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Johann Gottfried Herder biography. Biography of Herder Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried on the cultural diversity of peoples

Johann Gottfried Herder biography. Biography of Herder Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried on the cultural diversity of peoples

12.06.2019

German cultural historian, writer and educator.

Main labor Johann Gottfried Herder: Ideas for the philosophy of the history of mankind / Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, published in parts from 1784 to 1791. One of the book's ideas is about the infinite perfection of man.

"The world is facing Herder in the form of a single, continuously developing whole, naturally passing through quite certain necessary steps. How Herder imagined these steps, says the following rough sketch:

"1. Organization of matter - heat, fire, light, air, water, earth, dust, universe, electrical and magnetic forces.
2. Organization of the Earth according to the laws of motion, all kinds of attraction and repulsion.
3. Organization of inanimate things - stones, salts.
4. Organization of plants - root, leaf, flower, forces.
5. Animals: bodies, feelings.
6. People - reason, reason.
7. World soul: everything […]

The problem of the laws of social development occupies a central place in Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind. Do they even exist? Is there anything like progress in society? If a superficial observer, limited only by an external consideration of the fate of mankind, can give a negative answer to these questions, then a deeper acquaintance with history leads to different results: the philosopher discovers immutable laws in society, similar to those that operate in nature. Nature, according to Herder, is in a state of continuous regular development from lower to higher levels; the history of society is directly adjacent to the history of nature, merges with it. Herder thus decisively rejects the theory Rousseau, according to which the history of mankind is a chain of delusions and is in sharp contradiction with nature.

For Herder the natural development of mankind is exactly what it was in history. The laws of the development of society, as well as the laws of nature, are natural in nature. Living human forces are the mainsprings of human history; history is a natural product of human abilities, depending on conditions, place and time. In society, only that which is due to these factors has happened. This, according to Herder, is the fundamental law of history.

Gulyga A.V., Herder and his “Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind” - afterword to the book: Johann Gottfried Herder, Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind, M., “Nauka”, 1977, p. 623 and 629.

“The most prominent theorist of the “Sturmers” was Johann Gottfried Herder. A man of universal education, he not only had an excellent knowledge of the history of literature and art, ancient and modern philosophy, but was also aware of the natural sciences of his time.

Lacking the firmness of revolutionary democratic convictions Lessinga, Herder nevertheless, like his older colleague, he passionately hated the feudal system of Germany and struggled all his life against feudal ideology, against scholasticism. Like Lessing, he identified himself as a Spinozist.

At the end of his life, he sharply criticized his teacher Kant on the theory of knowledge and aesthetics. Arguing with Kant, for example, he declared: “Being is the basis of all knowledge. Being binds every judgment of the understanding; no rule of reason can be thought outside being. Elsewhere he says: "Our thinking has arisen from and through sensation." Religion Herder called "harmful, deadly opium for the soul."

One can cite a large number of Herder's atheistic and materialistic statements. At the same time, it should be noted that he still does not refuse the very concept of “God”. Carefully reading those of his works where he criticizes Kant, we are convinced that he criticizes the Koenigsberg thinker rather from objectively idealistic than from consistently materialistic positions. Therefore, it turns out that some of Herder's statements sound materialistic, while the general concept emerges as objectively idealistic. Herder's philosophical outlook is contradictory.

Herder's great merit is that he was the first of the German thinkers to dwell in the most detailed way on characterizing the historical role of the people. In this light, he solves the problems of aesthetics.

In his works: "Essays on the latest German literature" (1766-1767), "Critical groves" (1769), "On Ossian and the songs of ancient peoples" (1773), "On Shakespeare" (1770), etc. Herder puts forward the principle historical approach to the phenomena of art. He proves that poetry is the product of the activity not of individual "refined and developed natures", but of entire peoples. The poetry of each nation reflects its customs, customs, working and living conditions. Each phenomenon of art can be understood only by studying the conditions in which it arose.

Every nation, he says, has its own poets equal to Homer. “Is it possible to compose and sing the Iliad today! Is it possible to write as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Plato wrote!

Herder considers folk art to be an inexhaustible source of all poetry. Therefore, he collects songs of the Greenlanders, Tatars, Scots, Spaniards, Italians, French, Estonians. He talks about the freshness, courage, expressiveness of folk songs. He recommends listening to the "voices of the peoples" and calls for the collection of folk songs. At the same time, Herder emphasizes that true taste is formed not at the court of patrons, not in high society, but among the people. Only the people are the bearers of a truly healthy taste.

[German] Herder] Johann Gottfried (08/25/1744, Morungen, East Prussia (modern Morong, Poland) - 12/18/1803, Weimar), German. writer, philosopher and theologian.

Life

Genus. into a pious Protestant. family. Mother came from a shoemaker's family, father was a church cantor, bell ringer, school teacher. The constraint of material conditions was aggravated for G. by the chronic disease of an eye which was shown at 5 years of age, to-the Crimea he suffered during all life. After graduating from school, G. served in the house of a deacon. Sebastian Trecho as copyist. juvenile lit. G.'s debut was the anonymously published in 1761 ode "Gesanges an Cyrus" (Song of Cyrus) on the accession to the throne of the Russian imp. Peter III (during the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the territory of East Prussia was occupied by Russian troops). In 1762, thanks to the advice and patronage of the Rus. military physician G. went to Königsberg University with the intention of studying medicine, but he soon preferred the theological to the medical fact. In Königsberg he listened to I. Kant's lectures on logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy and physical geography, took English lessons. and ital. languages from I. G. Gaman; both teachers took part in the fate of the young man and had a decisive influence on the formation of his philosophical views.

