be modified, change its content and form. But at the same time, the content of national ideology retains its genetic basis, i.e. basic ideas, postulates and values ​​that reflect the meaning of historical existence, the mental makeup and national character of a given people. The loss by a people for some reason of its basic values ​​or their replacement with the values ​​of another people is a sign of degeneration of the national identity of a given community or its assimilation with another national community.

Since the exponent and main instrument for realizing the interests of any people is its state, the constituting national ideology, the set of ideas, ideas, beliefs, and aspirations can also be called the state ideology or the ideology of a given state. There is a connection between ideology and the state. Ideology can be viewed as a doctrine of state power and public policy. The state, as a form of self-organization into a single whole of a certain community of people, from the moment of its constitution becomes the bearer of the ideology of a given people, or the bearer of national ideology. Therefore, state ideology can only be a national ideology. And if a set of ideas contradicts the fundamental interests of a given nation, it cannot be a national and, accordingly, a state ideology.

The concept of “national-state ideology” is also used. A state-organized community always needs a state ideology that allows it to unite a people or peoples in the name of the future, in the name of a goal. Without ideology, the state is ineffective. The destruction of ideology leads to the destruction of the state itself. An example is the sad experience of the USSR. The idea of ​​ideologization, which was introduced into public consciousness by the media under the conditions of perestroika, led to the destruction of the state itself.

A well-formulated state ideology contributes to the effective development of the state. Seneca compared the state to a ship: “Whoever does not know which harbor he is sailing to, there is no favorable wind for him.” The absence of a state ideology that consolidates and unites the people negatively affects the development of various spheres of life and the public psyche.

The concept of “state ideology” should not be abandoned on the grounds that this concept may be associated with the ideology of the ruling government. In many democratic countries, one party replaces another, but none of them encroaches on the fundamental values ​​​​shared by a given society. The force that makes an attempt on this will inevitably lose its national status and leave the political arena.

State ideology is a complex formation. Values ​​of a cultural-historical, political, economic and socio-humanitarian nature can be considered as constituent elements.

Cultural and historical component of state ideology is a set of established ideas and ideas about the origin and formation of a given people, the features of the development of its self-awareness and formation as an original community, nation, as well as ideas about the place and role of the people in the world historical process, the formation of its ethnic and national-cultural characteristics in the context development of world civilization as a whole.

Political component of state ideology- this is a complex of ideas and ideas of a given people about the conditions for the formation and characteristics of the institutions of state power, about the essence of the country’s political system, about the ways of its further development. This includes ideas about the nature of the country’s socio-political system, the goals and ways of modernization, the place and role of various social forces, political parties and movements, and public formations in the socio-political process. It also covers foreign policy aspects of the life of the people, as well as a set of ideas about the place and role of the people in the world political process.

Economic component of state ideology- this is the whole complex of measures taken by the state to develop the national economy. These are the people’s ideas about the peculiarities of the organization of the country’s economic life, their attitude towards various types of property, forms of management, distribution of national wealth, etc. These are ideas and ideas about the place and role of the national economy in the world economy.

Socio-humanitarian component of state ideology is a complex of ideas implemented by the state regarding the relationship between society and people. These are the priorities of state policy in the field of realization of human rights and freedoms, in the field of science, culture and education. Each state has its own approaches to regulating family relations, moral standards, etc.

State ideology has several levels: high, middle and low.

The highest level of state ideology compose literary works that claim to be scientific, containing a conceptual systemic analysis of various aspects of the life of a given society. These are textbooks, treatises, monographs, dissertations, articles, reports of a scientific nature.

Average level of state ideology draw up state documents that set out the basic principles, values, ideals of the people, the main directions and objectives of the state’s domestic and foreign policy. This is the Constitution of the country as a set of ideological and political postulates that form the basis of the national state ideology; legislative acts, government programs, directives, concepts, doctrines, etc.

Lowest level of state ideology- means of human activity in which the content of state ideology is promoted - political symbols, books, articles, lectures, fiction, audio and video products, works of art, university lectures, school lessons, etc. The spread of ideology is associated with the problem of preserving its true content, because in the process of assimilation its true meaning may be lost.

At the mass level, a simplification of ideology is inevitable, but this is not an obstacle to the promotion of national-state ideology among various segments of the population. Political symbols are widely used in the propaganda of national-state ideology. The purpose of symbols is to reflect reality into consciousness and provide a connection between this reality and the perceiving subject. Political symbols consolidate and promote significant aspects of national and state life. State symbols usually include the flag, coat of arms and anthem of the state (in the Republic of Belarus these are the State Flag, the State Emblem and the State Anthem).

The attributes of statehood may include phenomena of a symbolic nature, indicating significant aspects of the life of the state and people. These include historical dates, political rituals, architectural structures, sculptural monuments and memorials, memorial sites, state insignia, banknotes, political toponymy, national and political figures.

Political symbols can be concepts that express the national-state ideology: ideal, motto, project, slogan; appeal, poster, password, poster, program, decision, decree, decree, order, law, constitution, parliamentarian. All of them are widely used in political life.

How is the mechanism of state ideology implemented? The production of political ideas is carried out not only by individuals, but also by organizations and institutions. So, the totality of individuals, organizations and institutions called upon to engage in the formation of state ideology and its dissemination represents the mechanism of state ideology.

There are two options for forming the mechanism of state ideology: a centralized state ideological apparatus and an ideological mechanism without external signs of centralization. In the USSR and other countries of the former socialist camp, there was a centralized apparatus, a network of specialized ideological centers. But since all this happened under pressure from above and was strictly imposed, this mechanism met resistance from a significant part of the population.

The mechanism of state ideology in Western countries was formed as an integral element of the process of formation and development of state institutions and civil society. In addition to the authorities, universities, research centers, public foundations, parties, movements, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, etc. were involved in the dissemination of political ideas there. Ideologists are usually government advisers, secret service officers, writers, journalists, politicians, political scientists, philosophers, historians, sociologists, etc. These people form a coherent ideological environment, as A. Zinoviev notes. – They make a selection, systematize ideas and teachings, publish and republish the works of certain authors, prepare reference books and textbooks. They act in a very coordinated manner in order to earn a living, make a career, and become famous (see Zinovieva A.A. “On the way to a super society. M., 2000”).

