The history of the missile attack warning system. Part I

Russia has completed the construction of a new missile attack warning system August 7th, 2016

I remember the talk that after the collapse of the USSR, half of our country was simply "blind" and not covered from the air. The military honestly admitted that there are holes in the control and surveillance system where they have no idea what is happening during combat duty.

The USSR had one of the best missile attack warning systems of its time. It was based on radar stations located on the territory of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Latvia and Ukraine. The collapse of the Union destroyed its integrity. In the Baltic States, a fully functional Daryal-type station was defiantly blown up shortly after gaining independence. According to experts, under pressure from NATO, Kyiv closed its Dnepr-type anti-missile radars. Another radar station was in Azerbaijan near the village of Gabala. Considered the most powerful in the world. But she also stopped working. Only Belarus has fulfilled and is fulfilling an agreement with Russia on its Volga radar station.

By 2000, Russia had effectively lost the ability to receive timely data on a missile attack. Moreover, back in the mid-1990s, with the degradation of the radio engineering services of the Air Defense Forces, our country lost a single radar field.

If in the USSR the entire airspace over a vast country was monitored around the clock by numerous radar systems, then the Russian Federation was no longer able to do this.

This was not mentioned, but it was not a secret either - the sky over the new Russia turned out to be uncontrolled in so many places. Not only light aircraft, but also large airliners could fly without any radar support. And it happened when a passenger plane, and even more so a helicopter, crashed somewhere in the taiga, they searched for it for weeks, since it was not known exactly where it disappeared.

And now...

And now, as Spetsstroy of Russia reports, in the Vorkuta region, work is underway to build a new radar complex for early warning of a missile attack warning system (SPRN) and space control "Voronezh-VP".

The Voronezh-VP radar complex under construction consists of two radar stations of the meter and centimeter range. Meter stations have a good practical experience. They have already been tested in Irkutsk and Orsk. The centimeter station will be tested for the first time in Vorkuta. The viewing range of the radar station under construction is about 6,000 kilometers. She will take up combat duty in 2018.

The first such station "Voronezh-M" (M means that the station of the meter range) began to build in May 2005 in the village of Lekhtusi, Leningrad Region. And already in December 2006, she was put on experimental combat duty. This became a world record for the speed of construction and commissioning, albeit a trial one, of such a complex radar complex.

As it turned out, the specialists of the Research Institute for Long-Range Radio Communications and other enterprises that are part of the specialized concern "Radio Engineering and Information Systems" developed not only the latest and very powerful radar, but were also the first in the world to implement the technology of the so-called high factory readiness.

The radar, capable of detecting small and high-speed targets at a distance of thousands of kilometers, has a modular design, assembled from blocks built and debugged at the factory. Previously, stations with similar characteristics were built in terms of five to nine years. Now for a year and a half.

VHF stations very organically complement Voronezh-DM UHF stations.

In February 2009, near the city of Armavir in the Krasnodar Territory, the first Voronezh-DM radar was put on experimental combat duty. Two radar buildings have a height of a ten-story building. They contain, figuratively speaking, the electronic brain of the station. It is important that the most modern equipment is mainly of domestic production.

The huge screen of the command post displays a sector of view in the southwestern and southeastern strategic directions from Europe to India. The Armavir radar station is capable of detecting launches of ballistic and cruise missiles from the air, land and from submarines at a distance of up to six thousand kilometers. An ultra-high-speed computer instantly determines the trajectory of the missile and the place where the warhead is likely to fall.

Just one "Voronezh-DM" near Armavir provides the information that was previously collected from three huge radar stations located on the territory of Azerbaijan and Ukraine.

Radar "Voronezh-DM" was created under the leadership of the General Designer of the Research Institute of Long-Range Radio Communications Sergey Saprykin.

For readers of "RG" Sergei Dmitrievich revealed some secrets. According to him, the modularity of the design of domestic radars of high factory readiness makes it possible to build and put into operation the most powerful radar systems anywhere in Russia in just one and a half to two years. No more than two hundred specialists can serve them. For comparison, thousands of highly qualified specialists should serve and work at similar facilities built according to old designs.