After graduating from the university in 1764, G., through the mediation of Gaman, received the position of a school teacher at the cathedral in Riga; after successfully passing the theological examination in 1765, he simultaneously served as a preacher. In Riga, G. studied the works of J. J. Rousseau, S. L. Montesquieu, A. G. Baumgarten, G. E. Lessing, I. I. Winkelman, D. Hume, A. E. Cooper, gr. Shaftesbury. In the first literary-critical experiments "Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur" (Fragments on New German Literature, 1766-1768) and "Kritischen Wäldern" (Critical Forests, 1769), he declared himself an opponent of blind imitation of ancient literature. examples and champion of national identity. Public speaking brought G. recognition of the city community, but his passion for educational ideals led to tense relations with the Riga clergy. Having resigned in 1769, he undertook a sea voyage to France, which he described in his autobiographical Op. "Journal meiner Reise im Jahre 1769" (Diary of my journey 1769). In Paris, G. met with D. Diderot, J. L. D "Alembert and Ch. Duclos; through Brussels and Antwerp, he moved to Hamburg, where he visited Lessing and the poet M. Claudius. In 1770, G. traveled on it. cities as an educator of the Holstein crown prince. Pinning hopes on the surgical treatment of the eye, in August. 1770 he arrived in Strasbourg, where he had his first meeting with J. W. Goethe. G. had a huge impact on the young Goethe, introducing him to Homer's epic, the "Poems of Ossian" and the dramaturgy of W. Shakespeare, communication with Goethe contributed to the introduction of G. to the circle of ideas of the literary movement "Storm and Drang".

In 1771, Mr.. G. accepted an invitation to take the position of court preacher and consistory adviser at the court of Count Schaumburg-Lippe in Bückeburg. In March 1773 he married Caroline Flachsland. The acquisition of a strong social position and a happy marriage contributed to the creative upsurge of G.: in 1772-1776. he created a number of aesthetic, philosophical and theological works. Scientific achievements brought G. official. recognition: the treatises "Research on the origin of language" and "On the influence of government on science and science on government" were awarded prizes from the Berlin Academy of Sciences. Under the influence of gr. Maria Schaumburg-Lippe, as well as Claudius and J.K. Lavater G. departed from enlightenment rationalism. This was especially clearly manifested in the change in his attitude towards the Holy. Scripture: from emphasizing primarily the artistic value of the Bible as a monument of ancient poetry to the assertion of the historical authenticity of the biblical testimony about Revelation.

In 1776, on the recommendation of K. M. Wieland and Goethe, G. was invited to the post of court preacher of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, general superintendent and pastor in Weimar, where he remained until the end of his life. The first half of the Weimar period became for G. the era of the highest creative flourishing. His scientific outlook acquired a truly encyclopedic character (geography, climatology, anthropology and psychology, linguistics, world history, history of literature, folklore, aesthetics and art history, philosophy, biblical studies, pedagogy, etc.), and the desire for organic synthesis various branches of knowledge has stimulated the search for a new worldview model that allows you to combine the scientific understanding of reality with the artistic. On this basis, an intensive creative exchange arose between G. and Goethe, the fruits of which were the attempts made by G. to create a universal historiosophical concept and rethink the philosophy of B. Spinoza. In the implemented during this period it. translations from the poetry of different peoples, the poetic talent of G. was revealed to the greatest extent. At the same time, he managed the affairs of the parish entrusted to him and took an active part in the public life of Weimar: in 1785 he acted as the ideological inspirer and leader of the school reform, in 1789 he became vice president, and in 1801 - President of the Supreme Consistory of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. The growth of G.'s authority was facilitated by his publicistic speeches, in particular, written as a response to the events of the French Revolution, Letters in Support of Humanity. However, in the late Weimar period, the desire to take an independent position in the philosophical, aesthetic and political discussions led G. alienated from former like-minded people. The cooling in personal relations with Goethe, which began in 1779 under the influence of court intrigues, led to an aggravation of differences in aesthetic and political issues, especially after the attempted by G. in 1788-1789. trips to Italy. Disagreements developed into a consistent confrontation between G. t. Weimar classicism in the edition published by him in 1801-1803. and. "Adrastea" (Adrastea). Did not meet with understanding from contemporaries and deployed by him in 1799-1800. sharp criticism of Kant's transcendental philosophy. The personal nobility granted to G. in 1801 by the Bavarian Elector became an occasion for ridicule on the part of the Weimar townsfolk and worsened his relationship with the duke. The ideological isolation of G. in the last years of his life was only partially brightened up by his acquaintance with the artist A. Kaufman and friendship with the writer Jean Paul (J. P. Richter).

Compositions

Diverse in subject matter, the huge creative heritage of G. is marked by a constant desire to combine rigorous scientific analysis with poetic expression, so the division of his works into lit. and scientific is very conditional. Most of G.'s poetic experiments are also focused on research tasks, and lit. the form of philosophical and theological writings has an independent aesthetic value.

Theological

1. Historical-critical studies of the OT: the extensive treatise Älteste Urkunde des Menschengeschlechts (The Oldest Evidence of the Human Race, 1774-1776), which considers the OT in the context of scientific, historical and archaeological studies of cultures Dr. East, and a 2-volume Op. "Vom Geist der ebräischen Poesie" (On the Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 1782-1783), which is one of the first attempts at literary analysis of biblical texts.

2. Exegetical Essays on the NT: "Erläuterungen zum Neuen Testament aus einer neueröfneten morgenländischen Quelle" (Explanations to the New Testament from a Newly Discovered Eastern Source, 1775), "Maran Atha: Das Buch von der Zukunft des Herrn, des Neuen Testaments Siegel" (Maranatha: The Book of the Coming Lord, Printing of the New Testament, 1779), a cycle of works on the Synoptic Gospels under the general title "Christliche Schriften" (Christian Scriptures. 5 vols., 1794-1798), among which stand out "Vom Erlöser der Menschen. Nach unsern drei ersten Evangelien” (On the Savior of the people. According to our first three Gospels, 1796) and “Von Gottes Sohn, der Welt Heiland” (On the Son of God, Savior of the world, 1797), etc.

3. Works on moral theology, in which G. reflects on the foundations of Christ. life, about the meaning and tasks of the pastoral ministry: “An Prediger: Fünfzehn Provinzialblätter” (To the Preachers: Fifteen Provincial Letters, 1774), “Briefe, das Studium der Theologie betreffend” (Letters concerning the study of theology, 1780), etc.

Cit.: Sämmtliche Werke / Hrsg. B. Suphan. B., 1877-1913. 33 Bde. Hildesheim, 1967-1968; Fav. prod. M.; L., 1959; Stimmen der Völker in Liedern / Hrsg. H. Rolleke. Stuttg., 1975; Journal meiner Reise im Jahre 1769: Hist.-crit. Ausg. / Hrsg. K. Mommsen. Stuttg., 1976; Briefe, 1763-1803 / Hrsg. K.-H. Hahn e. a. Weimar, 1977-1984. 8 bde; Werke / Hrsg. G. Arnold, M. Bollacher. Fr./M., 1985-2000. 10 bde; Italienische Reise: Briefe und Tagebuch-Aufzeichnungen, 1788-1789 / Hrsg. A. Meier, H. Hollmer. Munch., 1988.

