The history of the Turks goes back over four thousand years. The Turkic world - What did the ancient Turks look like?

Altai language family. As a result, linguistic classification, introduced in the 19th century, in the category of so-called. many peoples are included, to-rye before that they were not included in their composition. so-called. settled in Russia, the CIS, Turkey, China, Iran and other states. The Turks are Azerbaijanis, Altaians, Balkars, Bashkirs, Gagauz, Dolgans, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Karachais, Kirghiz, Kumyks, Nogais, Tatars, Teleuts, Tuvans, Turks, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Khakasses, Chuvashs, Shors, Yakuts, etc. In 1990, the number of Turks was 132.8 million people. According to World. Assembly of the so-called, in the world there are approx. 200 million people belonging to the Turks (2007). Approx. 30 T.S. numbering 12 million 750 thousand people. (2002).

Proto-Turkic are considered (Huns), whose movement to the west is noted in the end. 3 - beginning. 2nd century BC. At the beginning of a.d. Ogur tribes (cf. ) - ancestors - migrated to the west. direction. Proto-Bulgarians. groups as ethnic The community was formed long before the formation of the Turks themselves. tribes (Turkyuts). In the 2nd–4th centuries in the Urals, an unification of the nomadic tribes of the Huns took shape, moving into the middle. 4th c. on Z and laid the foundation , which marked the end of the centuries-old domination of the Iranian language. nomadic tribes of the Scythians, and opened the way to the movement to the 3rd Turkic language. nomads (in the 9th–10th centuries, the Pechenegs and , in the 11th century. ). Turk. tribes, primarily Onogurs-Bulgarians and Savirs (see. ), were part of the Hun federation. In the 5th c. The Turks called the horde that rallied around Prince Amin (Mongolian name meaning wolf). According to the legend, the Altai Turks - tukyu (turkut) - come from the west. Huns. In the 6th c. the Turks formed into a small people who lived in the east. slopes of Altai and Khangai. As a result of several successful wars (since 545), the Turks managed to subjugate all the steppes from Khingan (Northeast China) to Azov. seas. The state of the Turks was called Türk. Khaganate, which in 604 disintegrated into the West. and Vostoch. Turkic Khaganates. From Ser. 6th c. to the 30s 7th c. Bulgarians and Suvars were part of Türk., then West. Turk. kaganate. Bulgarian. the component is present in a number of so-called. Caucasus: Azerbaijanis, Balkars, Karachays, Kumyks. On the ruins of the first Turks. and other associations appeared Kimak, Uigur Khaganates. famous Turk. the Ashina clan was headed by the Khazars. unification of hordes (cf. ), who lived in the Caspian steppes. In the 11th century to Turk. dialects were spoken by many peoples from Marble. sea ​​and slopes of the Carpathians to the Great Wall of China. Ancient so-called. were nomads, they subjugated many farmers. peoples who became their farmers. base. Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions are the most important historical. and cultures. monuments (cf. , ). Turk. communities had a common cult of Tengrikhan - the god of the sky, the sun, a common cult of ancestors, as well as similarities in everyday life, clothing, methods of warfare; collection of information about the ancient Turks. tribes compiled in the 11th century. .

Mongol-Tatars. invasion of Eastern Europe in the 1220s–40s. set in motion masses of nomads. In the Eurasian steppes, the Kypchaks were defeated (the Kypchak steppe of the pre-Mongolian period is known as , it stretched from Altai to the Carpathians); conquered in 1236 . In the beginning. 1240s founded , it included Khorezm, the North. Caucasus, Crimea, Volga. Bulgaria, Urals, West. Siberia. The bulk of the population were Kypchaks, whose language was the state language. In the 1st floor. 15th c. formed late Golden Horde. ethnopolitical associations - Astrakhan., Kazan., Crimea., Siberia. khanates, Nogai Horde; in con. 15 - beginning. 16th centuries educated Kazakh. (in the composition of the Kazakhs historically formed the Senior, Middle, Junior zhuzes) and Uzbek. khanates. Their population consisted of Turkic tribes (Nogai, Kipchaks, Bashkirs, Kazakhs) and peoples (Kazan Tatars, Chuvashs), as well as Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts, Khanty, Mansi). During the existence of the khanates, the so-called. In particular, significant masses of Chuvash. population migrated to the territory of Bashkiria and to the West. Siberia, where the places were assimilated. Turks (Bashkirs, Siberian Tatars) and Kazan Tatars. migrants. All R. 16th century so-called. The Volga and Ural regions (Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs) became part of Rus. states, so-called. Siberia - in the 17th century, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the Middle. Asia - in the 18-19 centuries. After construction in the 17th and 18th centuries there was a resettlement of the Chuvash, Tatar-Mishars, Kazan. Tatars and other peoples in the areas of the so-called. .

Unlike language material. and spiritual culture of the ancients. Chuvash (religion, including the pantheon, applied, musical, choreographic creativity, monumental and small forms of sculpture), with the exception of certain elements (for example, similarity. As a result, long interaction with a number of so-called, with their ethnic. In groups (primarily of the Tatar ethnic group), the Chuvash formed similar features that can be traced both in material and in spiritual culture.

Lit .: Bichurin N. Ya. Collection of information about the peoples who lived in Central Asia in ancient times. T. 1–2. M.–L., 1950; T. 3. M.–L., 1953; Klyashtorny S. G. Ancient Turkic runic monuments as a source on the history of Central Asia. M., 1964; Pletneva S. A. Nomads of the Middle Ages. M., 1982; Gumilyov L. N. Ancient Turks. M., 1993; Kakhovsky V. F. The origin of the Chuvash people. Ch., 2003; Ivanov V.P. Ethnic geography of the Chuvash people. Ch., 2005.