Russian academician N.N. Moiseev emphasizes the growing responsibility of the intelligentsia for the fate of society: “And if this layer of people had a certain general understanding of the situation, a common idea of ​​the desired future, of a system of priorities would be formed, this could have a serious impact on the fate of the country and would help formulate that system of views , which are sometimes called national goals. Without an idea of ​​national ideas, without a definite vision of prospects, it is very difficult for any people to survive, and it is impossible to preserve culture. Society and people become defenseless.” [Moiseev N.N. Russia at the crossroads // Social and humanitarian knowledge, 1999, No. 4, pp. 173–174]

The literature suggests that the production of ideas and their renewal should be carried out by employees of the government apparatus, research centers, university teachers, workers in the media, and cultural institutions. The formation of civil society is impossible without the coordination of individual, group and common interests and their balance. State ideology should be a concentrated expression of the opinions of the majority of community members based on a pluralism of worldviews, and the government should take care of realizing the fundamental interests of the nation as a whole.

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The scientific idea of ​​ideology was not formed immediately, but gradually, starting with ideological systems and religious teachings in the process of people’s mastery of social reality and the development of society itself, scientific ideas about it.

2. Ideology can play various roles in society, and it has certain internal patterns. Political ideology as a form of social consciousness performs the most important functions in the development of society.

3. National ideology in specific historical conditions can become a doctrine of state power and state policy.

Ideology is, of course, a spiritual education, due to the fact that, within the framework of its content, it constantly goes beyond the limits of everyday experience. However, the formed and current ideology of society has a predominantly practical purpose, which is why it unites people who share its principles, and also determines the motivation for their deeds and actions.

Interpretation of the concept in question

There are quite a few interpretations of this term.

1. According to the sociologist K. Marx, ideology is a false consciousness that expresses the special interests of the corresponding class, which are presented as public opinion.
2. Sociologist K. Mannheim interpreted the concept in question as a distorted, incorrect reflection of reality within society, which expresses the interests of specific classes or groups seeking to preserve the established order of things.
3. Sociologist A. Gouldner believed that ideology is the result of socio-cultural changes that are associated with the crisis of classical methods of social reproduction, as well as the formation of a new type of rationality in European societies.

History of ideology

The main forms of political consciousness are political psychology and ideology, among which an increasing role belongs to the second form. According to the ancient Greek interpretation, ideology is the “study of ideas”, as it consists of two roots: “idea”, “logos”. This term was originally used in the works of Plato. His work combined a deep interest in social relations and philosophical idealism. It is the first root that is important, which was used by ancient Greek thinkers and served as the etymological designation of the newest field of knowledge, namely ideology. Subsequently, it was used to characterize social life in the form of its phenomenon and element of the consciousness of society.

The concept of “idea” appeared as a characteristic of being to designate the predominantly immaterial world. In addition, from the very beginning of the introduction of this concept into the scientific sphere, it was a kind of symbol of the opposition between phenomenon and essence, material and ideal, which has been preserved within the scientific world to this day. Ideology is the result of the growth of scientific knowledge, in particular its social orientation. Although it, together with the social sciences, continues to develop in opposition to the latter, both areas emerge due to the crisis of the “obsolete regimes”, as well as the various systems of authority founded by them. Changes in traditional society lead to the emergence of new expressions and new ways of explaining them, new interpretations of social life and corresponding projects for its transformation.

Like religion, ideology pays close attention to everyday life and strives, so to speak, to reconcile existing worlds. Public organizations turned to ideology as part of the defense of rationally based, public projects for the restructuring of society, relying on reason and evidence. In this regard, ideology marks the emergence of a new mode of political discourse (principles according to which reality is presented and classified in relation to certain time periods), calling for action, but not justifying it by attracting tradition or authority, or purely emotional rhetoric. But nevertheless, ideology is closely interconnected with the formation of a nation and a national state. Over the past few centuries they have stimulated and complemented each other.

Most of the political events of the period of maturation, the Great French Bourgeois Revolution, were based on dynamic and radical changes both in practical life and in the consciousness of French society. This phenomenon interested many French scientists in the sphere of social consciousness as an opportunity to control society through ideas. In 1796, the French scientist A. D. de Tracy used the term “ideology” in one of his works (“Etude on the ability to think”) to characterize the science of ideas. He subsequently developed this concept in a multi-volume work entitled “Elements of Ideology.” The scientist justifies this by the desire of large owners to appropriate state power, using the services of outstanding scientists and writers who managed to turn public opinion against the regime existing at that time. Since that moment, in many social sciences, various kinds of views have appeared regarding this socio-political phenomenon, but still the majority of researchers were of the opinion regarding the idea of ​​​​the content and significance of ideology as a political tool that is capable of developing specific goals for direct political development, as well as uniting people , unite their political energy, ensure strengthening and, as a result, play a significant role in public life.

Typology of ideologies

In the 19th century there were the following main ideologies.

1. Liberal (within the framework of classical liberalism, this is a religious-secular ideology: the coexistence of religious-Protestant values ​​and secular liberal-educational values; and neoliberalism is only secular: the idea of ​​privatization of state property).
2. Conservative (ideas of the inviolability of existing traditions of the past).
3. Social democratic (communist ideology: a theoretically formed narrow system of worldviews).
4. Nationalist (fascism: exaggerated manifestation of deep nationalist feelings).

Ideology of state and politics: definition

The relationship between these two phenomena is the most important issue within the philosophical and theoretical aspect. This significance is due to the need to identify the essence of the differences between such concepts as “ideology of the state” and “political ideology”.

It would be correct to differentiate them by content. Thus, the ideological work of all political parties that strive for power and state ideological activity are completely different phenomena (types of political activity). They have different goals, objectives, scales and even the means used.

Firstly, state ideology and politics are qualitatively different social phenomena regarding their essence. The first is the program of life of a particular state in the current and long term, and the second is a specific form of abstract logical thinking within a certain topic (a system of ideas and ideas that express the interests, ideals and worldview of a social community, grouped by a political party whose goal is to conquer or maintaining political power).

Their distinctive features

As has already become clear, these ideologies pursue different goals. Thus, state ideology is aimed at solving the problems of simplifying existing power relations, and political ideology is aimed at gaining power.

Also, state ideology and politics have fundamentally different carriers (subjects). In the first case - a specific state or nation as the overwhelming majority of its citizens, and in the second - only part of the state or nation.

As for the mechanism of functioning of these ideologies, we can say that state ideology is implemented through a powerful, branched system of various government institutions, and ideology is still deprived of such powerful means of disseminating its ideals, values ​​and ideas. However, this state of affairs can change dramatically, due to the fact that a political party that is guided by a certain doctrine is able to achieve the desired political power either peacefully or through revolution (as a state ideology). For example, such an ideology as the official nationality (autocracy-Orthodoxy-nationality), which emerged in the 19th century. as the ideology of Russia (the Russian state), it was unable to resist the pressure of the social democratic one and was forced to step aside.