Lit.: Haym R . Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken dargestellt. B., 1877-1885. 2 bde. B., 1954 (Russian translation: Heim R. Herder, his life and works. M., 1888. 2 vol.); Gulyga A . IN . Herder as a Critic of Kant's Aesthetic Theory // VF. 1958. No. 9. S. 48-57; he is. Herder (1744-1803). M., 1963, 19752; Dobbek W. J. G. Herders Weltbild: Versuch einer Deutung. Koln; W., 1969; Nisbet H. Herder and the Philosophy and History of Science. Camb., 1970; Faust U. Mythologien und Religionen des Ostens bei J. G. Herder. Munster, 1977; Rathmann J. Zur Geschichtsphilosophie J. G. Herders. Bdpst, 1978; Heizmann B. Ursprünglichkeit und Reflexion: Die poetische Ästhetik d. Jungen Herder in Zusammenhang d. Geschichtsphilosophie und Anthropologie d. 18 Jh. Fr./M., 1981; J. G. Herder - Innovator through the Ages / Hrsg. W. Koepke. Bonn, 1982; Verri A. Vico e Herder nella Francia d. Restauration. Ravenna, 1984; Owren H. Herders Bildungsprogramm u. seine Auswirkungen im 18. u. 19.Jh. HDlb., 1985; Wisbert R. Das Bildungsdenken d. Jungen Herder. Fr./M., 1987; J. G. Herder (1744-1803) / Hrsg. G Sauder. Hamburg, 1987; Becker B. Herder-Reception in Deutschland. St. Ingbert, 1987; Gaier U. Herders Sprachphilosophie und Erkenntniskritik. Stuttg., 1988; Kim Dae Kweon. Sprachtheorie im 18. Jh.: Herder, Condillac und Süßmilch. St. Ingbert, 2002; Zammito J. Kant, Herder, and the Birth of Anthropology. Chicago, 20022; Zaremba M . J. G. Herder: Prediger d. Humanitat. Koln, 2002; Herder et les Lumières: l "Europe de la pluralité culturelle et linguistique / Éd. P. Pénisson. P., 2003; Löchte A. J. G. Herder: Kulturtheorie und Humanismusidee der "Ideen", "Humanitätsbriefe" und "Adrastea". Würzburg, 2005; J. G. Herder: Aspekte seines Lebenswerkes / Hrsg. M. Keßler, B., 2005; Markworth, T. Unsterblichkeit und Identität beim frühen Herder, Paderborn; Münch., 2005.

P. V. Rezvykh

The creator of the historical understanding of art, who considered it his task to “consider everything from the point of view of the spirit of his time”, critic, poet of the second half of the 18th century. One of the leading figures of the late Enlightenment.

Biography

Philosophy and criticism

Herder's writings "Fragments on German Literature" ( Fragmente zur deutschen literature, Riga, 1766-1768), "Critical Groves" ( Kritische Walder, 1769) played a major role in the development of German literature during the Sturm und Drang period (see Sturm und Drang). Here we meet with a new, enthusiastic assessment of Shakespeare, with the idea (which became the central position of his entire theory of culture) that every people, every progressive period of world history has and should have a literature imbued with a national spirit. His essay "Also the Philosophy of History" (Riga, 1774) is devoted to criticism of the rationalist philosophy of the history of the Enlightenment. Since 1785, his monumental work “Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Humanity” began to appear ( Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Riga, 1784-1791). This is the first experience of the general history of culture, where Herder's thoughts about the cultural development of mankind, about religion, poetry, art, and science receive their most complete expression. The East, antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, modern times - are depicted by him with erudition that amazed his contemporaries.

His last great works (except for theological works) are "Letters for the Promotion of Humanity" ( Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanitat, Riga, 1793-1797) and "Adrastea" (1801-1803), pointed mainly against the romanticism of Goethe and Schiller.

Herder believed that animals are “lesser brothers” for man, and not just a “means”, as Kant believes: “There is no virtue or attraction in the human heart, the likeness of which would not be manifested here and there in the animal world” .

He sharply rejected the philosophy of the late Kant, calling his research "a deaf desert filled with empty mind creations and verbal fog with great pretension."

Fiction and translations

His youthful literary debut was the anonymously published in 1761 ode "Gesanges an Cyrus" (Song of Cyrus) on the accession to the throne of the Russian emperor. Peter III.

Of the original works, Legends and Paramythia can be considered the best. Less successful are his dramas "The House of Admetus", "Prometheus Liberated", "Ariadna-Libera", "Aeon and Aeonia", "Philoctetes", "Brutus".

Herder's poetic and especially translational activity is very significant. He acquaints reading Germany with a number of the most interesting, hitherto unknown or little-known monuments of world literature. His famous anthology "Folk Songs" was made with great artistic taste ( Volkslieder, 1778-1779), known under the title "Voices of the Nations in Songs" ( Stimmen der Volker in Liedern), which opened the way for the latest collectors and researchers of folk poetry, since only since the time of Herder did the concept of folk song receive a clear definition and become a genuine historical concept; he introduces into the world of Eastern and Greek poetry with his anthology "From Eastern Poems" ( Blumenlese aus morgenländischer Dichtung), translation of "Sakuntala" and "Greek anthology" ( Griechische Anthologie). Herder completed his translation activities with the processing of romances about Side (1801), making the brightest monument of old Spanish poetry a property of German culture.

Meaning

The highest ideal for Herder was the belief in the triumph of universal, cosmopolitan humanity (Humanität). He interpreted humanity as the realization of the harmonic unity of humanity in a multitude of autonomous individuals, each of which has reached the maximum realization of its unique destiny. Most of all in the representatives of mankind Herder valued invention.

Father of European Slavic Studies.

Fight against the ideas of the Enlightenment

The idea of human development

Heine said of Herder: “Herder did not sit, like a literary Grand Inquisitor, as a judge over various peoples, condemning or justifying them, depending on the degree of their religiosity. No, Herder considered the whole of humanity as a great harp in the hands of a great master, each nation seemed to him the string of this gigantic harp tuned in its own way, and he comprehended the universal harmony of its various sounds.