The ancient Turks are the ancestors of many modern Turkic peoples, including the Tatars. The Turks roamed the Great Steppe (Dashti-Kypchak) in the expanses of Eurasia. Here they conducted their economic activities, on these lands they created their own states. The Volga-Ural region, located on the periphery of the Great Steppe, has long been inhabited by Finno-Ugric and Turkic tribes. In the second century AD, other Turkic tribes also migrated here from Central Asia, known in history as the Huns. In the 4th century, the Huns occupied the Black Sea region, then invaded Central Europe. But, over time, the Hun union of tribes broke up and most of the Huns returned to the Black Sea region, joining other local Turks.
The Turkic Khaganate, created by the Turks of Central Asia, existed for about two hundred years. Among the peoples of this kaganate, written sources point to the Tatars. It is noted that this is a very numerous Turkic people. The tribal association of the Tatars, located on the territory of modern Mongolia, included 70 thousand families. The Arab historian pointed out that due to their exceptional greatness and authority, other tribes also united under this name. Other historians also reported about the Tatars living on the banks of the Irtysh River. In frequent military clashes, the opponents of the Tatars usually turned out to be the Chinese and Mongols. There is no doubt that the Tatars were Turks, and in this sense they are close relatives (and to a certain extent can also be attributed to the ancestors) of the modern Turkic peoples.
After the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate, the Khazar Khaganate came into power. The possession of the kaganate extended to the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Crimea. The Khazars were an association of Turkic tribes and peoples and "were one of the remarkable peoples of that era" (L. N. Gumilyov). Exceptional religious tolerance flourished in this state. For example, in the capital of the state, Itil, located not far from the mouth of the Volga, there were Muslim mosques, prayer houses of Christians and Jews. Seven equal judges worked: two Muslims, a Jew, a Christian and one pagan. Each of them resolved the lawsuits of people of the same religion as him. The Khazars were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, agriculture and gardening, and in the cities - crafts. The capital of the kaganate was not only a center of handicrafts, but also of international trade.
In the years of its heyday, Khazaria was a powerful state, and it was not for nothing that the Caspian Sea was called the Khazar Sea. However, the military actions of external enemies weakened the state. The attacks of the troops of the Arab Caliphate, the principality of Kyiv and the hostile policy of Byzantium turned out to be especially tangible. All this led to the fact that at the end of the tenth century Khazaria ceased to exist as an independent state. One of the main components of the Khazar people were the Bulgars. Some historians of the past pointed out that the Scythians, Bulgars and Khazars are one and the same people. Others believe that the Bulgars are the Huns. They are also mentioned as Kipchaks, as Caucasian and North Caucasian tribes. In any case, the Bulgar Turks have been known from written sources for almost two thousand years. There are many interpretations of the word "Bulgar". According to one of them, 6ulgars are river people or people associated with fishing. According to other versions, “Bulgars” can mean: “mixed, consisting of many elements”, “rebels, rebels”, “wise men, thinkers”, etc. The Bulgars had their own state formation - Great Bulgaria in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, with the capital - r. Phanagoria, on the Taman Peninsula. This state included lands from the Dnieper to the Kuban, part of the North Caucasus and the steppe expanses between the Caspian and Azov seas. Once the Caucasus Mountains were also called the chain of the Bulgar mountains. The Azov Bulgaria was a peaceful state, and often fell into dependence on the Turkic Khaganate and Khazaria. The state reached its greatest prosperity under the rule of Kubrat Khan, who managed to unite the Bulgars and other Turkic tribes. This khan was a wise ruler who achieved remarkable success in ensuring a peaceful life for his fellow citizens. During his reign, Bulgar cities grew, crafts developed. The state received international recognition, relations with geographical neighbors were relatively stable.
The position of the state deteriorated sharply after the death of Kubrat Khan in the middle of the 7th century, and the political and military pressure of Khazaria on Bulgaria intensified. Under these conditions, there were several cases of resettlement of significant masses of Bulgars to other regions. One group of Bulgars headed by Prince Asparukh moved west and settled on the banks of the Danube. A large group of Bulgars, led by the son of Kubrat Kodrak, went to the middle Volga region.
The Bulgars who remained in the Sea of ​​Azov ended up as part of Khazaria along with the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins and with other Turks of the state. However, this did not bring them eternal peace. In the 20s of the 7th century, Khazaria was attacked by the Arabs, during which the large Bulgarian cities of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov were captured and burned. Ten years later, the Arabs repeated their campaign, this time they plundered the Bulgar lands in the vicinity of the Terek and Kuban rivers, captured 20 thousand Barsils (the travelers of the century as part of the Bulgar people singled out Barsils, Esegels and, in fact, Buggars). All this caused another massive campaign of the Bulgar population to their fellow tribesmen in the Volga region. Subsequently, the defeat of Khazaria was accompanied by other cases of Bulgar migration to the middle and upper reaches of the Itil (the Itil River, in the understanding of that time, began with the Belaya River, included part of the Kama and then the Volga).
Thus, mass and small migrations of the Bulgars to the Volga-Ural region took place. The choice of the resettlement area is quite understandable. Here several centuries ago the Huns lived and their descendants continued to live, as well as other Turkic tribes. From this point of view, these places were the historical homeland of ancestors for certain Turkic tribes. In addition, the Turkic peoples of the middle and lower Volga region maintained constant close ties with the kindred peoples of the Caucasus and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov; the developed nomadic economy more than once led to the mixing of different Turkic tribes. That's why. the strengthening of the Bulgar element in the middle Volga region was quite an ordinary phenomenon.
The increase in the Bulgar population in these areas led to the fact that it was the Bulgars who became the main forming element of the Tatar people, formed in the Volga-Ural region. At the same time, it should be taken into account that no more or less large people can trace their genealogy from only one single tribe. And the Tatar people in this sense is not an exception, among its ancestors one could name more than one tribe, and also indicate more than one influence (including Finno-Ugric). However, it is the Bulgars that should be recognized as the main element in the composition of the Tatar people.
Over time, the Turkic-Bulgarian tribes began to make up a fairly large population in this region. If, moreover, we take into account their historical experience in state building, then there is nothing surprising in the fact that the state of Great Bulgaria (Volga Bulgaria) soon arose here. In the initial period of its existence, Bulgaria in the Volga region was, as it were, a union of relatively independent regions, vassal dependent on Khazaria. But, in the second half of the 10th century, the supremacy of a single prince was already recognized by all specific rulers. There was a common system of paying taxes to the common treasury of a single state. By the time of the collapse of Khazaria, Great Bulgaria was a fully formed single state, its borders were recognized by neighboring states and peoples. In the future, the zone of political and economic influence of Bulgaria extended from the Oka to the Yaik (Urals). The lands of Bulgaria included areas from the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama to the Yaik and the lower reaches of the Volga. The Khazar Sea became known as the Bular Sea. “Atil is a river in the region of the Kipchaks, it flows into the Bulgar Sea,” wrote Mahmud Kashgari in the 11th century.
Great Bulgaria in the Volga region became a country of settled and semi-sedentary population and had a highly developed economy. In agriculture, the Bulgars used iron plowshares to plows already in the 10th century, the Bulgar Saban plow provided plowing with a layer turnover. The Bulgars used iron tools for agricultural production, grew more than 20 types of cultivated plants, were engaged in gardening, beekeeping, as well as hunting and fishing. Handicraft reached a high level for that time. The Bulgars were engaged in jewelry, leather, bone carving, metallurgical, pottery production. They were familiar with iron smelting, and began to use it in production. The Bulgars also used gold, silver, copper and their various alloys in their products. “The Bulgarian kingdom was one of the few states of medieval Europe, in which, in the shortest possible time, conditions were created for the high development of handicraft production in a number of industries” (A.P. Smirnov).
Since the 11th century, Velikaya Bulgaria has been the leading trading center in Eastern Europe. Trade relations developed with the closest neighbors - with the northern peoples, with the Russian principalities and with Scandinavia. Trade with Central Asia, with the Caucasus, with Persia, with the Baltics unfolded. The Bulgarian merchant fleet ensured the export and import of goods by waterways, and by land trade caravans went to Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The Bulgars exported fish, bread, timber, walrus teeth, furs, specially processed leather “Bulgari”, swords, chain mail, etc. From the Yellow Sea to Scandinavia, jewelry, leather and fur products of Bulgar craftsmen were known. The minting of own coins, begun in the 10th century, contributed to the further strengthening of the position of the Bulgarian state as a recognized center of trade between Europe and Asia.
Bulgars, in their bulk, adopted Islam as early as 825, i.e. almost 1200 years ago. The canons of Islam, with their call for spiritual and physical purity, for mercy, etc., found a special response among the Bulgars. The official adoption of Islam in the state has become a powerful factor in the consolidation of the people into a single organism. In 922 Almas Shilki, the ruler of the Great Bulgaria, received a delegation from the Baghdad Caliphate. A solemn prayer service was held in the central mosque of the capital of the state - in the city of Bulgape. Islam became the official state religion. This allowed Bulgaria to strengthen trade and economic relations with the developed Muslim states of that time. The position of Islam soon became very stable. Western European travelers of that time noted that the inhabitants of Bulgaria are a single people, "holding the law of Mukhammetov more firmly than anyone else." Within the framework of a single state, the formation of the nationality itself has also been basically completed. In any case, the Russian chronicles of the 11th century note here a single, Bulgar people.
Thus, the direct ancestors of modern Tatars were formed as a nationality in the Volga-Ural region. At the same time, they absorbed not only related Turkic tribes, but also partially local Finno-Ugric ones. The Bulgars more than once had to defend their lands from the encroachments of greedy robbers. The incessant attacks of the seekers of easy money forced the Bulgars even to move the capital; in the 12th century, the city of Bilyar, located at some distance from the main water artery - the Volga River, became the capital of the state. But, the most serious military trials fell on the lot of the Bulgar people in the XII century, which brought the Mongol invasion to the world.
Within three decades of the XIII century, the Mongols conquered a significant part of Asia and began their campaigns on the lands of Eastern Europe. The Bulgars, conducting intensive trade with Asian partners, were well aware of the danger posed by the Mongol army. They tried to create a united front, but their call for neighbors to unite in the face of a deadly threat fell on deaf ears. Eastern Europe met the Mongols not united, but disunited, divided into warring states (Central Europe made the same mistake). In 1223, the Mongols utterly defeated the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Kipchak warriors on the Kalka River and sent part of their troops to Bulgaria. However, the Bulgars met the enemy on the distant approaches, near the Zhiguli. Using a skillful ambush system, the Bulgars, led by Ilgam Khan, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols, destroying up to 90% of the enemy troops. The remnants of the Mongol army retreated to the south, and “the land of the Kypchaks was freed from them; whoever escaped from them returned to his own land ”(Ibn al-Athir).
This victory brought peace to Eastern Europe for a while, and trade that had been suspended was resumed. Apparently, the Bulgars were well aware that the victory won was not final. They began active preparations for defense: cities and fortresses were fortified, huge earthen ramparts were poured in the area of ​​the Yaik, Belaya rivers, etc. At the then level of technology, in such a short period of time, such work could be carried out only with a very high level of organization of the population. This serves as an additional confirmation of the fact that by this time the Bulgars were a single, close-knit people, united by a common idea, the desire to preserve their independence. Six years later, the Mongols attacked again, and this time the enemy failed to penetrate the main territory of Bulgaria. The authority of Bulgaria, as a real force capable of resisting the Mongol invasion, became especially high. Many peoples, primarily the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins, Cumans-Kipchaks began to move to the lands of Bulgaria, thereby contributing their share to the composition of the ancestors of modern Tatars.
In 1236 the Mongols made their third campaign against Bulgaria. The subjects of the country fought fiercely, defending their state. For a month and a half, the Bulgars selflessly defended the besieged capital - the city of Bilyar. However, the 50,000th army of the Bulgar Khan Gabdulla Ibn-Ilgam could not resist the onslaught of the 250,000th Mongol army for a long time. The capital has fallen. The following year, the western lands of Bulgaria were conquered, all fortifications and fortresses were destroyed. The Bulgars did not reconcile themselves to the defeat, the uprisings followed one after another. Bulgars almost 50 years of hostilities against the conquerors, which forced the latter to keep almost half of their troops on the territory of Bulgaria. However, it was not possible to restore the full independence of the state, the Bulgars became subjects of the new state - the Golden Horde.