Another distinctive feature of the concepts under consideration is the criterion of ideological source: state ideology is closely tied to a particular state or nation and is based on its foundations and traditions (this ensures its stability), and political ideology crosses state borders (for example, social democratic, liberal ideology, etc.) . P.). They have the opportunity to theoretically and materially influence from the outside (ideology is developed by theorists of a particular state, but its implementation is carried out outside its borders).

You can also turn to the historical premises of these ideologies. Here the picture is as follows: state ideology takes shape during its emergence as a religious consciousness (mainly at the earliest stages of state development), and political ideology is developed at a higher level of social development (when powerful social classes enter the political arena).

But it is worth clarifying that these ideologies should not be separated 100%, since they are organically interconnected and act as a dialectical identity of opposite sides of social life.

The relationship between legal ideology and politics

It is known that law and the state are closely interconnected both genetically, functionally, and substantially, which is justified by the presence of a common denominator - political power (it is materialized through the laws it creates).

According to the Saratov scientist A.V. Malko, legal policy is a systematic, consistent and scientifically based activity of both state and municipal bodies, aimed at creating an effective regulatory mechanism (legal), as well as at the civilizational use of legal means to achieve the intended goals.

He also highlighted its characteristic features:

• relationship with legal activities;
• diversity (criminal, family and marriage, constitutional, financial, etc.);
• the ability to manage complex processes of legal evolution of a particular country while increasing the organization and orderliness of the legal component of life.

According to A.P. Korobova, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between concepts such as “legal policy” and “legal ideology”, because otherwise, if legal policy is interpreted as a complex of ideas, then it will be impossible to distinguish it from legal ideology.

Many agree with the opinion of S.S. Alekseev regarding the degree of correlation of the concepts under consideration. Legal ideological ideology is the closest basis for policy in this area. So, we can say that legal ideology is an idea, program, model of state legal activity, and legal policy is legal activity in itself (its direct, rough form). The first concept precedes the second.

Social component of ideology

The specificity of the phenomenon under consideration is its emergence on the basis of economic relations already existing in society with a reflection of reality through the so-called prism of these relations.

Within the framework of a class society, economic relations are class interests, which is why the peculiarity of ideology is its presentation in the form of a reflection of reality through the same prism of the interests of specific classes, their systems of views, ideas.

Ideology is the self-consciousness of classes, a theoretical weapon (this is the main social function). If we talk about her from the point of view of the exploiting classes, her theories justified oppression and social injustice. And within the working class, it served to liberate it in particular and society as a whole from oppression and exploitation, as well as to build a communist society. In the first case, ideology is illusory in nature, and in the second it is scientific (Marxism-Leninism).

Conditions for the formation of this phenomenon

Socio-historical practice proves that the formation of ideology implies the presence of two conditions:

• the presence of a specific objective picture (objective laws of society and nature known by the ideologist and science);
• there must be an ideal, subjective reason, some stability, a significant tendency in social psychology.

In a situation where social ideology arises for no reason (not reflecting a significant trend in social psychology), then it is “the voice of one crying in the wilderness.” It doesn’t matter what kind of ideology promises people, they will still not need it. Conversely, every ideology that influences social life always has a specific cause.

There have been cases in history when public ideology arose without the necessary conditions (without scientific support and social laws). Then it is not recognized as an ideology in its essence, but is a utopia or a certain religion, and cannot act as a materially meaningful, immediate, productive goal of people. However, ideology can have extensive spiritual or ethical value, acting as a distant, teleological goal, due to which it can still attract the attention, minds and souls of many people.

The phenomenon under consideration within the framework of modernity

Many modern (political) ideologies consist of those that develop along the path of radical traditions. They consider it necessary to make fundamental changes in the political and social system. It is customary to distinguish radicalism into right and left. The first - mainly in the form of a fascist movement.

Today, a dual perception of such a phenomenon as “fascism” has formed. Some consider it a specific form of political ideology that developed in Italy, Spain, and Germany in the 20s. XX century and acting as a means of exiting these countries from the severe post-war crisis, while others are a meaningless ideology that arises in places where political forces are aimed at suppressing democracy and seizing power.

The central place in fascist ideology is occupied by ideas regarding military expansion, racism, anti-communism, chauvinism, the use of radical measures against all workers and the working class, the widespread spread of state-monopoly techniques and methods of regulating the economy and politics, demagoguery to strengthen the positions of fascist organizations and parties.

Russian ideology of the future

Many experts believe that the main conditions and factors for its formation are those listed below.

1. De-prioritizing political goals. Understanding ideology as a system of values, intended government guidelines, influencing ethical comfort, mentality, spiritual health, interpersonal relationships, positive moods in society.
2. Approval of a system of competent value and goal orientations, focused on uniting society according to the priority principle “for”, regardless of confessional, strata-class, political, ethnocultural, gender views and differences regarding the prosperity of Russia.
3. Appeal to invaluable historical experience with regards to ensuring the development and interrelation of the cultural identity of indigenous Russian ethnic groups in a single all-Russian culture.
4. A detailed study with subsequent consideration of traditional interests, global claims of our civilization in the form of a chronological hierarchy to ensure national security and state leadership on the world stage.
5. Actively positioning the necessity and importance of Russia for the entire world community in the form of a strong “bridge” between East and West.

The national ideology of our time should become the basis for the National Doctrine of Russian development being developed today in the future. But first, it is necessary to finally decide on the role and place of Russia within the world community.