Everyone knows that the United States is actively creating a European missile defense system. The Americans have always claimed the superior effectiveness of the anti-missile defense that they have imposed on the Europeans. However, information has recently appeared that the protection of the European missile defense system is not very effective. However, this has never been a secret for our specialists.

General Designer Sergei Saprykin believes, and there is no doubt about the competence of his opinion, that the Americans have only one single missile defense radar station, which has characteristics similar to those possessed by Voronezh-DM. This is a cyclopean in size and very expensive to maintain UEWR radar, which is located on the island of Greenland and is part of the US national missile defense system. In appearance, it is similar to the Soviet anti-missile radars of the Daryal type. Operates in the decimeter range, has two antennas. There are no other radar stations that are close in their characteristics to the capabilities of the Voronezh-DM either in the United States or in other NATO countries. And we have the assembly of such radars put on a conveyor stream.

Russian technologies make it possible, for example, in the future to assemble modular radars not only for military purposes, but also those that will be able to track space hazards on a global scale, in particular, to detect asteroids and large meteorites dangerously approaching our planet in a timely manner. It turns out that "Voronezh" can protect not only Russia, but the whole Earth.

Now the construction of a new generation of radar stations of both meter and decimeter ranges is underway in the Orenburg region and in the Komi Republic. Radars of the "Voronezh-DM" type near Kaliningrad and "Voronezh-M" near Irkutsk took up combat duty. And two more radar stations near Krasnoyarsk and in the Altai Territory in the south of Central Siberia will begin to operate in the mode of experimental combat duty.

In the future, it is planned to build and put into operation several more radar stations of the Voronezh-M and Voronezh-DM types in the Amur Region, not far from Orsk, Vorkuta and Murmansk. The range of these stations will be at least six thousand kilometers. Russia will acquire radar protection not only in the air, but also in outer space.

sources

Over-the-horizon radar station Duga radar in Chernobyl-2

The Duga over-the-horizon radar, also known under the code designation 5N32, is designed to calculate and detect ballistic missiles. To date, three objects are known that worked on this system:

Installation near Nikolaev (dismantled);
a station in Bolshaya Kartel near Komsomolsk-on-Amur (decommissioned in 1989, now dismantled);
Chernobyl-2, which was stopped in 1986 due to the Chernobyl accident and partially dismantled. Some parts were transported to Komsomolsk-on-Amur.
The Duga radar made it possible to monitor not only all the movements of above-ground objects in Europe, but also the launches of ICBMs throughout North America. It is thanks to the development of such technology, which have been going on for decades, and their implementation, that the station got its name - "Duga".

The Duga-1 center, which was located in Chernobyl-2, was developed by the Research Institute of Long-Range Radio Communications. The brightest heads of the Soviet Union took part in the creation and design, namely: Kuzminsky, Vasyukov, Shamshin, Shtyren and Shustov.

The frequency of the radar was 5-28 MHz, while the antennas were created on the basis of phased array technology. There were two types of antennas in total, between which the range was and was divided. This was due to the fact that one installation would not have coped with the operating range. The low-frequency and high-frequency antennas, as well as the entire complex in the Chernobyl zone (more precisely, its remains) are still very clearly visible at any distance, since the scale of the object is really amazing.
Also at the station there was a unique system "Circle", which consisted of two rows of antenna vibrators (each 12 meters high, the number - 240 units), placed in a circle and one central, on a hill. The system sent a signal and immediately detected its own signal, which managed to bypass the entire planet during this time (!).

Unfortunately, the fate of the station turned out to be very deplorable due to the Chernobyl accident. The built radar station, which was first turned on in 1980, was upgraded just before the accident and was ready for duty, but it happened differently. Until 1987, the decision was made to mothball the station, in the hope of trying to resume its operation as much as possible after the accident. After this time, it became clear that it would not return to combat readiness due to the consequences of emissions from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
This was followed by a decision of the USSR government, according to which the most valuable and expensive equipment on the Duga-1 radar station was dismantled and transported to Komsomolsk-on-Amur. Due to the increase in looting on the territory of Chernobyl after the collapse of the USSR, as well as mass stalking, which the military patrols did not always successfully cope with, parts of the Duga-1 radar station were taken away, but it was not possible to plunder the station to the end or discreetly dismantle the remaining capacities marauders due to the colossal size of the main structures. An examination of the condition of the main supporting metal structures was not carried out, but traces of erosion are visible.