The official history says that the Turkic language arose in the first millennium when the first tribes belonging to this group appeared. But, as modern research shows, the language itself arose much earlier. There is even an opinion that the Turkic language came from a certain proto-language, which was spoken by all the inhabitants of Eurasia, as in the legend of the Tower of Babel. The main phenomenon of the Turkic vocabulary is that it has not changed much over the five millennia of its existence. The ancient writings of the Sumerians will still be as clear to the Kazakhs as modern books.

Spreading

The Turkic language group is very numerous. If you look territorially, then the peoples who communicate in similar languages ​​live like this: in the west, the border begins with Turkey, in the east - the autonomous region of China Xinjiang, in the north - the East Siberian Sea and in the south - Khorasan.

Currently, the approximate number of people who speak Turkic is 164 million, this number is almost equal to the entire population of Russia. At the moment, there are different opinions about how the group of Turkic languages ​​is classified. Which languages ​​stand out in this group, we will consider further. Main: Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Uighur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachai, Kumyk, Nogai, Tuva, Khakass, Yakut, etc.

Ancient Turkic-speaking peoples

We know that the Turkic group of languages ​​spread very widely in Eurasia. In ancient times, the peoples who spoke this way were simply called Turks. Their main activity was cattle breeding and agriculture. But one should not perceive all modern peoples of the Turkic language group as descendants of an ancient ethnic group. As the millennia passed, their blood mixed with the blood of other ethnic groups of Eurasia, and now there are simply no indigenous Turks.

The ancient peoples of this group include:

• Turkuts - tribes that settled in the Altai Mountains in the 5th century AD;
• Pechenegs - arose at the end of the 9th century and inhabited the region between Kievan Rus, Hungary, Alania and Mordovia;
• Polovtsy - with their appearance they forced out the Pechenegs, they were very freedom-loving and aggressive;
• the Huns - arose in the II-IV centuries and managed to create a huge state from the Volga to the Rhine, Avars and Hungarians went from them;
• Bulgars - such peoples as the Chuvash, Tatars, Bulgarians, Karachays, Balkars originated from these ancient tribes.
• Khazars - huge tribes who managed to create their own state and oust the Huns;
• Oghuz Turks - the ancestors of the Turkmens, Azerbaijanis, lived in Seljukia;
• Karluks - lived in the VIII-XV centuries.

Classification

The Turkic group of languages ​​has a very complex classification. Rather, each historian offers his own version, which will differ from the other by minor changes. We offer you the most common option:

1. Bulgarian group. The only currently existing representative is the Chuvash language.
2. The Yakut group is the easternmost of the peoples of the Turkic language group. Residents speak Yakut and Dolgan dialects.
3. South Siberian - this group includes the languages ​​of peoples living mainly within the borders of the Russian Federation in southern Siberia.
4. Southeastern, or Karluk. Examples are Uzbek and Uighur languages.
5. The Northwestern, or Kipchak, group is represented by a large number of nationalities, many of whom live on their own independent territory, such as Tatars, Kazakhs, and Kirghiz.
6. Southwestern, or Oguz. The languages ​​included in the group are Turkmen, Salar, Turkish.

Yakuts

On their territory, the local population calls itself simply - Sakha. Hence the name of the region - the Republic of Sakha. Some representatives also settled in other neighboring areas. The Yakuts are the most eastern of the peoples of the Turkic language group. Culture and traditions were borrowed in ancient times from the tribes living in the central steppe part of Asia.

Khakasses

For this people, an area is defined - the Republic of Khakassia. Here is the largest contingent of Khakasses - about 52 thousand people. Several thousand more moved to live in Tula and the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

Shors

This nationality reached its greatest number in the 17th-18th centuries. Now this is a small ethnic group that can be found only in the south of the Kemerovo region. To date, the number is very small, about 10 thousand people.

Tuvans

Tuvans are usually divided into three groups, which differ from each other in some features of the dialect. Inhabit the Republic This is a small eastern of the peoples of the Turkic language group, living on the border with China.

Tofalars

This nation has almost disappeared. According to the 2010 census, 762 people were found in several villages of the Irkutsk region.

Siberian Tatars

The eastern dialect of Tatar is the language that is considered to be the national language for the Siberian Tatars. This is also a Turkic group of languages. The peoples of this group are densely settled in Russia. They can be found in the countryside of the regions of Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk and others.

Dolgany

A small group living in the northern regions of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They even have their own municipal district - Taimyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky. To date, only 7.5 thousand people remain representatives of the Dolgans.

Altaians

The Turkic group of languages ​​includes the Altai lexicon. Now in this area you can freely get acquainted with the culture and traditions of the ancient people.

Independent Turkic-speaking states

To date, there are six separate independent states, the nationality of which is the indigenous Turkic population. First of all, these are Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Of course, Türkiye and Turkmenistan. And do not forget about Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, which treat the Turkic language group in exactly the same way.

The Uighurs have their own autonomous region. It is located in China and is called Xinjiang. Other nationalities belonging to the Turks also live in this territory.

Kyrgyz

The Turkic group of languages ​​primarily includes Kyrgyz. Indeed, the Kirghiz or Kyrgyz are the most ancient representatives of the Turks who lived on the territory of Eurasia. The first mention of the Kirghiz are found in 1 thousand BC. e. Almost throughout its history, the nation did not have its own sovereign territory, but at the same time managed to preserve its identity and culture. The Kyrgyz even have such a concept as "ashar", which means joint work, close cooperation and rallying.

The Kirghiz have long lived in the steppe sparsely populated areas. This could not but affect some of the features of character. These people are extremely hospitable. When a new person used to arrive in the settlement, he would tell news that no one could hear before. For this, the guest was rewarded with the best treats. It is customary to venerate guests sacredly to this day.

Kazakhs

The Turkic language group could not exist without the most numerous Turkic people living not only in the state of the same name, but throughout the world.

The folk customs of the Kazakhs are very severe. Children from childhood are brought up in strict rules, they are taught to be responsible and hardworking. For this nation, the concept of "jigit" is the pride of the people, a person who, at all costs, defends the honor of his fellow tribesman or his own.

