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How to make an analysis of a painting example. Principles and methods of analysis of works of fine art

How to make an analysis of a painting example. Principles and methods of analysis of works of fine art

01.07.2020

Practical lesson number 1.

Task: Give a meaningful analysis of the architectural monument of your city (village).

PLAN OF ANALYSIS OF THE MONUMENT OF ARCHITECTURE.

Name.

Location location.

Architect(s).

4. Purpose of the building:

a) relief:

in-depth,

Convex: bas-relief; high relief.

b) by appointment: cult; secular.

c) by use:

independent,

Part of the architectural ensemble

Part of the architectural decor of the building;

d) by genre:

Portrait: bust; in full growth; genre scene.

The material from which the work is made.

Degree of care and attention to detail.

7. What is paid more attention (features):

similarity

decorative,

Displaying the internal state of a person,

Any idea.

Does it conform to the canon, if it was.

9.Place:

Manufacturing,

Where is it now.

Style, direction or period of development of sculpture and its manifestation in a given work.

11. Your attitude to the monument. Justify your opinion.

Algorithm for analyzing a work of architecture.

1. What is known about the history of the creation of an architectural structure and its author?

2. Indicate the belonging of this work to the cultural and historical era, artistic style, direction.

3. What embodiment did Vitruvius' formula find in this work: strength, usefulness, beauty?

4. Indicate artistic means and techniques for creating an architectural image (symmetry, rhythm, proportions, light and shade and color modeling, scale), tectonic systems (post-beam, lancet-arch, arch-dome).

5. Indicate the belonging to the type of architecture: three-dimensional structures (public: residential, industrial); landscape (landscape or small forms); urban planning.

6. Point out the connection between the external and internal appearance of an architectural structure, the connection between the building and the relief, the nature of the landscape.

7. How are other types of art used in the design of its architectural appearance?

8. What impression did the work have on you?

10. Where is the architectural structure located?

Sample for this task: see Appendix 1.

Practical lesson number 2.

Task: Give a meaningful analysis of a painting by an artist from your city (village).

Analysis plan for a painting:

1. Name.

2. Belonging to a cultural and historical era, style.

4. The history of the creation of the work.

5. The meaning of the name. Plot features. belonging to the genre.

6. Composition (what is depicted, how the elements of the picture are located, dynamics, rhythm).

7. The main means of artistic expression (color, line, chiaroscuro, texture, manner of writing).

8. Your personal impressions.

Algorithm for the analysis of works of art.

2. Belonging to the artistic era.

3. The meaning of the name of the picture.

4. Genre affiliation.

5. Features of the plot of the picture. Reasons for painting. Search for an answer to the question: did the author convey his intention to the viewer?

6. Features of the composition of the picture.

7. The main means of an artistic image: color, drawing, texture, chiaroscuro, style of writing.

8. What impression did this work of art have on your feelings and mood?

9. What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?

10. Where is this piece of art located?

Sample for this task: see Appendix 2.

ANNEX 1.

Analysis of the architectural monument - St. Isaac's Cathedral.

St. Isaac's Cathedral is an outstanding monument of Russian architecture of the 19th century and one of the greatest domed structures in the world, inferior in size only to the cathedrals of St. Peter in Rome, St. Paul in London and Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

The grandiosity of this temple is determined by its dimensions: height 101.5 m; length 111.2 m; width 97.6 m.

The cathedral is one of the dominants of St. Petersburg and the second tallest building after the Peter and Paul Cathedral. Its monumental and majestic image creates a unique accent in the city skyline and serves as the same hallmark of the northern capital as the spire of the Peter and Paul Fortress Cathedral and the gold boat of the Admiralty.

Church of St. St. Isaac of Dalmatia is one of the largest, most complex and interesting buildings that completed the development of classicism - the architectural style that dominated Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries.

The design time of the cathedral coincided with the heyday of Russian classicism, which was characterized by monumentality, grandeur, strict proportions, connection with the surrounding buildings. Architects often turned to the traditions of antiquity, used the motifs of Ancient Greece and Rome, the Italian Renaissance. However, by the middle of the 19th century, a gradual decline of this style was observed, manifested in the violation of its purity and the refusal to preserve the unity and integrity of the architectural and artistic image, in excessive decoration that was not related to the structural features of buildings. These features marked the beginning of an eclectic trend in architecture, which coincided in time with the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral. Therefore, in some details of its facades, and especially in the interior, features of eclecticism appear.

The prototype of the cathedral was the type of centric, square, five-domed church with facades decorated with porticos, developed at the end of the 18th century. Having preserved the traditional scheme, Montferrand took a different approach to solving the architectural and artistic decoration of the building.