According to Herder, humanity in its development is like a separate individual: it goes through periods of youth and decrepitude - with the death of the ancient world, it recognized its first old age, with the age of Enlightenment, the arrow of history again made its circle. What enlighteners take as genuine works of art are nothing but counterfeits of artistic forms devoid of poetic life, which arose in due time on the basis of national self-consciousness and became inimitable with the death of the environment that gave birth to them. By imitating models, poets lose the opportunity to show the only important thing: their individual identity, and since Herder always considers a person as a particle of the social whole (nation), then his national identity.

Therefore, Herder calls on contemporary German writers to start a new rejuvenated circle of European cultural development, to create, obeying free inspiration, under the sign of national identity. For this purpose, Herder recommends that they turn to earlier (younger) periods of national history, because there they can join the spirit of their nation in its most powerful and pure expression and draw the strength necessary to renew art and life.

Constantly emphasizing the unity of human culture, Herder explains it as the common goal of all mankind, which is the desire to find "true humanity." According to Herder's concept, the comprehensive spread of humanity in human society will allow:

reasonable abilities of people to make reason;
feelings given to man by nature to realize in art;
to make the attraction of the individual free and beautiful.

The idea of a nation state

Herder was one of those who first put forward the idea of a modern nation state, but it arose in his teaching from a vitalized natural law and was of a completely pacifist nature. Each state that arose as a result of the seizures terrified him. After all, such a state, as Herder believed, and this manifested his popular idea, destroyed the established national cultures. In fact, only the family and the form of the state corresponding to it seemed to him as a purely natural creation. It can be called Herder's form of the nation-state.

“Nature brings up families and, consequently, the most natural state is one where one people lives with a single national character.” “The state of one people is a family, a comfortable home. It rests on its own foundation; founded by nature, it stands and perishes only in the course of time.”

Herder called such a state structure the first degree of natural governments, which will remain the highest and last. This means that the ideal picture he drew of the political state of the early and pure nationality remained his ideal of the state in general.

However, for Herder, the state is a machine that will eventually have to be broken. And he alters Kant's aphorism: "A man who needs a master is an animal: since he is a man, he does not need any master" (9, vol. X, p. 383).

Doctrine of the Folk Spirit

“The genetic spirit, the character of the people is generally a striking and strange thing. It cannot be explained, it cannot be wiped off the face of the Earth: it is as old as a nation, as old as the soil on which the people lived.

These words contain the quintessence of Herder's doctrine of the spirit of the people. This teaching was first of all directed, as already at the preliminary stages of its development among the Enlighteners, to the preserved essence of peoples, stable in change. It rested on a more universal sympathy for the diversity of the individualities of peoples than the somewhat later teaching of the historical school of law, which arose from a passionate immersion in the originality and creative power of the German folk spirit. But it anticipated, albeit with less mysticism, the romantic feeling of the irrational and mysterious in the folk spirit. It, like romance, saw in the national spirit an invisible seal, expressed in the specific features of the people and their creations, unless this vision was freer, not so doctrinaire. Less rigidly than subsequently romanticism, it also considered the question of the indelibility of the national spirit.

Love for the nationality, preserved in purity and untouched, did not prevent him from recognizing the beneficialness of "graftings, timely given to the peoples" (as the Normans did with the English people). The idea of a national spirit received a special meaning from Herder due to the addition of his favorite word "genetic" to its formulation. This means not only a living formation instead of a frozen being, and at the same time one feels not only the original, unique in historical growth, but also the creative soil from which all living things flow.

Herder was much more critical of the then-appearing concept of race, considered shortly before by Kant (). His ideal of humanity counteracted this concept, which, according to Herder, threatened to bring humanity back to the animal level, even talking about human races seemed ignoble to Herder. Their colors, he believed, are lost in each other, and all this in the end is only shades of the same great picture. The true bearer of the great collective genetic processes was and remained, according to Herder, the people, and even higher - humanity.

Sturm und Drang

Thus Herder can be seen as a thinker standing on the periphery of "storm and stress". Nevertheless, among the sturmers, Herder was very popular; the latter supplemented Herder's theory with their artistic practice. It was not without his assistance that works with national plots arose in German bourgeois literature (“Goetz von Berlichingen” - Goethe, “Otto” - Klinger and others), works imbued with the spirit of individualism, a cult of innate genius developed.

Memory

A square in the Old Town and a school are named after Herder in Riga.

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Literature

Gerbel N. German Poets in Biographies and Samples. - St. Petersburg., 1877.
Thoughts related to the philosophical history of mankind, according to the understanding and outline of Herder (books 1-5). - St. Petersburg., 1829.
Sid. Previous and note. W. Sorgenfrey, ed. N. Gumilyova. - P .: "World literature", 1922.
Guym R. Herder, his life and writings. In 2 vols. - M., 1888. (Republished by the publishing house "Nauka" in the series "The Word about Being" in 2011).
Pippin A. Herder // Vestnik Evropy. - 1890. - III-IV.
Mering F. Herder. On philosophical and literary themes. - Mn., 1923.
Gulyga A.V. Herder. Ed. 2nd, finalized. (ed. 1st - 1963). - M.: Thought, 1975. - 184 p. - 40,000 copies. (Series: Thinkers of the Past).
Zhirmunskiy V. Life and work of Herder // Zhirmunsky V. Essays on the history of classical German literature. - L., 1972. - S. 209-276.