In the appearance of the Kazakhs, there is still a clear division into "white" and "black". In the modern world, this has long lost its meaning, but the remnants of the old concepts are still preserved. A feature of the appearance of any Kazakh is that he can simultaneously look like a European and a Chinese.

Turks

The Turkic group of languages ​​includes Turkish. It so happened historically that Türkiye has always closely cooperated with Russia. And these relations were not always peaceful. Byzantium, and later the Ottoman Empire, began its existence simultaneously with Kievan Rus. Even then there were the first conflicts for the right to rule the Black Sea. Over time, this enmity intensified, which largely influenced the relationship between Russians and Turks.

Turks are very peculiar. First of all, this can be seen in some of their features. They are hardy, patient and completely unpretentious in everyday life. The behavior of the representatives of the nation is very cautious. Even if they are angry, they will never express their dissatisfaction. But then they can hold a grudge and take revenge. In serious matters, the Turks are very cunning. They can smile in the face, and plot intrigues behind their backs for their own benefit.

The Turks took their religion very seriously. Severe Muslim laws prescribed every step in the life of a Turk. For example, they could kill an unbeliever and not be punished for it. Another feature is connected with this feature - a hostile attitude towards non-Muslims.

Conclusion

Turkic-speaking peoples are the largest ethnic group on Earth. The descendants of the ancient Turks settled on all continents, but most of them live in the indigenous territory - in the Altai Mountains and in the south of Siberia. Many peoples managed to preserve their identity within the borders of independent states.

In the old days there was no means of transportation faster and more convenient horse . On a horse they transported goods, hunted, fought; on a horse they went to woo and brought the bride to the house. Without a horse, they could not imagine farming. A delicious and healing drink, koumiss, was obtained (and is still being received) from mare's milk, strong ropes were made from the hair of the mane, and soles for shoes were made from the skin, boxes and buckles were made from the horn coating of hooves. In a horse, especially in a horse, his position was valued. There were even signs by which you can recognize a good horse. The Kalmyks, for example, had 33 such signs.

The peoples that will be discussed, whether Turkic or Mongolian, know, love and breed this animal in their household. Perhaps their ancestors were not the first to domesticate the horse, but perhaps there are no peoples on earth in whose history the horse would play such a big role. Thanks to the light cavalry, the ancient Turks and Mongols settled on a vast territory - the steppe and forest-steppe, desert and semi-desert spaces of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

On the globe about 40 peoples live in different countries speaking in Turkic languages ; more than 20 -in Russia. Their number is about 10 million people. Only 11 out of 20 have republics within the Russian Federation: Tatars (Republic of Tatarstan), Bashkirs (Republic of Bashkortostan), Chuvash (Chuvash Republic), Altaians (Altai Republic), Tuvans (Republic of Tuva), Khakass (The Republic of Khakassia), Yakuts (The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)); among Karachays with Circassians and Balkars with Kabardians - common republics (Karachay-Cherkess and Kabardino-Balkaria).

The rest of the Turkic peoples are scattered throughout Russia, in its European and Asian regions and regions. This Dolgans, Shors, Tofalars, Chulyms, Nagaibaks, Kumyks, Nogais, Astrakhan and Siberian Tatars . The list can include Azerbaijanis (Derbent Turks) Dagestan, Crimean Tatars, Meskhetian Turks, Karaites, a significant number of whom now live not in their original land, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia, but in Russia.

The largest Turkic people of Russia - Tatars, there are about 6 million people. The smallest - Chulyms and Tofalars: the number of each nation is just over 700 people. northernmost - Dolgans on the Taimyr Peninsula, and southernmost - Kumyks in Dagestan, one of the republics of the North Caucasus. The most eastern Turks of Russia - Yakuts(their self-name - Sakha), and they live in the north-east of Siberia. A most western - Karachays inhabiting the southern regions of Karachay-Cherkessia. The Turks of Russia live in different geographical zones - in the mountains, in the steppe, in the tundra, in the taiga, in the forest-steppe zone.

The ancestral home of the Turkic peoples is the steppes of Central Asia. Starting from the II century. and ending in the 13th century, pressed by their neighbors, they gradually moved to the territory of present-day Russia and occupied the lands where their descendants now live (see the article "From primitive tribes to modern peoples").

The languages ​​of these peoples are similar, they have many common words, but, most importantly, the grammar is similar. As scientists suggest, in ancient times they were dialects of the same language. Over time, the closeness was lost. The Turks settled on a very large area, stopped communicating with each other, they had new neighbors, and their languages ​​could not help but influence the Turkic ones. All Turks understand each other, but, say, Altaians with Tuvans and Khakasses, Nogais with Balkars and Karachays, Tatars with Bashkirs and Kumyks can easily come to an agreement. And only the Chuvash language stands apart in the Turkic family of languages.

Representatives of the Turkic peoples of Russia differ greatly in appearance. . in the east This North Asian and Central Asian Mongoloids -Yakuts, Tuvans, Altaians, Khakasses, Shors.In the west, typical Caucasians -Karachays, Balkars. And finally, the intermediate type refers in general caucasoid , But with a strong admixture of Mongoloid features Tatars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Kumyks, Nogais.

What's the matter here? The relationship of the Turks is more linguistic than genetic. Turkic languages are easy to pronounce, their grammar is very logical, there are almost no exceptions. In ancient times, nomadic Turks spread over a vast territory occupied by other tribes. Some of these tribes switched to the Turkic dialect because of its simplicity and over time began to feel like Turks, although they differed from them both in appearance and in traditional occupations.

Traditional farming , which the Turkic peoples of Russia were engaged in in the past, and in some places they continue to be engaged in now, are also diverse. Nearly all were grown cereals and vegetables. Many raised cattle: horses, sheep, cows. Excellent herdsmen have long been Tatars, Bashkirs, Tuvans, Yakuts, Altaians, Balkars. However deer bred and still few are bred. This Dolgans, northern Yakuts, Tofalars, Altaians and a small group of Tuvans living in the taiga part of Tuva - Todzha.

Religions among the Turkic peoples too different. Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachays, Nogais, Balkars, Kumyks - Muslims ; Tuvans - Buddhists . Altaians, Shors, Yakuts, Chulyms, although adopted in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Christianity , always remained secret worshipers of shamanism . Chuvash from the middle of the XVIII century. considered the most Christian people in the Volga region , but in recent years some of them return to paganism : they worship the sun, the moon, the spirits of the earth and the dwelling, the spirits-ancestors, without refusing, however, from orthodoxy .

WHO ARE YOU, T A T A R Y?

Tatars - the most numerous Turkic people of Russia. They live in Republic of Tatarstan, as well as in Bashkortostan, Udmurt Republic and adjacent areas Ural and Volga regions. There are large Tatar communities in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other major cities. And in general, in all regions of Russia, one can meet Tatars who have been living outside their homeland, the Volga region, for decades. They have taken root in a new place, fit into a new environment for them, feel great there and do not want to leave anywhere.

There are several peoples in Russia who call themselves Tatars . Astrakhan Tatars live close to Astrakhan, Siberian- V Western Siberia, Kasimov Tatars - near the city of Kasimov on the river Ok a (on the territory where serving Tatar princes lived several centuries ago). And finally Kazan Tatars named after the capital of Tatarstan - the city of Kazan. All these are different, although close to each other peoples. However just Tatars should be called only Kazan .

Among the Tatars distinguish two ethnographic groups - Mishari Tatars And Kryashen Tatars . The former are known for being Muslims do not celebrate the national holiday Sabantuy but they celebrate red egg day - something similar to the Orthodox Easter. On this day, children collect colored eggs from home and play with them. Kryashens ("baptized") because they are called that because they were baptized, that is, they accepted Christianity, and note not Muslim but Christian holidays .

The Tatars themselves began to call themselves that way quite late - only in the middle of the 19th century. For a very long time they did not like this name and considered it humiliating. Until the 19th century they were named differently: Bulgarly" (Bulgars), "Kazanly" (Kazan), "Meselman" (Muslims). And now many demand the return of the name "Bulgars".