Lecture 15. Political ideologies

1. Concept, structure and functions of ideology

2. Liberalism

3. Conservatism

4. Communism. Socialism. Social democracy.

5. Anarchism

The term " ideology“introduced by the French scientist Antoine de Tracy (1754-1836), who defined ideology as the doctrine of ideas, which allows us to formulate the fundamental principles of politics and ethics. This is exactly how ideology was initially understood - as the science of ideas that govern people’s behavior (idea - idea and logos - word, concept, knowledge). However, very soon, ideology began to be understood as “illusory, false consciousness” (K. Marx), as a set of “clever demagogic tricks” (V. Pareto), as “a method of voluntary mystification” (K. Mannheim), designed to manipulate public consciousness for the sake of ruling class. It was this understanding of ideology that guided the supporters of the so-called “de-ideologization” of public consciousness during the perestroika period of 1985-1991. However, it soon became clear that it was impossible in principle to get rid of ideology. In place of the overthrown ideology another ideology immediately appears. Human society cannot live without one or another ideology, which constitutes, according to the definition given by N.M. Kanashevich, “a theoretically systematized set of socio-political ideas, which reflects and expresses the self-awareness of certain social subjects - classes, groups, parties, public movements – their attitude to one or another side of reality (views, interests, needs, goals, intentions, mindsets).” We cannot help but cite a very successful, in our opinion, definition of ideology, announced by the President of the Republic of Belarus A.G. Lukashenko at a meeting with senior officials of republican and local government bodies in 2003: “Ideology is a system of ideas, views, perceptions, feelings and beliefs about the goals of development of society and man, as well as the means and ways to achieve these goals, embodied in value orientations, beliefs, volitional actions that encourage people to strive for their goals.” Thus, ideology is a system of ideals and value preferences of people in the sphere of political relations. And in this context, ideology turns out to be an extremely important factor determining the political behavior of people.

Ideology, being an element of social consciousness, is hierarchically structured into the following levels.

The level of scientific concepts that systematically describe the socio-political ideals and values ​​of society and individual social groups, layers and classes.

The level of programs of political parties, which formulate specific political guidelines and demands of certain social entities.

The activity level, manifested in specific facts of socio-normative behavioral and symbolic embodiment of the dominant ideology in the life of society and its individual members.

The ideological sphere of society is also structured by social strata and classes. We can safely say that each social class and each social layer has its own ideology, reflecting its specific interests, goals, ideals, as well as an understanding of how these ideals should be achieved. The differences between class or estate ideologies can be significant, even to the point of antagonistic intransigence, or they can be insignificant, only in details. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus postulates the equality of all ideologies. However, in reality, one ideology dominates and receives state status in a given country.

The ideology of each country has its own national specificity, taking on state form. However, the content of any ideology is social and class and therefore can be supranational. Ideologies have no national-state boundaries. This is evidenced by the existence of international alliances on an ideological basis: party alliances, for example, the Socialist International, religious, confessional and political, for example, NATO or, at one time, the Warsaw Pact. As an ideology on a global scale, we can talk about the concept of universal human values. Thus, as we see, the ideological sphere has a very complex structure.

In any modern society, ideology is given great importance. This is understandable, since ideology performs a number of extremely important social functions. Let's list the main ones.

Ideology performs an important function of legitimizing the ruling subject of power and the political regime as a whole, explaining, justifying and justifying it to contemporaries and descendants.

The consolidating and mobilizing functions of ideology are manifested in the fact that it unites the people with a common understanding of the goal of social development, and also mobilizes the masses for coordinated political action through the unity of means to achieve this goal. It does not even change the fact that in reality these socio-political ideals express the interests of only a part of society, often a very small one. State ideology gives them the status of the most important social values.

The socio-normative function of ideology results in the creation of a system of social norms that determine the behavior of individuals both in the sphere of political relations and in other spheres of human life, including private ones.

Ideology performs a constructive function when it creates a new or strengthens an old value system.

Ideology becomes a destructive force when it is a means of criticizing the existing regime from the standpoint of the counter-elite for the sake of establishing a new political system. It is clear that both last functions are interdependent and interconnected.

The socio-psychological, or “therapeutic” function of ideology is expressed in providing the individual with the vital foundations of his existence, in justifying everyday or moral difficulties. In this sense, ideology performs the same functions as religion, creating psychological comfort for a person in the presence of real problems.

These are the essence, structure and main functions of ideology as such. Now let's take a closer look at the basic ideological concepts.

TO Classicism, like Baroque, is a reaction to the collapse of the ideals of the Renaissance. If a creative person turns into a monster, sweeping away everything on the way to his creative goal, his will should be limited. Baroque seeks this limitation in the will of the Creator, classicism - in the will of the state. Baroque seeks to know the truth through humility before the Lord and mystical revelation, classicism - through service to the state and strict obedience to state law. Baroque perceives the culture and philosophy of antiquity through the prism of medieval Christian mysticism, which identified Plato and Virgil with the forerunners of Christ, who guessed and anticipated the foundations of his teaching. Classicism returns to a formalized, rationalistic perception of antiquity as a set of norms and rules characteristic of representatives of the scientific drama of the early Renaissance. The philosopher who became the spiritual leader of the new, rationalistic era is Descartes: “I think, therefore I exist.”

By the early 30s of the 17th century, classicism seemed preferable in France both for artists and for the authorities. The cruel, disorganized element of the plays of A. Hardy and his less prolific and gifted brothers, their lack of internal task, the tasteful unpretentiousness of mannerist plays began to disgust the discerning public and discerning poets. They missed the idea and rigor of form. And these sentiments helped them unite for some time around the ideas of power.

But it’s too early to tell students about this. In this lesson, they will become familiar with the theory of classicism, try to reconstruct classicist rules and norms and apply them in practice, reflect on their necessity and the limitations that they impose on the artist and the viewer. The knowledge gained will be useful to them in subsequent lessons. It is assumed that students are already familiar with the baroque picture of the world (lessons No. 1 and 2).

P The classroom space is divided into five work areas to create space for presentation. It remains to divide the class into four (to begin with) working groups. At the same time, let's repeat the previous lesson.

We prepare four cards: surprise, disgust, grief, blame- one per group.

Other cards for each:

a hand with an extended index finger facing the partner;

fingers are clasped, arms are clasped above the head or lowered to the waist;

the head is turned to the right, the arms are extended to the left and seem to push the partner away;

arms bent at the elbows, raised to shoulder level, palms facing the audience.

Students draw cards and group together to find matches.

EXERCISE 1

Groups receive a set of cards and a table to fill out.

Read the cards and remember the situation in France in the 17th century.

By the end of the 16th century, the royal power in France, with the assistance of the townspeople, completed the unification of the country, breaking the power of the large feudal lords.

As the bourgeoisie strengthened, the nobility, which existed on its feudal rent, royal pensions and handouts, weakened. However, the nobility still remained the dominant class, whose privileges were inviolable until the Great French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century.

Some layers and groups of the nobility periodically rebelled against absolutism - both during the years of the so-called religious wars (1562–1594), and during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu (1624–1643), and during the period of the Fronde (1648–1653); nevertheless, the nobility as a whole, as the bourgeoisie strengthened, clung to royal power, which provided a stable guarantee of the preservation of its privileges.