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An excerpt characterizing Herder, Johann Gottfried

“Father, your excellency,” answered Alpatych, instantly recognizing the voice of his young prince.
Prince Andrei, in a raincoat, riding a black horse, stood behind the crowd and looked at Alpatych.
– How are you here? - he asked.
- Your ... your Excellency, - Alpatych said and sobbed ... - Yours, yours ... or have we already disappeared? Father…
– How are you here? repeated Prince Andrew.
The flame flared brightly at that moment and illuminated Alpatych's pale and exhausted face of his young master. Alpatych told how he was sent and how he could have left by force.
“Well, Your Excellency, or are we lost?” he asked again.
Prince Andrei, without answering, took out a notebook and, raising his knee, began to write with a pencil on a torn sheet. He wrote to his sister:
“Smolensk is being surrendered,” he wrote, “the Bald Mountains will be occupied by the enemy in a week. Leave now for Moscow. Answer me as soon as you leave, sending a courier to Usvyazh.
Having written and handed over the sheet to Alpatych, he verbally told him how to arrange the departure of the prince, princess and son with the teacher and how and where to answer him immediately. He had not yet had time to complete these orders, when the chief of staff on horseback, accompanied by his retinue, galloped up to him.
- Are you a colonel? shouted the chief of staff, with a German accent, in a voice familiar to Prince Andrei. - Houses are lit in your presence, and you are standing? What does this mean? You will answer, - shouted Berg, who was now assistant chief of staff of the left flank of the infantry troops of the first army, - the place is very pleasant and in sight, as Berg said.
Prince Andrei looked at him and, without answering, continued, turning to Alpatych:
“So tell me that I’m waiting for an answer by the tenth, and if I don’t get the news on the tenth that everyone has left, I myself will have to drop everything and go to the Bald Mountains.
“I, prince, only say so,” said Berg, recognizing Prince Andrei, “that I must obey orders, because I always fulfill them exactly ... Please excuse me,” Berg justified himself in some way.
Something crackled in the fire. The fire subsided for a moment; black puffs of smoke poured from under the roof. Something else crackled terribly in the fire, and something huge collapsed.
– Urruru! - Echoing the collapsed ceiling of the barn, from which there was a smell of cakes from burnt bread, the crowd roared. The flame flared up and illuminated the animatedly joyful and exhausted faces of the people standing around the fire.
A man in a frieze overcoat, raising his hand, shouted:
- Important! go fight! Guys, it's important!
“This is the master himself,” voices said.
“So, so,” said Prince Andrei, turning to Alpatych, “tell everything as I told you.” And, without answering a word to Berg, who fell silent beside him, he touched the horse and rode into the alley.