17 masts of 140 meters in height each and 12 of 90 meters, which, despite the lack of expertise, will still be able to cope with a certain additional load (such objects were cast from high-quality steel), gave grounds for putting forward a project to create a wind farm based on remnants of the Duga-1 radar. According to the project, it was proposed to install about 20 wind turbines (6x14 meters each) on all the masts of the former radar station. Given that they could be mounted on vibrators, and the location of the station is ideal for extracting wind electricity, in addition, the transportation of electricity would also be convenient, this project has a rational grain. But, again, it all comes down to doing research, getting permits, and global government disinterest in developing the area.

ROCKET ATTACK WARNING SYSTEM (SPRN)

SYSTEM OF THE PREVENTION OF ROCKET ATTACK (SPRN)

06.01.2018


Russian Space Forces detected all missile launches in the zone of responsibility of the Russian missile attack warning system. This was reported in the press service of the Ministry of Defense.
“As part of combat duty in 2017, the on-duty means of the Russian missile attack warning system, specialized means of space control systems and anti-missile defense detected more than 60 launches of foreign and domestic ballistic missiles and space missiles,” the military department specified.
The basis of the ground echelon radar facilities of the missile attack warning system is a new generation of radar stations of the Voronezh type, created in Russia using high factory readiness technology. Now seven new Voronezh stations in the Leningrad, Kaliningrad, Irkutsk, Orenburg regions and in the Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk and Altai territories are on combat duty. Work continues on the creation of new radar stations in the Murmansk region and in the Komi Republic.

06.01.2019


As part of combat duty in 2018, the on-duty facilities of the Russian missile attack warning system, specialized facilities of space control and anti-missile defense systems detected more than 60 launches of foreign and domestic ballistic missiles and space missiles.
The Russian Missile Attack Warning System (SPRN) solves the problems of receiving and issuing trajectory data to generate information about a missile attack warning at state and military command posts, the necessary information for the Moscow missile defense system, as well as issuing data on space objects for the control system outer space in the interests of information support for solving the problems of deterrence from launching missile strikes on the Russian Federation and increasing the effectiveness of response actions of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.
The basis of the radar facilities of the ground echelon of the PRN system is a new generation of radar stations of the Voronezh type, created on the territory of the Russian Federation using high factory readiness technology.
Currently, seven new Voronezh radars deployed in the Leningrad, Kaliningrad, Irkutsk, Orenburg regions of the Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk and Altai Territories are on combat duty for radar control of missile-hazardous areas in the established areas of responsibility. Work continues on the creation of new radar stations in the Murmansk region and the Komi Republic.
As part of the improvement of the space echelon of the missile attack warning system, a complete modernization of the control center of the space echelon of the early warning system was carried out. Specialists of the Space Forces of the Aerospace Forces are conducting flight design tests of spacecraft of the orbital group of the Unified Space System, which will become the basis of the space echelon of early warning systems and will significantly reduce the detection time of ballistic missile launches, as well as significantly increase efficiency
and the reliability of information in the warning of the military-political leadership of the country about missile threats.

11.01.2019


January 5 at 09:48 (Moscow time) the Russian military spacecraft Kosmos-2430 was deorbited as planned.
The satellite completely burned up in the dense layers of the atmosphere over the territory of the Atlantic Ocean at an altitude of about 100 km.
The descent of the vehicle from orbit in all parts of the trajectory was controlled by the duty forces of the Space Forces of the Russian Aerospace Forces.
The spacecraft was launched in 2007, and in 2012, after running out of resource, it was withdrawn from the orbital constellation of the Russian Federation.
Department of Information and Mass Communications of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation

Missile attack warning system (SPRN)- a complex of special technical means for detecting the launch of ballistic missiles, calculating their trajectory and transmitting information to the command center, on the basis of which the fact of an attack on a state with the use of missile weapons is recorded and an operational decision is made on response actions. In standby mode, the early warning system provides instrumental reconnaissance of the parameters of missiles of potential enemies during their test and combat training launches. It consists of two echelons - ground-based radars and satellite constellation.

History of creation

The development and adoption of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s led to the need to create means of detecting their launch in order to exclude the possibility of a surprise attack.