Under Louis XIII (1610–1643), the reins of government were in the hands of Cardinal Richelieu. This famous minister brought to its apogee the centralization and monarchical discipline inherent in French absolutism. He put an end to the political independence of the Huguenots, suppressed a number of peasant uprisings and feudal conspiracies, and created a strong system of central and local government.

Richelieu founded the French Academy, surrounded himself with poets, artists and critics, seeking to put literature and art at the service of his politics. He contributed to the formation of classicism as a national style.

After the deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII, the five-year-old Louis XIV (1643-1715) ascended the throne. His mother Anna of Austria became his regent, and Cardinal Mazarin became the de facto ruler of the state. The feudal nobility made an attempt to regain its former power. At the same time, the Parisian parliament, oppressed by Richelieu's policies, rose up. A civil war called the Fronde (1648–1653) began. It was a broad anti-monarchist movement, into which representatives of different classes were drawn.

Under Louis XIV, after the suppression of the Fronde, a period of relatively peaceful development of the absolute monarchy began, its highest flowering.

Louis XIV patronized poets, artists, musicians, and actors. Magnificent festivities and performances took place at court, on which huge amounts of money were spent.

René Descartes (1596–1650), great French philosopher and scientist. Descartes' philosophy represented a peculiar combination of materialistic and idealistic elements. His doctrine of bodily substance was based on a materialistic interpretation of the phenomena of the external world. On the contrary, his doctrine of spiritual substance was idealistic, because Descartes derived the existence of man and the entire external world from thinking (he stated in his famous thesis: “I think, therefore I exist”).

Descartes' book “Discourse on Method” (1637) was a signal to fight against all kinds of liberties in the field of thinking. Descartes formulated here the main ideological aspirations of France during the period of absolutism, developing and deepening the rationalistic thinking that appeared in the previous century and was a characteristic feature of the early bourgeois culture of the Renaissance.

The opposition of reason and feeling in the dualistic philosophy of Descartes.

Try to imagine yourself in the place of Cardinal Richelieu and his followers. You need to create a new ideology and aesthetics that meets the realities of the time. To do this, you need to fill in the empty cells in the “Classicism” column.

The groups meet, fill out the table, then choose a speaker and an expert. The speaker of the group that finished the work first tells how they filled out the table and argues the group’s position; the remaining speakers either agree, or add their own, or put forward counterarguments. Then the experts confer and choose the most accurate solutions, in their opinion. At the end of the task, the experts return to their groups.

The teacher’s task is to help reach the following triad: King, Rationalism, Following duty. (Although they may be worded differently.)

EXERCISE 2

In 1637, Richelieu initiated an artistic and judicial investigation that the French Academy launched against the play “The Cid” by playwright Pierre Corneille, since it violated the norms of classicism.

Let's try to figure it out.

First, let's read the manifestos of French classicists and formulate in our own words the rules for playwrights. It is necessary to draw up in writing the most detailed set of rules.

WORKING MATERIAL

OPINION OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY

Nothing disorderly can please anyone. If it sometimes happens that incorrect plays are successful, this happens either because they are in some way true to the rules, or because of some exceptional merits that captivate the mind so much that for a long time it does not notice those walking next to them. distortions. If, on the contrary, some correct plays do not satisfy us, then it is not the rules themselves that are to blame, but the authors, whose sterile mind was unable to find sufficiently rich material for their works.

As far as we can tell, Aristotle recognized only two types of truth: the ordinary and the extraordinary. By ordinary is meant what happens to men according to their rank, age, character, and passions; so, for example, a merchant seeks profit, a child commits rash acts. The extraordinary is something that happens rarely and is contrary to the usual order of things; for example, if a clever and evil person is deceived or a strong person is defeated. The extraordinary includes all unexpected events that are attributed to chance, but do not contradict the natural course of things.

In order for an action to be believable, it is necessary to correctly observe the time, place, conditions in which it occurs, era and customs. The main thing is that each character must act according to his character and, for example, the evil one does not have good intentions. What forces us to strive for strict observance of all these rules is that there is no other way to create works that are beautiful, amazing and captivate the soul and best give poetry the opportunity to be useful.

But we argue that not every truth is good for the theater. There is a monstrous truth that must be expelled for the good of society, or if it cannot be completely hidden, then talk about it as an abnormal phenomenon.

In such cases, it is mainly the poet who has the right to prefer verisimilitude to truth and it is better to develop a fictional plot, but reasonable, than a truthful one, but not meeting the requirements of reason.

One of the basic rules of imitative poetry is not to overload the work with so much material as to deprive the poet of the opportunity to give it the necessary grace and develop the action properly.

Francois d'Aubignac.
FROM "THEATRE PRACTICE"

If a king speaks from the stage, then he must speak as a king should, because his dignity is a circumstance that cannot be circumvented without compromising credibility (unless there is a reason that eliminates this initial circumstance - when, for example, the king disguises himself as another person). It is not enough, however, that the king must speak in accordance with his rank; it is also necessary that the scene should depict the place where he makes the speech: for many speeches and actions look believable only when uttered and performed in a certain place. In addition, it is necessary to indicate and clearly define the time when the king makes a speech, since this speech itself often depends on time - for example, a sovereign going to battle speaks completely differently than when this battle has already ended in victory or defeat.

The rule of unity of place is now becoming generally accepted, but there are still ignorant and narrow-minded people who believe that it destroys the beauty of the events depicted. In their opinion, it cannot but be destroyed by subordinating the events that took place in different places to this rule. And no matter what argument is given to them, they stubbornly deny it, being in the vain conviction that such a rule is impossible to observe. Half-educated people, who are most often also ignorant, sense the rightness of those who seek to establish this rule, but still put forward objections that are so little worthy of people who study literature that I often feel sorry for them, although they make me have a strong desire to laugh.

The action of the play must be limited to a short and precisely defined period of time, in accordance with Aristotle's rule.