Turks came to the regions of the Middle Volga and the Kama region from the steppes of Central Asia and the North Caucasus, crowded by tribes that moved from Asia to Europe. The migration continued for several centuries. At the end of the IX-X centuries. a prosperous state, the Volga Bulgaria, arose on the Middle Volga. The people living in this state were called Bulgars. Volga Bulgaria existed for two and a half centuries. Here agriculture and cattle breeding, handicrafts developed, there was trade with Russia and with the countries of Europe and Asia.

The high level of Bulgar culture in that period is evidenced by the existence of two types of writing - ancient Turkic runic(1) and later Arabic which came along with Islam in the 10th century. Arabic language and writing gradually replaced the signs of ancient Turkic writing from the sphere of state circulation. And this is natural: the entire Muslim East, with which Bulgaria had close political and economic contacts, used the Arabic language.

The names of remarkable poets, philosophers, scientists of Bulgaria, whose works are included in the treasury of the peoples of the East, have survived to our time. This Khoja Ahmed Bulgari (XI century) - a scientist and theologian, an expert on the moral precepts of Islam; WITH ulaiman ibn Daoud al-Saksini-Suwari (XII century) - the author of philosophical treatises with very poetic titles: "The light of the rays - the truthfulness of secrets", "The flower of the garden, delighting sick souls." And the poet Kul Gali (XII-XIII centuries) wrote the "Poem about Yusuf", which is considered a classic Turkic-language work of art of the pre-Mongolian period.

In the middle of the XIII century. Volga Bulgaria was conquered by the Tatar-Mongols and became part of the Golden Horde . After the fall of the Horde in 15th century . a new state arises in the Middle Volga region - Kazan Khanate . The main backbone of its population is formed by the same Bulgars, who by that time had already experienced the strong influence of their neighbors - the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts), who lived next to them in the Volga basin, as well as the Mongols, who made up the majority of the ruling class of the Golden Horde.

Where did the name come from "Tatars" ? There are several versions of this. According to the most widespread, one of the Central Asian tribes conquered by the Mongols was called " tatan", "tatabi". In Rus', this word turned into "Tatars", and they began to call everyone: the Mongols, and the Turkic population of the Golden Horde subject to the Mongols, far from being monoethnic in composition. With the collapse of the Horde, the word "Tatars" did not disappear, they continued to collectively call the Turkic-speaking peoples on the southern and eastern borders of Rus'. Over time, its meaning narrowed down to the name of one people who lived on the territory of the Kazan Khanate.

The Khanate was conquered by Russian troops in 1552 . Since then, the Tatar lands have been part of Russia, and the history of the Tatars has been developing in close cooperation with the peoples inhabiting the Russian state.

Tatars excelled in various types of economic activity. They were wonderful s farmers (they grew rye, barley, millet, peas, lentils) and excellent cattle breeders . Of all types of livestock, sheep and horses were especially preferred.

Tatars were famous as beautiful artisans . Coopers made barrels for fish, caviar, sour, pickles, beer. Tanners made leather. Kazan morocco and Bulgar yuft (original locally produced leather), shoes and boots, very soft to the touch, decorated with applique from pieces of multi-colored leather, were especially valued at fairs. Among the Kazan Tatars there were many enterprising and successful merchants who traded throughout Russia.

TATAR NATIONAL CUISINE

In Tatar cuisine one can distinguish "agricultural" dishes and "cattle-breeding" dishes. The first ones are soups with pieces of dough, cereals, pancakes, tortillas , i.e., what can be prepared from grain and flour. To the second - dried horse meat sausage, sour cream, different types of cheese , a special kind of sour milk - katyk . And if you dilute the katyk with water and cool it, you get a wonderful thirst-quenching drink - ayran . well and belyashi - round pies fried in oil with meat or vegetable filling, which can be seen through a hole in the dough, are known to everyone. festive dish the Tatars considered smoked goose .

Already at the beginning of the X century. the ancestors of the Tatars accepted Islam , and since then their culture has developed within the Islamic world. This was facilitated by the spread of writing based on Arabic script and the construction of a large number of mosques - buildings for holding collective prayers. Schools were created at mosques - mektebe and madrasah , where children (and not only from noble families) learned to read the holy book of Muslims in Arabic - Koran .

Ten centuries of written tradition have not been in vain. Among the Kazan Tatars, in comparison with other Turkic peoples of Russia, there are many writers, poets, composers, and artists. Often it was the Tatars who were the mullahs and teachers of other Turkic peoples. Tatars have a highly developed sense of national identity, pride in their history and culture.

{1 } Runic (from the ancient Germanic and Gothic runa - "mystery*") is the name given to the most ancient Germanic writings, which were distinguished by a special inscription of characters. The ancient Turkic writing of the 8th-10th centuries was also called.

VISIT TO X A K A S A M

In southern Siberia on the banks of the Yenisei River another Turkic-speaking people lives - Khakass . There are only 79 thousand of them. Khakasses - descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz who lived more than a thousand years ago in the same area. Neighbors, the Chinese, called the Kyrgyz " hyagas"; from this word the name of the people came - the Khakass. By appearance Khakasses can be attributed to Mongoloid race, however, a strong Caucasoid admixture is also noticeable in them, which manifests itself in lighter skin than other Mongoloids and lighter, sometimes almost red, hair color.

Khakasses live in Minusinsk basin, sandwiched between the Sayan and Abakan ridges. They consider themselves mountain people , although the majority live in the flat, steppe part of Khakassia. Archaeological monuments of this basin - and there are more than 30 thousand of them - testify that a person lived on the Khakas land already 40-30 thousand years ago. From the drawings on the rocks and stones, one can get an idea of ​​how people lived at that time, what they did, who they hunted, what rituals they performed, what gods they worshiped. Of course, it cannot be said that Khakass{2 ) are direct descendants of the ancient inhabitants of these places, but there are still some common features between the ancient and modern population of the Minusinsk Basin.

Khakass - pastoralists . They call themselves " threefold people", because three types of livestock are bred: horses, cattle (cows and bulls) and sheep . Previously, if a person had more than 100 horses and cows, they said about him that he had "a lot of cattle", and they called him a bai. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. The Khakass led a nomadic lifestyle. Cattle were grazed all year round. When horses, sheep, cows ate all the grass around the dwelling, the owners collected property, loaded it onto horses and, together with their herd, went to a new place. Having found a good pasture, they set up a yurt there and lived until the cattle again ate the grass. And so up to four times a year.

Bread they also sowed - and learned this a long time ago. An interesting folk way, which determined the readiness of the land for sowing. The owner plowed a small area and, having exposed the lower half of his body, sat down on the arable land to smoke a pipe. If, while he was smoking, the bare parts of the body did not freeze, it means that the earth has warmed up and it is possible to sow grain. However, other nations also used this method. While working on arable land, they did not wash their faces - so as not to wash away happiness. And when the sowing was over, they made an alcoholic drink from the remnants of last year's grain and sprinkled the sown land with it. This interesting Khakass rite was called "Uren Khurty", which means "to kill an earthworm". It was performed in order to appease the spirit - the owner of the earth, so that he would not "allow" various kinds of pests to destroy the future crop.

Now the Khakass quite willingly eat fish, but in the Middle Ages they were treated with disgust and called it "river worm". To prevent it from accidentally getting into drinking water, special channels were diverted from the river.

Until the middle of the XIX century. Khakass lived in yurts . Yurt- comfortable nomadic dwelling. It can be assembled and disassembled in two hours. First, sliding wooden grates are placed in a circle, a door frame is attached to them, then a dome is laid out from separate poles, while not forgetting about the upper hole: it plays the role of a window and a chimney at the same time. In summer, the outside of the yurt was covered with birch bark, and in winter - with felt. If you properly heat the hearth, which is placed in the center of the yurt, then it is very warm in it in any frost.