The construction of the first early warning radars was carried out in 1965-1969. These were two radars of the Dnestr-M type, located on the ORTU in Olenegorsk (Kola Peninsula) and Skrunda (Latvian SSR). On August 25, 1970, the system was put into service. It was designed to detect ballistic missiles launched from US territory or from the Norwegian and North Seas. The main task of the system at this stage was to provide information about the missile attack for the missile defense system deployed around Moscow.

At the same time, part of the SKKP stations at the Mishelevka ORTU (Irkutsk region) and Balkhash-9 (Kazakh SSR) were modernized, and the Main Missile Attack Warning Center (GC PRN) was created in the Solnechnogorsk region (Moscow region). Special communication lines were laid between ORTU and HC PRN. On February 15, 1971, by order of the Minister of Defense of the USSR, a separate anti-missile surveillance division took up combat duty. This day is considered the beginning of the functioning of the Soviet early warning system.

Adopted in 1972, the concept of a missile attack warning system provided for integration with existing and newly created missile defense systems. As part of this program, the Danube-3 (Kubinka) and Danube-3U (Chekhov) radars of the Moscow missile defense system were included in the warning system. V. G. Repin was appointed chief designer of the integrated early warning system.

In 1974, an improved Dnepr-type radar was put into operation at Balkhash. It improved the measurement accuracy in elevation and work at lower angles, increased the range and throughput. According to the Dnepr project, the radar station in Olenegorsk was then modernized, and stations were built in Mishelevka, Skrunda, Sevastopol and Mukachevo (Ukrainian SSR).

The first stage of the integrated system, which included ORTU in Olenegorsk, Skrunda, Balkhash and Mishelevka, took up combat duty on October 29, 1976. The second line, which included nodes in Sevastopol and Mukachevo, took up combat duty on January 16, 1979. These stations provided a wider sector of the warning system's coverage, extending it to the North Atlantic, the Pacific and the Indian Ocean.

In the early 1970s, new types of threats appeared - ballistic missiles with multiple and actively maneuvering warheads, as well as strategic cruise missiles that use passive (false targets, radar traps) and active (jamming) countermeasures. Their detection was also hampered by technologies for reducing radar visibility ("Stealth"). To meet the new requirements in 1971-1972, a Daryal-type radar project was developed. It was planned to build up to eight such stations along the perimeter of the USSR, gradually replacing obsolete ones with them.

In 1978, a modernized two-position radar complex in Olenegorsk was put into service, created on the basis of the existing Dnepr radar and the new Daugava installation, a reduced receiving part of the Daryal project. Here, for the first time in the country, large-aperture AFARs were used.

In 1984, the first full-scale Daryal-type station near the city of Pechora (Komi Republic) was handed over to the state commission and put on combat duty, a year later - the second station near the city of Gabala (Azerbaijan SSR). Both radar stations were accepted with imperfections and were completed in the course of work until 1987.

By 1979, a space system for early detection of ICBM launches from four spacecraft (SC) US-K (Oko system) was deployed in highly elliptical orbits. To receive, process information and control the system's spacecraft in Serpukhov-15 (70 km from Moscow), an early warning command post was built. After conducting flight design tests, the US-K first generation system was put into service in 1982. It was intended to monitor the continental missile-prone areas of the United States. To reduce the illumination by the background radiation of the Earth and the reflections of sunlight from the clouds, the satellites observed not vertically down, but at an angle. To do this, the apogees of the highly elliptical orbit were located over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. An additional advantage of this configuration was the ability to observe the American ICBM base areas on both daily orbits, while maintaining direct radio communication with the command post near Moscow, or with the Far East. This configuration provided conditions for observation of approximately 6 hours per day for one satellite. To ensure round-the-clock surveillance, it was necessary to have at least four spacecraft in orbit at the same time. To ensure the reliability and reliability of observations, the constellation had to include nine satellites - this made it possible to have a reserve in case of premature failure of the satellites, as well as to observe simultaneously two or three spacecraft, which reduced the likelihood of a false signal from the illumination of the recording equipment by direct or reflected from clouds by sunlight. This 9 - satellite configuration was first created in 1987 .

To ensure the solution of the tasks of detecting launches of ballistic missiles and bringing commands to the combat control of strategic nuclear forces (Strategic Nuclear Forces), it was supposed to create a Unified Space System (UNS) on the basis of the US-K and US-KMO systems.