The troops continued to retreat from Smolensk. The enemy was following them. On August 10, the regiment, commanded by Prince Andrei, passed along the high road, past the avenue leading to the Bald Mountains. The heat and drought lasted for more than three weeks. Curly clouds moved across the sky every day, occasionally obscuring the sun; but towards evening it cleared again, and the sun set in a brownish-red mist. Only heavy dew at night refreshed the earth. The bread remaining on the root burned and spilled out. The swamps have dried up. The cattle roared from hunger, not finding food in the meadows burned by the sun. Only at night and in the forests the dew still held, it was cool. But along the road, along the high road along which the troops marched, even at night, even through the forests, there was no such coolness. The dew was not noticeable on the sandy dust of the road, which was pushed up more than a quarter of an arshin. As soon as it dawned, the movement began. Convoys, artillery silently walked along the hub, and the infantry ankle-deep in soft, stuffy, hot dust that had not cooled down during the night. One part of this sandy dust was kneaded by feet and wheels, the other rose and stood like a cloud over the army, sticking to the eyes, hair, ears, nostrils and, most importantly, the lungs of people and animals moving along this road. The higher the sun rose, the higher the cloud of dust rose, and through this thin, hot dust it was possible to look at the sun, not covered by clouds, with a simple eye. The sun was a big crimson ball. There was no wind, and people were suffocating in this still atmosphere. People walked with handkerchiefs around their noses and mouths. Coming to the village, everything rushed to the wells. They fought for water and drank it to the dirt.
Prince Andrei commanded the regiment, and the structure of the regiment, the well-being of its people, the need to receive and give orders occupied him. The fire of Smolensk and its abandonment were an epoch for Prince Andrei. A new feeling of bitterness against the enemy made him forget his grief. He was completely devoted to the affairs of his regiment, he was caring for his people and officers and affectionate with them. In the regiment they called him our prince, they were proud of him and loved him. But he was kind and meek only with his regimental officers, with Timokhin, etc., with completely new people and in a foreign environment, with people who could not know and understand his past; but as soon as he ran into one of his former staff members, he immediately bristled again; became malicious, mocking and contemptuous. Everything that connected his memory with the past repulsed him, and therefore he tried in the relations of this former world only not to be unjust and to fulfill his duty.
True, everything was presented in a dark, gloomy light to Prince Andrei - especially after they left Smolensk (which, according to his concepts, could and should have been defended) on August 6, and after his father, who was sick, had to flee to Moscow and throw away the Bald Mountains, so beloved, built up and inhabited by him, for plunder; but, despite the fact, thanks to the regiment, Prince Andrei could think about another subject, completely independent of general questions - about his regiment. On August 10, the column, in which his regiment was, caught up with the Bald Mountains. Prince Andrei two days ago received the news that his father, son and sister had left for Moscow. Although Prince Andrei had nothing to do in the Bald Mountains, he, with his characteristic desire to inflame his grief, decided that he should call in the Bald Mountains.
He ordered his horse to be saddled and from the crossing rode on horseback to his father's village, in which he was born and spent his childhood. Passing by a pond, where dozens of women always talked, beat with rollers and rinsed their clothes, Prince Andrei noticed that there was no one on the pond, and a torn-off raft, half flooded with water, floated sideways in the middle of the pond. Prince Andrei drove up to the gatehouse. There was no one at the stone entrance gate, and the door was unlocked. The garden paths were already overgrown, and the calves and horses were walking through the English park. Prince Andrei drove up to the greenhouse; the windows were broken, and the trees in tubs, some felled, some withered. He called Taras the gardener. Nobody responded. Going around the greenhouse to the exhibition, he saw that the carved board fence was all broken and the plum fruits were plucked with branches. An old peasant (Prince Andrei had seen him at the gate in his childhood) was sitting and weaving bast shoes on a green bench.
He was deaf and did not hear the entrance of Prince Andrei. He was sitting on a bench, on which the old prince liked to sit, and beside him was hung a bast on the knots of a broken and withered magnolia.
Prince Andrei drove up to the house. Several lindens in the old garden were cut down, one piebald horse with a foal walked in front of the house between the roses. The house was boarded up with shutters. One window downstairs was open. The yard boy, seeing Prince Andrei, ran into the house.
Alpatych, having sent his family, remained alone in the Bald Mountains; he sat at home and read the Lives. Upon learning of the arrival of Prince Andrei, he, with glasses on his nose, buttoning up, left the house, hurriedly approached the prince and, without saying anything, wept, kissing Prince Andrei on the knee.
Then he turned away with a heart to his weakness and began to report to him on the state of affairs. Everything valuable and expensive was taken to Bogucharovo. Bread, up to a hundred quarters, was also exported; hay and spring, unusual, as Alpatych said, this year's green harvest was taken and mowed - by the troops. The peasants are ruined, some have also gone to Bogucharovo, a small part remains.
Prince Andrei, without listening to the end, asked when his father and sister left, meaning when they left for Moscow. Alpatych answered, believing that they were asking about leaving for Bogucharovo, that they had left on the seventh, and again spread about the farm's shares, asking for permission.
- Will you order the oats to be released on receipt to the teams? We still have six hundred quarters left,” Alpatych asked.
“What to answer him? thought Prince Andrei, looking at the old man’s bald head shining in the sun and reading in his expression the consciousness that he himself understood the untimeliness of these questions, but asked only in such a way as to drown out his grief.
“Yes, let go,” he said.
“If they deigned to notice the unrest in the garden,” Alpatych said, “then it was impossible to prevent: three regiments passed and spent the night, especially dragoons. I wrote out the rank and rank of commander for filing a petition.
- Well, what are you going to do? Will you stay if the enemy takes? Prince Andrew asked him.
Alpatych, turning his face to Prince Andrei, looked at him; and suddenly raised his hand in a solemn gesture.
“He is my patron, may his will be done!” he said.
A crowd of peasants and servants walked across the meadow, with open heads, approaching Prince Andrei.
- Well, goodbye! - said Prince Andrei, bending over to Alpatych. - Leave yourself, take away what you can, and the people were told to leave for Ryazanskaya or Moscow Region. - Alpatych clung to his leg and sobbed. Prince Andrei carefully pushed him aside and, touching his horse, galloped down the alley.
At the exhibition, just as indifferent as a fly on the face of a dear dead man, the old man sat and tapped on a block of bast shoes, and two girls with plums in their skirts, which they picked from greenhouse trees, fled from there and stumbled upon Prince Andrei. Seeing the young master, the older girl, with fright expressed on her face, grabbed her smaller companion by the hand and hid behind a birch together with her, not having time to pick up the scattered green plums.
Prince Andrei hastily turned away from them in fright, afraid to let them notice that he had seen them. He felt sorry for this pretty, frightened girl. He was afraid to look at her, but at the same time he had an irresistible desire to do so. A new, gratifying and reassuring feeling came over him when, looking at these girls, he realized the existence of other, completely alien to him and just as legitimate human interests as those that occupied him. These girls, obviously, passionately desired one thing - to carry away and finish eating these green plums and not be caught, and Prince Andrei together with them wished the success of their enterprise. He couldn't help but look at them again. Considering themselves to be safe, they jumped out of the ambush and, holding their hemlines in thin voices, ran merrily and quickly across the grass of the meadow with their tanned bare legs.
Prince Andrei refreshed himself a little, having left the dusty area of the high road along which the troops were moving. But not far beyond the Bald Mountains, he again drove onto the road and caught up with his regiment at a halt, by the dam of a small pond. It was the second hour after noon. The sun, a red ball in the dust, was unbearably hot and burned his back through his black coat. The dust, still the same, stood motionless over the voice of the humming, halted troops. There was no wind. In the passage along the dam, Prince Andrei smelled of the mud and freshness of the pond. He wanted to get into the water, no matter how dirty it was. He looked back at the pond, from which cries and laughter were coming. A small muddy pond with greenery, apparently, rose a quarter by two, flooding the dam, because it was full of human, soldier, naked white bodies floundering in it, with brick-red hands, faces and necks. All this naked, white human meat, with laughter and a boom, floundered in this dirty puddle, like crucian carp stuffed into a watering can. This floundering echoed with merriment, and therefore it was especially sad.
One young blond soldier - even Prince Andrei knew him - of the third company, with a strap under the calf, crossed himself, stepped back to take a good run and flounder into the water; the other, a black, always shaggy non-commissioned officer, waist-deep in water, twitching his muscular frame, snorted joyfully, watering his head with his black hands. There was slapping and screeching and hooting.
On the banks, on the dam, in the pond, everywhere there was white, healthy, muscular meat. Officer Timokhin, with a red nose, wiped himself on the dam and felt ashamed when he saw the prince, but decided to turn to him:
- That's good, your Excellency, you would please! - he said.
“Dirty,” said Prince Andrei, grimacing.
We'll clean it up for you. - And Timokhin, not yet dressed, ran to clean.
The prince wants.
- Which? Our prince? - voices began to speak, and everyone hurried so that Prince Andrei managed to calm them down. He thought it better to pour himself in the shed.
“Meat, body, chair a canon [cannon fodder]! - he thought, looking at his naked body, and shuddering not so much from the cold, but from disgust and horror, incomprehensible to him, at the sight of this huge number of bodies rinsing in a dirty pond.
On August 7, Prince Bagration wrote the following in his camp at Mikhailovka on the Smolensk road:
“Dear Sovereign Count Alexei Andreevich.
(He wrote to Arakcheev, but he knew that his letter would be read by the sovereign, and therefore, as far as he was capable of doing so, he considered his every word.)
I think that the Minister has already reported on leaving Smolensk to the enemy. It hurts, sadly, and the whole army is in despair that the most important place was abandoned in vain. I, for my part, asked him personally in the most convincing way, and finally wrote; but nothing agreed with him. I swear to you on my honor that Napoleon was in such a bag as never before, and he could lose half the army, but not take Smolensk. Our troops have fought and are fighting like never before. I held on with 15,000 for over 35 hours and beat them; but he did not want to stay even 14 hours. It's a shame and a stain on our army; and he himself, it seems to me, should not live in the world. If he conveys that the loss is great, it is not true; maybe about 4 thousand, no more, but not even that. At least ten, how to be, war! But the enemy lost the abyss ...
What was it worth to stay two more days? At least they would have left; for they had no water to drink for men and horses. He gave me his word that he would not retreat, but suddenly sent a disposition that he was leaving into the night. Thus, it is impossible to fight, and we can soon bring the enemy to Moscow ...
Rumor has it that you think about the world. To reconcile, God forbid! After all the donations and after such extravagant retreats, make up your mind: you will turn the whole of Russia against you, and each of us, out of shame, will make him wear a uniform. If it has already gone like this, we must fight while Russia can and while people are on their feet ...
You have to lead one, not two. Your minister may be good in the ministry; but the general is not only bad, but trashy, and he was given the fate of our entire Fatherland ... I, really, go crazy with annoyance; Forgive me for writing boldly. It can be seen that he does not love the sovereign and wishes the death of all of us who advise to make peace and command the army to the minister. So, I am writing you the truth: prepare the militia. For the minister in the most skillful way leads the guest to the capital. Adjutant Wolzogen is giving the whole army a big suspicion. He, they say, is more Napoleonic than ours, and he advises everything to the minister. I am not only courteous against him, but I obey like a corporal, although older than him. It hurts; but, loving my benefactor and sovereign, I obey. It’s only a pity for the sovereign that he entrusts such a glorious army. Imagine that with our retreat we lost people from fatigue and more than 15 thousand in hospitals; and if they had attacked, it would not have happened. Say for God's sake that our Russia - our mother - will say that we are so afraid and why we give such a good and zealous Fatherland to bastards and instill hatred and shame in every subject. What to be afraid of and who to be afraid of?. It's not my fault that the minister is indecisive, a coward, stupid, slow and everything has bad qualities. The whole army is crying completely and scolding him to death ... "