Like all pastoralists, the Khakass love meat and dairy products . With the onset of winter colds, cattle were slaughtered for meat - not all, of course, but as much as needed to last until the beginning of summer, until the first milk of cows that went out to pasture. Horses and sheep were slaughtered according to certain rules, dismembering the carcass at the joints with a knife. It was forbidden to break bones - otherwise the owner will have cattle transferred and there will be no happiness. On the day of the slaughter, a celebration was held and all the neighbors were invited. Adults and children are very loved pressed milk foam mixed with flour, bird cherry or lingonberries .

There have always been many children in Khakas families. There is a proverb "A man who has raised cattle has a full stomach, and a man who has raised children has a full soul"; If a woman gave birth and raised nine children - and the number nine had a special meaning in the mythology of many peoples of Central Asia - she was allowed to ride a "consecrated" horse. The horse, on which the shaman performed a special ceremony, was considered consecrated; after him, according to the beliefs of the Khakas, the horse was protected from trouble and protected the entire herd. Not every man was even allowed to touch such an animal.

In general, the Khakass many interesting customs . For example, a person who managed to catch the sacred bird flamingo while hunting (this bird is very rare in Khakassia) could woo any girl, and her parents had no right to refuse him. The groom dressed the bird in a red silk shirt, tied a red silk scarf around its neck and carried it as a gift to the bride's parents. Such a gift was considered very valuable, more expensive than any kalym - a ransom for the bride, which the groom had to pay to her family.

Since the 90s. 20th century Khakass - by religion They shamanists - annually celebrate the national holiday Ada Hoorai . It is dedicated to the memory of the ancestors - everyone who has ever fought and died for the freedom of Khakassia. In honor of these heroes, a public prayer is held, a ritual of sacrifice is performed.

THROAT SINGING OF THE KHAKAS

Khakasses own the art of throat singing . It's called " hai ". The singer does not utter words, but in low and high sounds flying out of his throat, one hears the sounds of an orchestra, then the rhythmic clatter of horse hooves, then the hoarse groans of a dying beast. Undoubtedly, this unusual art form was born in nomadic conditions, and its origins must be sought in ancient times. throat singing is known only to the Turkic-speaking peoples - Tuvans, Khakasses, Bashkirs, Yakuts - and also to a small extent to the Buryats and Western Mongols, in which there is a strong admixture of Turkic blood. It is unknown to other nations. And this is one of the mysteries of nature and history, not yet revealed by scientists. Throat singing is only for men . You can learn it by training hard from childhood, and since far from everyone has enough patience, only a few achieve success.

{2 ) Before the revolution, the Khakasses were called Minusinsk or Abakan Tatars.

ON THE CHULYM RIVER UCHULYMTS EV

On the border of the Tomsk region and the Krasnoyarsk Territory in the Chulym river basin lives the smallest Turkic people in terms of numbers - Chulyms . Sometimes they are called Chulym Turks . But they talk about themselves "Pestyn Kizhiler", which means "our people". At the end of the 19th century there were about 5 thousand people, now there are just over 700 left. Small peoples living next to large ones usually merge with the latter, perceive their culture, language and self-consciousness. the neighbors of the Chulyms were Siberian Tatars, Khakasses, and from the 17th century - Russians who began to move here from the central regions of Russia. Some of the Chulyms merged with the Siberian Tatars, others merged with the Khakass, and others with the Russians. Those who still continue to call themselves Chulyms, almost lost their native language.

Chulyms - fishermen and hunters . At the same time, they catch fish mainly in the summer, and hunt mainly in the winter, although, of course, they know both winter ice fishing and summer hunting.

Fish was stored and eaten in any form: raw, boiled, dried with and without salt, crushed with wild roots, fried on a spit, mashed caviar. Sometimes the fish was cooked by placing the skewer at an angle to the fire so that the fat flowed out and it dried out a little, after which it was dried in an oven or in special closed pits. Frozen fish was mainly for sale.

Hunting was divided into hunting "for oneself" and hunting "for sale". ". For themselves they beat - and continue to do so now - elk, taiga and lake game, put snares on squirrels. Elk and game are indispensable in the food of the Chulyms. Sable, fox and wolf were hunted for the sake of fur skins: Russian merchants paid well for them. Bear meat was eaten themselves, and the skin was most often sold to buy guns and cartridges, salt and sugar, knives and clothing.

Still Chulyms are engaged in such an ancient activity as gathering: wild herbs, garlic and onions, wild dill are collected in the taiga, in the floodplain, along the banks of lakes, dried or salted, and added to food in autumn, winter and spring. These are the only vitamins available to them. In autumn, like many other peoples of Siberia, the Chulyms go out with their whole families to collect pine nuts.

Chulyms knew how make cloth out of nettles . Nettles were collected, tied into sheaves, dried in the sun, then kneaded with hands and crushed in a wooden mortar. All this was done by children. And the yarn itself from cooked nettles was made by adult women.

On the example of Tatars, Khakasses and Chulyms, one can see how the Turkic peoples of Russia are distinguished- in appearance, type of economy, spiritual culture. Tatars outwardly most similar on Europeans, Khakasses and Chulyms - typical Mongoloids with only a slight admixture of Caucasoid features.Tatars - settled farmers and pastoralists , Khakass -pastoral nomads in the recent past , Chulyms - fishermen, hunters, gatherers .Tatars - Muslims , Khakasses and Chulyms once accepted Christianity , and now return to the ancient shamanic cults. So the Turkic world is both united and diverse at the same time.

CLOSE RELATIVES OF BURYATY AND KALMYKI

If Turkic peoples in Russia more than twenty Mongolian - only two: Buryats and Kalmyks . Buryats live in Southern Siberia on the lands adjacent to Lake Baikal, and further to the east . In administrative terms, this is the territory of the Republic of Buryatia (the capital is Ulan-Ude) and two autonomous Buryat districts: Ust-Orda in the Irkutsk region and Aginsky in the Chita region . Buryats also live in Moscow, St. Petersburg and in many other large cities of Russia . Their number is more than 417 thousand people.

The Buryats formed as a single people by the middle of the 17th century. from the tribes that lived on the lands around Lake Baikal more than a thousand years ago. In the second half of the XVII century. these territories became part of Russia.

Kalmyks live in Lower Volga region in the Republic of Kalmykia (capital - Elista) and neighboring Astrakhan, Rostov, Volgograd regions and Stavropol Territory . The number of Kalmyks is about 170 thousand people.

The history of the Kalmyk people began in Asia. His ancestors - Western Mongolian tribes and nationalities - were called Oirats. In the XIII century. they were united under the rule of Genghis Khan and, together with other peoples, formed the vast Mongol Empire. As part of the army of Genghis Khan, they participated in his campaigns of conquest, including those against Rus'.

After the collapse of the empire (the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th century), unrest and wars began on its former territory. Part Oirat taishas (princes) subsequently asked for citizenship from the Russian tsar, and during the first half of the 17th century. in several groups they moved to Russia, in the steppes of the Lower Volga region. The word "Kalmyk" comes from the word halmg", which means "remnant". So they called themselves those who, having not converted to Islam, came from Dzungaria{3 ) to Russia, unlike those who continued to call themselves Oirats. And since the 18th century the word "Kalmyk" became the self-name of the people.

Since then, the history of the Kalmyks has been closely connected with the history of Russia. Their nomad camps protected its southern borders from sudden attacks by the Turkish Sultan and the Crimean Khan. The Kalmyk cavalry was famous for its speed, lightness, and excellent fighting qualities. She participated in almost all the wars waged by the Russian Empire: Russian-Turkish, Russian-Swedish, the Persian campaign of 1722-1723, the Patriotic War of 1812.

The fate of the Kalmyks as part of Russia was not easy. Two events were especially tragic. The first is the departure of a part of the princes dissatisfied with the policy of Russia, together with their subjects, back to Western Mongolia in 1771. The second is the deportation of the Kalmyk people to Siberia and Central Asia in 1944-1957. on charges of aiding the Germans during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Both events left a heavy imprint in the memory and in the soul of the people.