Jean Boileau.
FROM "POETIC ART"

Try to start with a deliberate beginning from the first lines
We can outline the plot in a single movement.
The actor who fumbles and gets lucky is funny to me.
Unable to immediately reveal to us the course of events;
Slow intrigues barely dragging gossip,
It does not provide entertainment, but fatigue.
It would be better if he gave us his name,
Claiming that he is Orestes or Agamemnon,
Than, piling up mountains of all sorts of nonsense,
Without telling him, his hearing and eyes were tired.
Don’t be afraid to quickly reveal your story to us.
Let the action appear before me within the framework.
Beyond the Pyrenees, sometimes a daring rhymer
In just one day a lot of years are driven away
And in the wild action of events he drives at a gallop;
And the young hero is a bearded man in the finale.
But we, who respect the laws of reason,
Only skillful construction captivates;
Let everything happen on one day and in only one place, -
And we will find spectators in the hall until the end.
Don’t torment us with the incredible, disturbing the mind:
And the truth is sometimes unlike the truth.
I will not be delighted with wonderful nonsense:
The mind does not care about what it does not believe.
What we cannot see, let the story tell us;
Living action multiplies impressions in us,
But discerning taste often teaches us
What can be listened to, but must be hidden from view.

Jean Chaplain.
FROM "RATIONALE FOR THE 24 HOUR RULE"

If we use your own comparison, then we can say that the situation is exactly the same as with paintings painted according to the rules, in which a good artist always embodies only the main event, and if he depicts others - in depth or to the side - then in this way that they will certainly depend on the main thing; I’ll say more: these will be events of one day and only because the eye can grasp only one thing at a time, and its ability to see is limited to a certain space. Thus, if the picture were not proportioned to the capabilities of the human eye, destined to be its judge, then instead of convincing and exciting the vivid reproduction of things, and causing the surprised eye to be deceived for its own benefit, the imagination would be given the opportunity to expose the falsehood of what is shown and thus prevent art to fulfill its purpose: to touch the feelings of the viewer by affirming the truth. The reproduction of one event in a single time is no less important for the artist than the presence of all other elements, which, according to the ignorant, supposedly alone determine the impact of the picture on the audience; So, the picture will be implausible if two different times and places appear in it and thus the eye will be able to recognize the falsity of what is depicted, just as would happen if the proportions of individual bodies were incorrectly coordinated with each other, the light and shadows were scattered at random, and the proper proximity and the distance of objects are not taken into account, and to each object, in short, it would be necessary to add signs: this is a person, and this is a horse. It seems that the above proposition is drawn from nature itself, and, although much more can be added to confirm its validity, I believe that I have stated the basics, and therefore prefer to leave you to think for yourself, rather than detain your attention on the question, in my opinion, decided.

After drawing up the rules, the groups read out one rule from the set in a circle, skipping repeating ones. These sets of rules are then handed over to a newly assembled group of experts (the experts may be different).

EXERCISE 3

This task will be different for working groups and for groups of experts.

I. Experts, using the worksheets from previous assignments, as well as the text of the “cheat sheet,” create the most detailed diagram “The World of Classicism” on whatman paper. For this you will need whatman paper, colored pencils, and markers.

II. The rest of the groups receive working material and a “cheat sheet”. It is necessary to find deviations from ideology and violations of the norms of classicism in Corneille’s play “The Cid”, including comparing excerpts from this play with another play by Corneille - “Nicomede”.

"Crib"

1. The purpose of a classic dramatic work is to educate ideal citizens of a monarchical state. And this is a significant difference from the Aristotelian understanding of the goal - achieving catharsis. Richelieu and the theorists of French classicism educated by him declare Aristotle an aesthetic standard and shrine, but at the same time they offer their own version of his aesthetics, which is far from identical to the original source.

2. In a classic work the speech should be about the interests of the state. The representative of these interests is the monarch. He alone, being God's anointed, decides what is evil and what is good, and takes responsibility for all decisions, actions and events. Therefore, “romantic” literary plots about love and personal torment should be eliminated.

3. Plots should be borrowed from history., it is desirable that it be ancient history, and best of all, Roman history, because the idea of ​​citizenship is most fully expressed there. Folklore, medieval, fairy-tale and mystical subjects are completely excluded - they are non-rational and non-state. Subjects from the history of countries with which France has tense political relations are also excluded. Seeing heroes and citizens as enemies is unpatriotic.

4. unity of action. There should be no subplots (side plots), no heroes that take us away from the main line of struggle. There should be no place for chance and unexpected plot twists. The action must develop logically and rationally along one main line. The requirement for unity of action actually goes back to Aristotle. But if for Aristotle it is important that in the limited time of a dramatic work the audience’s attention should not be scattered, then for Richelieu it is important that the action be logically structured and lead to an unambiguous conclusion.

5. A dramatic work must adhere to unity of time- events should cover no more than 24 hours, and ideally from dawn to dusk. This requirement has also been attributed to Aristotle. However, he only noted that playwrights of the classical period of Greek antiquity most often structure the action in accordance with this law, because it is easier to organize the unity of action. At the same time, Aristotle is well aware that all ancient tragedians deviate from this law when it interferes with the artistic intent of the play.

6. A dramatic work must adhere to unity of place. The action should take place within one city at most. Most often - within the same city square. And ideally, everything should be done in one room. And this requirement is rather attributed to Aristotle than actually comes from him. Aristotle notes that the imperfection of theatrical technology did not allow ancient authors to change the scene of action. However, they change it. As we remember, Aristophanes is very fond of changing the action. In the play Affective scenes are prohibited. A strong experience should not have a physical embodiment: no fights, murders, love scenes. (You can only talk about this after everything has already happened behind the scenes.) The idea is that the action is more intense the more focused it is on thought. No physics - just the beat of the spirit.

7. Required strict division into genres. The Supreme is a tragedy. Inferior is a comedy.

Tragedy is the highest genre	Comedy is an inferior genre
Addressed to the upper class - the nobility	Addressed to the lower classes - the philistinism and commoners
Must educate nobles in the spirit of heroic service to the state	Must educate the lower classes in the spirit of modesty, unpretentiousness and hard work
The heroes of the tragedy can only be highborn - nobles and high clergy	Only representatives of the third estate can be heroes of a comedy
The hero of a tragedy should inspire admiration. Emotional empathy is undesirable	The hero of a comedy has the right to be funny. A commoner has no right to touch the audience's feelings
High syllable. Only high pathos. Everyday words are excluded	In comedy, only ordinary colloquial speech is possible, but without vulgar rudeness and liberties.
Tragedies are written only in Alexandrian verse, that is, iambic hexameter - 12 syllables per line with the emphasis on the second syllable	Comedies can be written in prose or light verse

Synopsis of “Sid”

AND spain. The war with the Moors is far from over, but Castilla already has its first king - Don Ferdinand. The king has two glorious commanders. The old commander Don Diego helped him conquer his enemies and ascend to the throne. A commander in the prime of his life and glory - Don Gomez - helped take Andalusia from his enemies and keep all the previously conquered provinces in obedience.