Among the innumerable subdivisions that can be made in the phenomena of life, one can subdivide them all into those in which the content predominates, others in which the form predominates. Among these, in contrast to rural, zemstvo, provincial, even Moscow life, one can include life in St. Petersburg, especially salon life. This life is unchangeable.
Since 1805 we have been reconciling and quarreling with Bonaparte, we have made constitutions and butchered them, and the salon of Anna Pavlovna and the salon of Helene were exactly the same as they had been one seven years, the other five years ago. In the same way, Anna Pavlovna spoke with bewilderment about the successes of Bonaparte and saw, both in his successes and in the indulgence of European sovereigns, a malicious conspiracy, with the sole purpose of unpleasantness and anxiety of that court circle, of which Anna Pavlovna was a representative. In the same way, with Helen, whom Rumyantsev himself honored with his visit and considered a remarkably intelligent woman, just as in 1808, so in 1812, they spoke with enthusiasm about a great nation and a great person and looked with regret at the break with France, which, according to the people who gathered in the salon Helen, should have ended in peace.

en.wikipedia.org

Biography

Born into a craftsman's family, he graduated from the theological faculty of the Königsberg University. In his native Prussia, he was threatened by recruitment, so in 1764 Herder left for Riga, where he took a position as a teacher at the cathedral school, and later as a pastoral adjunct. In Riga he began his literary activity. In 1776, thanks to the efforts of Goethe, he moved to Weimar, where he received the post of court preacher. In 1788 he traveled to Italy.

Philosophy and criticism

Herder's writings "Fragments on German Literature" (Fragmente zur deutschen Literatur, Riga, 1766-1768), "Critical Groves" (Kritische Walder, 1769) played a large role in the development of German literature of the period of "storm and stress" (see. " Sturm und Drang"). Here we meet with a new, enthusiastic assessment of Shakespeare, with the idea (which became the central position of Herder's entire bourgeois theory of culture) that every people, every progressive period of world history has and should have a literature imbued with a national spirit. Herder substantiates the thesis about the dependence of literature on the natural and social environment: climate, language, customs, way of thinking of the people, whose moods and views are expressed by the writer, and completely specific specific conditions of a given historical period. “Could Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles write their works in our language and according to our customs? - Herder asks a question and answers: - Never!

The following works are devoted to the development of these thoughts: “On the Origin of Language” (Berlin, 1772), the articles: “On Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples” (Briefwechsel uber Ossian und die Lieder alter Volker, 1773) and “On Shakespeare”, published in Von deutscher Art und Kunst" (Hamb., 1770). The essay "Also the Philosophy of History" (Riga, 1774) is devoted to criticism of the rationalist philosophy of the history of the Enlightenment. The era of Weimar includes his "Plastic", "On the influence of poetry on the customs of peoples in old and new times", "On the spirit of Hebrew poetry" (Dessau, 1782-1783). From 1785, the monumental work Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind (Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Riga, 1784-1791) began to appear. This is the first experience of the general history of culture, where Herder's thoughts about the cultural development of mankind, about religion, poetry, art, and science receive their most complete expression. The East, antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, modern times - are depicted by Herder with erudition that amazed his contemporaries. At the same time he published a collection of articles and translations "Scattered sheets" (1785-1797) and a philosophical study "God" (1787).

His last great works (not counting the theological works) are Letters for the Promotion of Humanity (Briefe zur Beforderung der Humanitat, Riga, 1793-1797) and Adrasteia (1801-1803), pointed mainly against the classicism of Goethe and Schiller.

Fiction and translations

Herder's poetic and especially translational activity is very significant. He acquaints reading Germany with a number of the most interesting, hitherto unknown or little-known monuments of world literature. His famous anthology "Folk Songs" (Volkslieder, 1778-1779), known under the title "Voices of the Peoples in Songs" (Stimmen der Volker in Liedern), was made with great artistic taste, which opened the way for the latest collectors and researchers of folk poetry, since only with the time of Herder, the concept of the folk song received a clear definition and became a genuine historical concept; he introduces into the world of Oriental and Greek poetry with his anthology From the Oriental Poems (Blumenlese aus morgenlandischer Dichtung), the translation of Sakuntala and the Greek Anthology (Griechische Anthologie). Herder completed his translation activities with the processing of romances about Side (1801), making the brightest monument of old Spanish poetry a property of German culture.