Kalmyks and Buryats have a lot in common in culture , and not only because they speak close and understandable to each other languages ​​that are part of the Mongolian language group. The point is also different: both peoples up to the beginning of the 20th century. were engaged nomadic pastoralism ; in the past were shamanists , and later, although at different times (the Kalmyks in the 15th century, and the Buryats at the beginning of the 17th century), adopted Buddhism . Their culture combines shamanic and Buddhist features, rites of both religions coexist . There is nothing unusual about this. There are many peoples on earth who, officially considered Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, nevertheless continue to follow the pagan tradition.

Buryats and Kalmyks are also among such peoples. And although they have many Buddhist temples (before the 20s of the XX century, the Buryats had 48 of them, the Kalmyks - 104; now the Buryats have 28 temples, the Kalmyks - 14), but they celebrate traditional pre-Buddhist holidays with special solemnity. For the Buryats, this is Sagaalgan (White month) - New Year's holiday, which occurs on the first spring new moon. Now it is considered Buddhist, services are held in its honor in Buddhist temples, but, in fact, it was and remains a national holiday.

Every year, Sagaalgan is celebrated on different days, as the date is calculated according to the lunar calendar, and not according to the solar one. This calendar is called the 12-year animal cycle, because each year in it bears the name of an animal (the year of the Tiger, the year of the Dragon, the year of the Hare, etc.) and the “named” year is repeated every 12 years. In 1998, for example, the year of the tiger began on February 27th.

When Sagaalgan comes, it is supposed to eat a lot of white, i.e. dairy, food - cottage cheese, butter, cheese, foam, drink milk vodka and koumiss. That is why the holiday is called "White month". Everything white in the culture of the Mongolian-speaking peoples was considered sacred and was directly related to holidays and solemn ceremonies: white felt, on which the newly elected khan was raised, a bowl with fresh, freshly milked milk, which was brought to the honored guest. The horse that won the race was sprinkled with milk.

And here Kalmyks celebrate the New Year on December 25 and call it "dzul" , and the White month (in Kalmyk it is called "Tsagaan Sar") is considered by them as a holiday of the onset of spring and was not connected with the New Year in any way.

At the height of summer Buryats celebrate Surkharban . On this day, the best athletes compete in accuracy, shooting from a bow at felt balls - targets ("sur" - "felt ball", "harbakh" - "shoot"; hence the name of the holiday); horse races and national wrestling are arranged. An important moment of the holiday is the sacrifice to the spirits of the earth, water and mountains. If the spirits were appeased, the Buryats believed, they would send good weather, abundant grasses to pastures, which means that the cattle would be fat and well-fed, people would be full and contented with life.

Kalmyks have two similar holidays in summer: Usn Arshan (blessing of water) and Usn Tyaklgn (sacrifice to water). In the dry Kalmyk steppe, much depended on water, so it was necessary to make a sacrifice to the spirit of water in a timely manner in order to win its favor. At the end of autumn, each family performed the rite of sacrifice to fire - Gal Tyaklgn . A cold winter was approaching, and it was very important that the "owner" of the hearth and fire be kind to the family and provide warmth in the house, yurt, wagon. A ram was sacrificed, its meat was burned in the fire of the hearth.

Buryats and Kalmyks are extremely respectful and even affectionate towards the horse. This is one of the characteristic features of nomadic societies. Any poor man had several horses, the rich owned large herds, but, as a rule, each owner knew his horses "by sight", could distinguish them from strangers, and gave nicknames especially to his beloved. Heroes of all heroic legends (epos Buryat - "Geser ", Kalmyks - "Jangar ") had a beloved horse, which was called by name. He was not just a mount, but a friend and comrade in trouble, in joy, on a military campaign. battlefield, obtained "living water" to bring back to life. The horse and the nomad were attached to each other from childhood. If at the same time a boy was born in the family, and a foal in the herd, the parents gave him to his son at full disposal. They grew up together, boy fed, watered and walked his friend. The foal learned to be a horse, and the boy learned to be a rider. This is how the future winners of the races, dashing riders grew up. Short, hardy, with long manes, the Central Asian horses grazed in the steppe all year round on pasture. They were not afraid no cold weather, no wolves, fighting off predators with strong and accurate blows of hooves.The excellent war cavalry more than once put the enemy to flight and caused amazement and respect both in Asia and in Europe.

"TROIKA" IN KALMYK

Kalmyk folklore surprisingly rich in genres - here and fairy tales, and legends, and the heroic epic "Dzhangar", and proverbs, and sayings, and riddles . There is also a peculiar genre that is difficult to define. It combines a riddle, a proverb and a saying and is called a "three line" or simply "troika" (no-Kalmyks - "gurvn"). The people believed that there were 99 such "threes"; in fact, there are probably many more. The youth loved to arrange competitions - who knows them more and better. Here are some of them.

Three of what is fast?
What is the fastest in the world? Horse legs.
An arrow, if it is dexterously thrown.
And thought is fast when it is smart.

Three of what is full?
In the month of May, the freedom of the steppes is full.
A child is fed, that is fed by his mother.
A well-fed old man who raised worthy children.

Three of those who are rich?
The old man, since there are many daughters and sons, is rich.
The skill of the master among the masters is rich.
The poor man, at least in that there are no debts, is rich.

In three lines, improvisation plays an important role. A participant in the competition can come up with his own “troika” right off the bat. The main thing is that the laws of the genre are observed in it: first there must be a question, and then an answer consisting of three parts. And, of course, meaning, worldly logic and folk wisdom are necessary.

{3 ) Dzungaria is a historical region on the territory of modern Northwest China.

TRADITIONAL BOOT COSTUME

Bashkirs , who for a long time maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, widely used leather, skins and wool for making clothes. Underwear was sewn from Central Asian or Russian factory fabrics. Those who early switched to a sedentary lifestyle made clothes from nettle, hemp, linen canvas.

Traditional male costume consisted of shirts with a turn-down collar and wide trousers . Over the shirt they wore a short sleeveless jacket and going out into the street caftan with a standing collar or a long, almost straight dressing gown made of dark fabric . Know and mullahs went to dressing gowns made of motley Central Asian silk . In the cold time of the Bashkirs dressed in spacious cloth robes, sheepskin coats or sheepskin coats .

Skullcaps were everyday headwear for men. , in the elderly- dark velvet young- bright, embroidered with colored threads. They put on over skullcaps in the cold felt hats or cloth-covered fur hats . In the steppes, during snowstorms, warm fur malachai, which covered the back of the head and ears, saved.

The most common shoes were boots : the bottom was made of leather, and the leg was made of canvas or cloth fabrics. On holidays they were changed to leather boots . Met at the Bashkirs and bast sandals .

Woman suit included dress, bloomers and sleeveless jacket . The dresses were detachable, with a wide skirt, they were decorated with ribbons and braid. It was supposed to be worn over the dress short fitted sleeveless jackets, sheathed with braid, coins and plaques . Apron , which at first served as work clothes, later became part of the festive costume.

Headdresses varied. Women of all ages covered their heads with a scarf and tied it under their chin. . Some young Bashkirs under scarves wore small velvet caps embroidered with beads, pearls, corals , A elderly- quilted cotton hats. Sometimes married Bashkirs worn over a scarf high fur hats .

PEOPLE OF THE SUN RAYS (Y KU T Y)

The people, who in Russia are called Yakuts, call themselves "Sakha"." , and in myths and legends it is very poetic - "people of the sun's rays with reins behind their backs." Their number is more than 380 thousand people. They live in the north Siberia, in the basins of the Lena and Vilyui rivers, in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Yakuts , the northernmost pastoralists of Russia, breed cattle and small cattle and horses. Kumys from mare's milk and smoked horse meat - favorite foods in summer and winter, on weekdays and holidays. In addition, the Yakuts are excellent fishermen and hunters . Fish are caught mainly with nets, which are now bought in a store, and in the old days they were woven from horsehair. They hunt large animals in the taiga, and game in the tundra. Among the methods of extraction there is known only to the Yakuts - hunting with a bull. The hunter sneaks up on the prey, hiding behind the bull, and shoots at the beast.