The king has a daughter, Dona Urraca. According to the position of the infanta, she is obliged to wait for the crowned groom, but she is fond of a simple young knight who has never been in battle, Rodrigo - the son of Don Diego. To overcome passion, she introduces Rodrigo to her friend Jimena, the daughter of Don Gomez, and encourages the love that is born in them. The Infanta constantly dreams of Rodrigo, but convinces herself that his love for Ximena can cool her feelings. Jimena dreams of marriage with Rodrigo: his father values ​​him, and the court patronizes him. But the illusions of the heroes are destined to dissipate. Jimena and Rodrigo's fathers, Don Gomez and Don Diego, enter into a violent conflict.

The king appoints Don Diego's heir as tutor. Don Gomez cannot come to terms with the choice, because he considers only himself worthy of this position. He seeks to insult and humiliate Don Diego, and even the enemy’s remark that “a loyal subject does not dare discuss the king’s orders” is not able to stop him. Don Gomez slaps his rival in the royal park, and old Don Diego finds himself unable to raise his weapon. The king himself demands that Don Gomez apologize to the offended person, but even here pride wins. Don Gomez is sure that the king will not retain power without him, and, therefore, the king will not dare to punish him. However, the king's order follows to imprison Don Gomez, but the courtiers do not have time to carry it out, since young Rodrigo, on the orders of his father, enters into battle with the enemy and kills him. Now Ximena is lost to him - according to the law of blood feud, she must demand the death of Rodrigo. And Infanta Urraca cannot give up the hope of getting the young hero.

Meanwhile, Don Diego is not too saddened by his son’s mental anguish, but is afraid that he will shamefully fall at the hands of Don Gomez’s friends. He learns that a flotilla of Moors is heading towards Seville, where the action takes place, under cover of darkness. In Don Diego's house, five hundred loyal friends gathered to take revenge on Don Gomez. But since this is no longer required, Don Diego decides to place them under the command of Rodrigo, so that he will have the opportunity to save the city and the crown from enemies and thereby earn himself glory, royal favor and protection from the revenge of the Gomez house. Young Rodrigo meets his father. Before that, he visited Jimena, whom he asked to execute him for the murder of her father, but was refused.

He obeys the will of his father and stands at the head of the army, informing the knights that he is acting on the orders of the king. In battle, he manages not only to repel the attack, but also to capture two enemy kings. They honor him with the name Sid, which means “lord”, “master”. Now King Ferdinand owes him the safety of the throne, and the infanta dreams of elevating him to the highest rank. Jimena, on the contrary, believes that now that the enemy dear to her heart is strong, she is obliged to avenge her father’s death to the end. Leonor, the Infanta's teacher, seeks to restore a sense of duty in Urraca's heart, and Elvira, Jimena's teacher, strives to curb the unreasonable pride of her ward.

The king refuses Jimena's request to execute Rodrigo, but allows one duel with a knight who wants to stand up for the honor of Gomez and, if he wins, take Jimena as his wife. Rodrigo believes that Ximena sincerely longs for his death, and is ready to fight with Don Sancho, as if he were to be executed. But here Jimena herself can’t stand it and asks Rodrigo not to give her up to her unloved husband without a fight. Rodrigo knocks the sword away from his opponent, but leaves him alive. The king orders Rodrigo to stand at the head of the army and perform new feats, and commands Jimena in a year, after the period of mourning has expired, to become Rodrigo’s wife.

Pierre Corneille. “LED” (1)

Don Rodrigo

If you kill the guilty, do not seek execution,
But end his life without fear.

Ximena

Elvira, is it conceivable? There is no strength to bear it!
I have Rodrigo! Rodrigo dared to come!

Don Rodrigo

Shed my blood; taste the pleasure
And my death, and your vengeance.

Ximena

Don Rodrigo

Listen to me.

Ximena

Don Rodrigo

One moment...

Ximena

No, let me die!

Don Rodrigo

Just a word, a cry from the heart;
Then answer with the sword given by love.

Ximena

Which is still drenched in sacred blood!

Don Rodrigo

Ximena

Put away the monstrous blade!
It contains a terrible and disastrous reproach for me.

Don Rodrigo

Look fearlessly so as not to argue with fate,
To kindle my anger and speed up my end.

Ximena

After all, this blood is mine.

Don Rodrigo

Color it with mine.
With this you will destroy the last trace of yours.

Ximena

A cruel man who slays his father with a sword
And with the spectacle of the sword he executes the daughter of the fallen!
Away, take him away, I don’t see a day with him;
You ask to listen - and you torture me.

Don Rodrigo

I will obey you, but I will not leave my thoughts
Accept the desired death from your hands;
Because even passion cannot tell me.
It is inglorious to regret what I did.

“LED” (2)

Don Rodrigo, Ximena, Elvira.

Don Rodrigo

What will they say about you forgiving the enemy?
Responding to crime with love,
What reasons are you giving for slander!
Make him silent and, preserving your honor,
Do not hesitate any longer and kill me.

Ximena

It is even more honorable to let you live;
And my worst enemy must glorify me to the stars,
Sympathetically mourning my misfortunes,
Having learned that I love and do not spare you.
Go away, my sadness cannot be seen anymore
What I am forced to lose willy-nilly.
But shroud your departure in the darkness of the night:
Let no one meet you at the gate.
The only reason of all is slander
Publicity about our meeting could help.

Save my dignity from slander.

Don Rodrigo

Kill me!

Ximena

Don Rodrigo

So what did you decide?

Ximena

Although my rightful anger is so alarmingly confused -
To avenge his father, do everything possible;
But I would still be happy.
When I couldn't do anything.

Don Rodrigo

O wondrous love!

Ximena

O terrible moment of separation!

Don Rodrigo

How many tears and torment we will accept for our fathers!

Ximena

Rodrigo, who would wait?

Don Rodrigo

Ximena, who could?

Ximena

So that the joy of all hopes may be interrupted by such a bitter fate!

Don Rodrigo

So that there is sudden bad weather near the pier
Our happiness was so unexpectedly shattered!

Ximena

O mortal sorrow!

Don Rodrigo

O vain sorrow!

Ximena

Go away, don't you feel sorry for me!

Don Rodrigo

Goodbye; I'm going to pay the burden of a deplorable life,
Until I throw her away under the ax forever.

Ximena

And if he falls, I swear to you, lovingly,
I can’t breathe a moment in the world without you.
Now goodbye; go and hide unnoticed.