As part of the state arms development program, a planned deployment of high-factory readiness radar stations (VZG radar) of the Voronezh family is being carried out in order to form a closed missile attack warning radar field at a new technological level with significantly improved characteristics and capabilities. At the moment, VZG radars of the meter range are deployed in the Leningrad, Orenburg and Irkutsk regions, VZG radars of the decimeter range in the Kaliningrad region, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk and Altai regions. It is planned to commission new VZG radars in the Komi Republic, Amur and Murmansk regions.

In 2012, S. F. Boev was appointed General Designer of the national early warning system.

Stations of the Russian early warning system abroad

Radar "Daryal" near the city of Gabala was operated until the end of 2012 on a leasehold basis. In 2013, the equipment was dismantled and taken to Russia, the buildings were transferred to Azerbaijan.

Belarus

Radar "Dnepr" is operated on a leasehold basis and is administered by VVKO.

Latvia

In February 2005, the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense demanded that Russia increase the payment, but was refused. Then, in September 2005, Ukraine began the process of transferring the radar station to the NSAU, meaning the renewal of the agreement in connection with a change in the status of the radar station [ ] .

In December 2005, Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko announced that the United States had sent a package of proposals for cooperation in the rocket and space sector. After the agreement was signed, American specialists were to gain access to the NSAU space infrastructure facilities, including two Dnepr radar stations in Sevastopol and Mukachevo. Since Russia in this case could not prevent the access of American specialists to the radar station, it had to rapidly deploy new Voronezh-DM radar stations near Armavir and Kaliningrad on its territory.

In March 2006, Ukrainian Defense Minister Anatoliy Gritsenko announced that Ukraine would not lease missile attack warning stations in Mukachevo and Sevastopol to the United States.

In June 2006, NSAU Director General Yuriy Alekseev announced that Ukraine and Russia had agreed to increase "one and a half times" the fee in 2006 for servicing the Russian side of the radar station in Sevastopol and Mukachevo.

On February 26, 2009, radar stations in Sevastopol and Mukachevo stopped transmitting information to Russia and began to work exclusively in the interests of Ukraine.

In 2011, the leadership of Ukraine decided to dismantle both stations. The military units serving the stations were disbanded.

History of creation

The development and adoption of intercontinental ballistic missiles in the late 1950s led to the need to create means for detecting launches of such missiles in order to exclude the possibility of a surprise attack.

The construction of the first early warning radars was carried out in 1963-1969. These were two Dnestr-M radars located in Olenegorsk (Kola Peninsula) and Skrunda (Latvia). In August, the system was put into service. It was designed to detect ballistic missiles launched from US territory or from the Norwegian and North Seas. The main task of the system at this stage was to provide information about the missile attack to the missile defense system deployed around Moscow.

In 1967-1968, simultaneously with the construction of radar stations in Olenegorsk and Skrunda, the construction of four Dnepr-type radar stations (a modernized version of the Dnestr-M radar station) began. For construction, nodes were chosen in Balkhash-9 (Kazakhstan), Mishelevka (near Irkutsk), Sevastopol. Another one was built at the site in Skrunda, in addition to the Dnestr-M radar already operating there. These stations were supposed to provide a wider sector of the warning system, expanding it to the North Atlantic, the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions.

At the beginning of 1971, on the basis of the command post for early detection in Solnechnogorsk, a command post for a missile attack warning system was created. On February 15, 1971, by order of the Minister of Defense of the USSR, a separate anti-missile surveillance division took up combat duty.

In the early 1970s, new types of threats appeared - ballistic missiles with multiple and actively maneuvering warheads, as well as strategic cruise missiles that use passive (false targets, radar traps) and active (jamming) countermeasures. Their detection was also hampered by the introduction of radar visibility reduction systems (Stealth technology). To meet the new conditions in 1971-72, a project was developed for a new early warning radar of the Daryal type. In 1984, a station of this type was handed over to the state commission and put on combat duty in the city of Pechora, Komi Republic. A similar station was built in 1987 in Gabala, Azerbaijan.