Before meeting the Russians, the Yakuts almost did not know agriculture, they did not sow bread, did not grow vegetables, but they were engaged in gathering in the taiga : they harvested wild onions, edible herbs and the so-called pine sapwood - a layer of wood located directly under the bark. She was dried, crushed, turning into flour. In winter, it was the main source of vitamins that saved from scurvy. Pine flour was diluted in water, a mash was made, to which fish or milk was added, and if they were not, they ate it just like that. This dish has remained in the distant past, now its description can only be found in books.

The Yakuts live in a country of taiga paths and full-flowing rivers, and therefore their traditional means of transportation have always been a horse, a deer and a bull or a sleigh (the same animals were harnessed to them), boats made of birch bark or hollowed out from a tree trunk. And even now, in the age of airlines, railways, developed river and sea navigation, people travel in remote areas of the republic just like in the old days.

The folk art of this people is surprisingly rich . The Yakuts were glorified far beyond the borders of their land by the heroic epic - olonkho - about the exploits of ancient heroes, wonderful women's jewelry and carved wooden goblets for koumiss - chorons , each of which has its own unique ornament.

The main holiday of the Yakuts - Ysyakh . It is celebrated on Konya June, on the days of the summer solstice. This is the holiday of the New Year, the holiday of the Revival of nature and the birth of a person - not a specific one, but a person in general. On this day, sacrifices are made to the gods and spirits, expecting patronage from them in all upcoming affairs.

RULES OF THE ROAD (YAKUT VARIANT)

Are you ready for the road? Be careful! Even if the path ahead of you is not very long and difficult, the rules of the road must be observed. And each nation has its own.

The Yakuts had a rather long set of rules for "leaving home" , and everyone tried to observe it, who wanted his journey to be successful and he returned safely. Before leaving, they sat down in a place of honor in the house, facing the fire, and threw firewood into the stove - they fed the fire. It was not supposed to tie shoelaces on a hat, mittens, clothes. On the day of departure, the household did not rake the ashes in the oven. According to the beliefs of the Yakuts, ashes are a symbol of wealth and happiness. There is a lot of ashes in the house - it means that the family is rich, little - poor. If you scoop up the ashes on the day of departure, then the departing person will not be lucky in business, he will return with nothing. A girl getting married, when leaving her parents' house, should not look back, otherwise her happiness will remain in their house.

To keep everything in order, sacrifices were made to the "owner" of the road at crossroads, mountain passes, watersheds: bundles of horsehair were hung, pieces of matter torn from the dress, copper coins and buttons were left.

On the road, it was forbidden to call the objects taken with them by their real names - it was supposed to resort to allegories. There was no need to talk about the upcoming actions along the way. Travelers who stop on the banks of the river never say that they will cross the river tomorrow - there is a special expression for this, translated from Yakut approximately like this: "Tomorrow we will try to ask our grandmother there."

According to the beliefs of the Yakuts, objects thrown or found on the road acquired a special magical power - good or evil. If a leather rope or a knife was found on the road, they were not taken, as they were considered "dangerous", but a horsehair rope, on the contrary, was a "happy" find, and they took it with them.

Ethno-speaking group speaking Turkic languages. This population group is considered one of the oldest, and its classification is the most complex and still causes controversy among historians. 164 million people today speak the Turkic language. The most ancient people of the Turkic group are the Kirghiz, their language has been preserved almost unchanged. And the first information about the appearance of Turkic-speaking tribes dates back to the first millennium BC.

Modern population

The largest number of modern Turks is. According to statistics, this is 43% of all Turkic-speaking peoples, or 70 million people. Next come - 15% or 25 million people. Slightly fewer Uzbeks - 23.5 million (14%), after - - 12 million (7%), Uighurs - 10 million (6%), Turkmens - 6 million (4%), - 5.5 million (3%) , — 3.5 million (2%). The following nationalities make up 1%: Qashqais and - an average of 1.5 million. Others less than 1%: Karakalpaks (700 thousand), Afshars (600 thousand), Yakuts (480 thousand), Kumyks (400 thousand), Karachais (350 thousand ), (300 thousand), Gagauz (180 thousand), Balkars (115 thousand), Nogais (110 thousand), Khakasses (75 thousand), Altaians (70 thousand). Most Turks are Muslims.

Origin of peoples

The first settlement of the Turks was in Northern China, in the steppe zones. They were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Over time, the tribes settled, so they reached Eurasia. The ancient Turkic peoples were:

• Huns;
• turkuts;
• Karluks;
• Khazars;
• Pechenegs;
• Bulgars;
• Cumans;
• Oghuz Turks.

Very often in the historical annals the Turks are called Scythians. There are many legends about the origin of the first tribes, which also exist in several versions.

language group

There are 2 main groups: eastern and western. Each of them has a branch:

• Eastern:
  • Kirghiz-Kypchak (Kyrgyz, Altaians);
  • Uighur (Saryg-Uighurs, Todzhans, Altaians, Khakases, Dolgans, Tofalars, Shors, Tuvans, Yakuts).
• Western:
  • Bulgar (Chuvash);
  • Kypchak (Kypchak-Bulgarian: Tatars, Bashkirs; Kypchak-Polovtsian: Crimeans, Krymchaks, Balkars, Kumyks, Karaites, Karachays; Kypchak-Nogai: Kazakhs, Nogais, Karakalpaks);
  • Karluk (Ili Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Uyghurs);
  • Oguz (Oguz-Bulgarian: Balkan Turks, Gagauz; Oghuz-Seljuk: Turks, Azerbaijanis, Capriot Turks, Turkomans, Qashqais, Urums, Syrian Turks, Crimeans; Oguz-Turkmen peoples: Trukhmens, Qajars, Gudars, Teymurtashis, Turkmens, Afshars , Salars, Karapapahi).

The Chuvash speak the Chuvash language. Dialectic of the Yakuts in Yakut and Dolgan. The Kypchak peoples are located in Russia, Siberia, so Russian becomes native here, although some peoples retain their culture and language. Representatives of the Karluk group speak Uzbek and Uighur. Tatars, Kirghiz and Kazakhs achieved independence of their territory and also preserved their traditions. But the Oguzes tend to speak Turkmen, Turkish, Salar.

Characteristics of peoples

Many nationalities, although they live on the territory of Russia, retain their language, culture and customs. Vivid examples of the Turkic people who are partially or completely dependent on other countries:

• Yakuts. Often, the indigenous people call themselves Sakhas, and their Republic was called Sakha. This is the easternmost Turkic population. The language was acquired a little from the Asians.
• Tuvans. This nationality is found in the east, closer to the border with China. Native Republic - Tuva.
• Altaians. They preserve their history and culture the most. They inhabit the Republic of Altai.
• Khakasses. Live in the Republic of Khakassia, approximately 52 thousand people. Partially, someone moved to the Krasnoyarsk Territory or Tula.
• Tofalars. According to statistics, this nationality is on the verge of extinction. Found only in the Irkutsk region.
• Shors. Today it is 10 thousand people who have taken refuge in the southern part of the Kemerovo region.
• Siberian Tatars. They speak Tatar, but live in Russia: Omsk, Tyumen and Novosibirsk regions.
• Dolgans. These are bright representatives living in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Today, the nationality consists of 7.5 thousand people.

Other peoples, and there are six such countries, have achieved their own nationality and now these are prosperous countries with a history of Turkic settlement:

• Kirghiz. This is the most ancient settlement of Turkic origin. Let the territory have been vulnerable for a long time, but they managed to preserve their way of life and culture. They lived mainly in the steppe zone, where few people settled. But they are very hospitable and generously meet and see off guests who come to their house.
• Kazakhs. This is the most common group of Turkic representatives. They are very proud, but at the same time strong-willed people. Children are brought up strictly, but they are ready to protect their neighbor from bad things.
• Turks. A peculiar people, they are patient and unpretentious, but very insidious and vindictive. Non-Muslims do not exist for them.

All representatives of Turkic origin are united by a common - history and common origin. Many managed to carry through the years and even in spite of other problems, their traditions. Other representatives are on the verge of extinction. But even this does not prevent getting acquainted with their culture.