Meaning

Fight against the ideas of the Enlightenment

Herder is one of the most significant figures of the Sturm und Drang era. He struggles with the theory of literature and the philosophy of the Enlightenment. Enlighteners believed in a man of culture. They argued that only such a person should be the subject and object of poetry, considered only periods of high culture worthy of attention and sympathy in world history, were convinced of the existence of absolute examples of art created by artists who developed their abilities to the maximum extent (such perfect creators were for enlighteners, ancient artists). Enlighteners considered the task of the contemporary artist to approach these perfect models through imitation. In contrast to all these assertions, Herder believed that the bearer of true art is precisely not a cultivated, but a “natural”, close to nature person, a person of great passions unrestrained by reason, a fiery and innate, and not a cultivated genius, and it is precisely such a person who should be the subject of art. Together with other irrationalists of the 70s. Herder was unusually enthusiastic about folk poetry, Homer, the Bible, Ossian and, finally, Shakespeare. According to them, he recommended studying genuine poetry, because here, as nowhere else, a “natural” person is depicted and interpreted.

The idea of human development

However, Herder combines the theory of progressive development with the theory of the cyclical development of world culture, converging in this with the enlighteners who believed that the "golden age" should be sought not in the past, but in the future. And this is not an isolated case of Herder's contact with the views of representatives of the Enlightenment. Relying on Hamann, Herder at the same time shares his solidarity with Lessing on a number of issues.

The idea of a nation state

Herder was one of those who first put forward the idea of a modern nation-state, but it arose in his teaching from a vitalized natural law and was of a completely pacifist nature. Each state that arose as a result of the seizures terrified him. After all, such a state, as Herder believed, and this manifested his popular idea, destroyed the established national cultures. In fact, only the family and the form of the state corresponding to it seemed to him as a purely natural creation. It can be called Herder's form of the nation-state.

“Nature brings up families and, consequently, the most natural state is one where one people lives with a single national character.” “The state of one people is a family, a comfortable home. It rests on its own foundation; founded by nature, it stands and perishes only in the course of time.”

Doctrine of the Folk Spirit

“In general, what is called the genetic spirit and character of the people is amazing. He is inexplicable and inextinguishable; he is as old as a people, as old as the country that this people inhabited.

These words contain the quintessence of Herder's doctrine of the spirit of the people. This teaching was first of all directed, as already at the preliminary stages of its development among the Enlighteners, to the preserved essence of peoples, stable in change. It rested on a more universal sympathy for the diversity of the individualities of peoples than the somewhat later teaching of the historical school of law, which arose from a passionate immersion in the originality and creative power of the German folk spirit. But it anticipated, albeit with less mysticism, the romantic feeling of the irrational and mysterious in the folk spirit. It, like romance, saw in the national spirit an invisible seal, expressed in the specific features of the people and their creations, unless this vision was freer, not so doctrinaire. Less harshly than later romanticism, it also considered the question of the indelibility of the national spirit.

Herder was much more critical of the then-appearing concept of race, considered shortly before by Kant (1775). His ideal of humanity counteracted this concept, which, according to Herder, threatened to bring humanity back to the animal level, even talking about human races seemed ignoble to Herder. Their colors, he believed, are lost in each other, and all this in the end is only shades of the same great picture. The true bearer of the great collective genetic processes was and remained, according to Herder, the people, and even higher - humanity.

Sturm und Drang

Thus Herder can be seen as a thinker standing on the periphery of "storm and stress". Nevertheless, among the sturmers, Herder was very popular; the latter supplemented Herder's theory with their artistic practice. It was not without his assistance that works with national subjects arose in German bourgeois literature (“Götz von Berlichingen” - Goethe, “Otto” - Klinger and others), works imbued with the spirit of individualism, and a cult of innate genius developed.

A square in the Old Town and a school are named after Herder in Riga.

Bibliography and sources

Gerbel N. German poets in biographies and samples. - St. Petersburg., 1877.
Thoughts related to the philosophical history of mankind, according to the understanding and outline of Herder (books 1-5). - St. Petersburg., 1829.
Sid. Previous and note. W. Sorgenfrey, ed. N. Gumilyova. - P .: "World literature", 1922.
Heim R. Herder, his life and writings. In 2 vols. - M., 1888.
Pypin A. Herder // Vestnik Evropy. - 1890. - III-IV.
Mering F. Herder. On philosophical and literary themes. - Mn., 1923.
Herder I. G. Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Humanity. (Series "Monuments of historical thought") - M .: Publishing house "Nauka", 1977. - 705 s - (Translation and notes by A. V. Mikhailov.)

Johann Gottfried Herder

Herder, Johann Gottfried (1744 - 1803) - famous German historian and philosopher. His largest and most important works are " Ideas on the philosophy of human history ".

Herder Johann Gottfried (1744-1803), German philosopher, theologian, poet, critic and esthetician, Sturm und Drang theorist, great friend and teacher I. Goethe. Born in Morungen (now Morong) in the family of a poor Lutheran priest. A student of early Kant. In 1764 he graduated from the University of Königsberg. In 1764-1769 he served as a pastor in the Dome Cathedral in Riga, from 1776 in Weimar, he traveled extensively in Europe. In Riga, he became close to the circle of K. Behrens, whose members vigorously discussed reform projects in the spirit of the Enlightenment. Then he became a member and secretary of one of Masonic lodges. Wrote a treatise on the origin of language. The founder of the concept of nationality. Collected and translated folk songs, taught. Being away from Koenigsberg did not break contact with Gaman And Kant, published in Koenigsberg editions. Significantly influenced the views A. N. Radishcheva .

Materials are reprinted from the project "East Prussian Dictionary", compiled by Alexei Petrushin using the book: "Essays on the History of East Prussia", edited by G.V. Kretinina.

Other biographical material:

Frolov I.T. Philosopher, writer, literary critic Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991 ).

Rumyantseva T.G. Herder's activity marks a new stage of enlightenment in Germany ( The latest philosophical dictionary. Comp. Gritsanov A.A. Minsk, 1998 ).

Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. He was known as a "hot Russian patriot" ( Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. Brief philosophical dictionary. M. 2010 ).

Schastlivtsev R.A. Experienced the influence of G. Lessing and especially I. Gaman ( New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010 , v. I, A - D).

Gulyga A.V. He predicted a great historical future for the Slavic peoples ( Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 4. THE HAGUE - DVIN. 1963 ).

Baker D. R. "Neither the chimpanzee nor the gibbon are your brothers...". ( Baker John R. Race. The white man's view of evolution. / John R. Baker, translated from English by M.Yu. Diunov. - M., 2015)

He pursued the idea of the formation and development of the world as an organic whole ( Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 ).

Rehabilitated folk medieval poetry ( The World History. Volume V. M., 1958 ).