Elvira

When it seems to us that consolation is in vain...

Ximena

You're bothering me, get away from here;
The yearning one needs silence and night.

Pierre Corneille. “NICOMED”

Prusius, king of Bithynia. Nicomedes, eldest son of Prusias from his first marriage.

Prusius

Here you are! What brought you here?

Nycomed

Desire for the parental throne
Respectfully place another crown,
The desire to hug you and see you in response
You give me both affection and greetings.
All Cappadocia, all the kingdoms of Pontus became
From now on yours and as if given the right
I should hurry here to thank you
For your kindness, for serving you
You allowed me and with your royal hand
You share your glory with me.

Prusius

There's no need for hugs, and you could totally
In the message, express all your gratitude to me;
And there was no point in my misdeeds,
Having won a victory, you disgrace your name;
But if the general left the army,
I would call it a crime
And if it weren't for you appearing before me,
He would pay me with his head.

Nycomed

I’m guilty, I confess: the impulse was so ardent,
That my mind could not moderate this ardor;
Filial love was the reason
That my military duty has been trampled upon by me today.
But if that impulse, having heeded reason, faded away,
Then I would lose the happiness of seeing you;
And so I chose for such great happiness
To pay the guilt, partly forgivable,
In the hope that she will be judged again
Such ardent fatherly love.

Prusius

The slightest excuse is enough for the father,
So that the perpetrator is not judged too harshly.
You were the best support for me, and is waiting
You are now given special honor at court;
I am receiving the Roman ambassador today,
And let him see how much I trust you:
Prince! After listening to him, answer for me -
After all, the real king is no longer me.
I am only the shadow of the king; just this little thing -
My honorary title is left to me by old age,
Now not for me, but for you in front of the world's eyes
Take care of government affairs.
You will be honored today, but know:
The blame lies with you, don't forget about it,
The supreme power was harmed by it;
Return to the troops - the harm will be eliminated.
Give the former shine to autocratic power;
It will lose its meaning, torn apart;
But how untouched it was handed to me,
May you get the same one too.
The people are looking at you, they are ready to pray for you,
But, taking your example, he will not obey you.
You should set another example for him:
While you are a subject, show me your submission.

Nycomed

I obey you, but let obedience
The sir will receive a reward from you:
In Armenia they have been waiting for their queen for a long time,
We defeated all those who blocked the path in battle;
As soon as our escort is sent with her,
I seek the honor of accompanying her.

Prusius

Well, you’re not asking for this in vain:
The escort should be the king himself or the king's son.
But, sending the queen on her way, we at the same time
Decided to act in accordance with etiquette
And prepare everything properly, and you
For now we have to go to the troops.

Nycomed

She would like, without further ado...

Prusius

No! It will cause damage to her crown,
But here comes the ambassador, get ready to meet him,
And then we’ll talk about leaving.

P After familiarization with the working materials and discussion, the groups need to formulate their accusations against Corneille from the point of view of theorists of French classicism. Texts from the previous assignment can serve as an example.

A group of experts deliberates and selects the most convincing accusation, in their opinion, after which they demonstrate their work - a visual map “The World of Classicism” and explain it.

The following activity can be completed in class if there is time, or given as homework if time is short.

It is suggested to write an essay on any of the following topics:

“The birth of classicism - a necessity or a whim of the elites?”

“Man in the world of classicism: joys and torments.”

“The worldview of classicism: outdated and relevant.”

In the state - regulation, strict obedience to established norms

In politics - state absolutism

In society - the dominance of high moral virtues

Classical culture

In art – adherence to certain canons, its metaphysical nature, normativity

In literature - an appeal to the samples and forms of antiquity as an ideal artistic standard

In philosophy - rationalism, priority of reason, reliance on natural sciences

In aesthetics – ideas of strict mathematical symmetry, harmony and unity

In culture - direct administration, interference in the activities of cultural institutions, in the creativity of its outstanding representatives

Classicism originated in Italy in the 16th century, and then spread to other European countries. Its emergence is associated with the formation of absolutist states on this continent. A classic country of absolutism in the 17th century. became France, where under King Louis XIV the unlimited power of the monarch was established, and he himself said: “The state is me.” Within the framework of this monarchical ideology, theoretical, value-semantic principles of the classicist direction in culture were formed. Absolutist authorities who recognized classicism as the only "correct" style, interfered with the activities writers and artists. So, for this purpose, the French Academy was created in 1634, uniting mainly philosophers, which was designed to control literary creativity. Soon the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture and the Academy of Architecture were organized. In 1666, the Academy of Sciences was established. In all academies, classicism dominated as the official style of the absolutist state.

In the dialectical understanding, classicism is a complex, internally contradictory artistic method, in which ideological and artistic principles were intertwined, corresponding both to the value system of the ruling class, mainly the court aristocracy, and to those ideals, moral norms, and personality criteria that were characteristic of the democratic strata of society (L E. Kertman). At the beginning of the 17th century, the ideological and artistic system of classicism was the embodiment of aesthetic ideas, tastes and even political positions the ruling class, mainly that part of it that was focused on strengthening the absolute monarchy, comprehensive control over the life and consciousness of the people as a whole and each individual individually. By the end of the 17th century, when support for absolutism no longer corresponded to the value orientations of the democratic strata of the population, including the bourgeoisie, tyrant-fighting motifs appear in classical literature, which, of course, expressed the aspirations of the democratic culture of society (such, for example, is the tragedy Jean Racine"Britannicus", in which Emperor Nero orders the death of his half-brother Britannicus). It was in these opposing trends that classicism grew as a cultural phenomenon. On the one hand, based on loyalty to the principles of ancient art (rationalism, symmetry, purposefulness, restraint and strict compliance of the content of the work with its form), classicism sought to express sublime, heroic, establish moral, humanistic ideals, create clear and organic examples. On the other hand, it contained features of idealization, utopianism, academicism, and excessive normativity.

Following the examples of antiquity, classicism, both in theory and, most often, in practice, accepted a strict division of the genres of literature, theater and painting into high and low.

Hierarchy of artistic genres in the culture of classicism

In fact, the significance of " high" And " low“genres were ultimately determined by the talent and scale of personality of the creator of a particular work. This primarily applies to Moliere (1622-1673), whose work has received worldwide recognition. It was with Moliere that comedy ceased to be " low» genre: his plays were called “ high comedy», for in them, as in the tragedy, the most important social, moral and philosophical problems of the century were raised.