Space echelon early warning system

In accordance with the project of the missile attack warning system, in addition to over-the-horizon and over-the-horizon radars, it was supposed to include a space echelon. It made it possible to significantly expand its capabilities due to the ability to detect ballistic missiles almost immediately after launch.

The lead developer of the space echelon of the warning system was the Central Research Institute "Kometa", and the Design Bureau named after A.I. Lavochkin.

By 1979, a space system for early detection of ICBM launches from four spacecraft (SC) US-K (Oko system) was deployed in highly elliptical orbits. To receive, process information and control the system's spacecraft in Serpukhov-15 (70 km from Moscow), an early warning control center was built. After conducting flight design tests, the first generation US-K system was put into service in. It was intended to monitor the continental missile-prone areas of the United States. To reduce the illumination by the background radiation of the Earth, reflections of sunlight from clouds and glare, the satellites observed not vertically down, but at an angle. To do this, the apogees of the highly elliptical orbit were located over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. An additional advantage of this configuration was the ability to observe the American ICBM base areas on both daily orbits, while maintaining direct radio communication with the command post near Moscow, or with the Far East. This configuration provided conditions for observation of approximately 6 hours per day for one satellite. To ensure round-the-clock surveillance, it was necessary to have at least four spacecraft in orbit at the same time. In reality, to ensure the reliability and reliability of observations, the constellation had to include nine satellites. This made it possible to have the necessary reserve in case of premature failure of the satellites. In addition, the observation was carried out simultaneously by two or three spacecraft, which reduced the probability of issuing a false signal from the illumination of the recording equipment by direct or reflected sunlight from clouds. This 9 - satellite configuration was first created in 1987 .

To ensure the solution of the tasks of detecting launches of ballistic missiles and bringing commands to the combat control of strategic nuclear forces (Strategic Nuclear Forces), it was supposed to create a Unified Space System (UNS) on the basis of the US-K and US-KMO systems.

At the beginning of 2012, the planned deployment of VZG radar stations of high factory readiness (VZG radar) "Voronezh" is being carried out in order to form a closed radar field for warning of a missile attack at a new technological level with significantly improved characteristics and capabilities. At the moment, new VZG radars have been deployed in Lekhtusi (one meter), Armavir (two decimeter), Svetlogorsk (decimeter). The construction of a dual VZG meter-range radar complex in the Irkutsk region is ahead of schedule - the first segment of the southeast direction has been put on experimental combat duty, the complex with the second antenna sheet for viewing the east direction is planned to be put on OBD in 2013.

Work on the creation of a unified space system (UNS) is entering the finish line.

Russian early warning stations on the territory of Ukraine

Unlike Russian-leased and Russian-operated early warning radars located in Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, Ukrainian radars are not only owned by Ukraine, but also maintained by the Ukrainian military. On the basis of an interstate agreement, information from these radars, which monitor outer space over Central and Southern Europe, as well as the Mediterranean, is sent to the central command post of the early warning system in Solnechnogorsk, subordinate to the Russian space forces. For this, Ukraine annually received $1.2 million.

In February, the Ukrainian Defense Ministry demanded that Russia increase the payment, but Moscow refused, recalling that the 1992 agreement was for 15 years. Then, in September 2005, Ukraine began the process of transferring the radar to the NSAU, meaning the renewal of the agreement in connection with a change in the status of the radar. Russia cannot prevent American specialists from accessing the radar. At the same time, Russia would have to deploy new Voronezh-DM radars on its territory at an accelerated pace, which it did by putting nodes on duty near Armavir in Krasnodar and Svetlogorsk in Kaliningrad.

In March, Ukrainian Defense Minister Anatoly Gritsenko said that Ukraine would not lease two missile warning stations in Mukachevo and Sevastopol to the United States.

In June 2006, Director General of the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU) Yuri Alekseev announced that Ukraine and Russia had agreed to increase the service fee in 2006 in the interests of the Russian side of the radar station in Sevastopol and Mukachevo "one and a half times."

Currently, Russia has abandoned the use of stations in Sevastopol and Mukachevo. The leadership of Ukraine has decided to dismantle both stations within the next 3-4 years. The military units serving the stations have already been disbanded.

see also

• Over-the-horizon radar

Notes

Links

• History and current state of the Russian missile attack warning system
• The history of the creation of a missile attack warning system, arms-expo.ru