In plan, St. Isaac's Cathedral is a rectangle slightly elongated along the east-west axis, in the middle part of which there is a square protruding from the general contour to the north and south sides. As a result of this layout, the middle part of the building has become dominant.

The building itself is designed as a solid, compact cubic volume, above which a high cylindrical drum rises, cut through by arched windows and surrounded by an elegant colonnade. The drum is crowned with a gilded dome with a light octagonal light lantern.

At the corners of the protruding main volume of the building there are four small bell towers, successfully complementing the silhouette of the temple. They are completed by light gilded domes, the size of which is dictated by the scale of the belfries themselves, so they turned out to be much smaller than the main dome. Due to the pyramidal construction of the cathedral, a feeling of dynamism and upward aspiration of the massive drum with the main dome is created, as well as the connection of the entire building with the surrounding space.

The facades are decorated with porticos with granite columns 17 m high and weighing 114 tons each. Columns are installed on granite stylobates, in which steps leading to the temple are located. St. Isaac's Cathedral is the only one of the monuments of Russian classicism (with the exception of the Marble Palace of A. Rinaldi), in the exterior decoration of which polished granite columns and marble were used. The spectacular combination of dark red columns of the porticos, the colonnade of the main dome and the basement of the building with gray marble wall cladding and gilded domes gives the whole structure a grand look.

The porticos of the cathedral amaze with their grandeur and nobility of forms. One sixteen-column portico faces north, towards the Neva and the Bronze Horseman, the other towards St. Isaac's Square. Thus, both entrances to the temple turned out to be lateral in relation to the altar, which is due to urban planning features. The altar of the temple is marked on the outside by an eight-column portico, which is repeated symmetrically on the western side.

The smooth planes of the walls of the cathedral are cut through by large arched windows with massive architraves and volutes at the top. In an effort to enhance the impression of the grandeur of this building, Montferrand exorbitantly increased the size of windows and doors, which distorted the idea of the true size of the temple.

St. Isaac's Cathedral is a high example of the unity of both monumental and decorative art; its architecture is in direct artistic relationship with painting and sculpture. The nature of the decorative solution of the facades is determined, first of all, by sculpture - one of the most common types of fine art in the first third of the 19th century, associated with architecture.

The location of the decorative sculpture corresponds to the main articulations of the building, uniting individual architectural masses, visually softening the transitions from one part to another, thereby enhancing the role and significance of individual elements of the structure. The sculptural decoration of the temple was created by well-known sculptors of that time - I. Vitali, P. Klodt, N. Pimenov, L. Loganovsky, F. Lemer and I. German.

The sculptural decor not only enriches the plasticity of the building, but also carries the main ideological and thematic load, concretizing the functional purpose of the temple. Its porticos are decorated with multi-figure reliefs dedicated to the lives of Jesus Christ and Isaac of Dalmatia.

Such an abundance of sculpture in the exterior decoration was due to the fact that by the middle of the 19th century the idea of \u200b\u200bthe monumentality of the building had changed; the ways of distinguishing among urban buildings are also becoming different.

The severity and noble simplicity of the buildings of the early 19th century are being replaced by a desire for pomp, effect, which leads to increased plasticity of the walls, filling the smooth field of the pediment with bas-reliefs of complex composition, and the use of expensive finishing materials. All this was fully reflected in the exterior decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral, and was especially clearly expressed in the interior of the temple.

Due to the vertical orientation of its composition, St. Isaac's Cathedral has become one of the dominants in the central part of the city and is of great importance for urban planning. The temple organically entered the ensemble of two squares - St. Isaac's and Senate (Decembrists), compositionally uniting and defining their appearance.

The Senate Square was created in the middle of the 18th century, and its formation was completed in the first half of the next century. Widely open to the Neva, this square is part of the artistic decoration of the embankments, unique in their beauty.

If for Senate Square St. Isaac's Cathedral is the last chord, the missing link of the ensemble, then for St. Isaac's Square it was the beginning of its transformation into a single architectural organism.

From the south, St. Isaac's Square is completed by the Mariinsky Palace by architect A. I. Shtakenshneider (built in 1839 - 1844 in the style of classicism), which successfully fits into the composition of the building. On both sides of the square there are two buildings of the Ministry of State Property designed by the architect N. Yefimov (created in 1844-1853), reminiscent of Italian palazzos of the 17th century.

In 1911, on the site of houses built at the beginning of the 18th century, the architect F.I. Lidval erected the building of the Astoria Hotel - an interesting example of civil engineering in the early 20th century in St. Petersburg. Next to it was a non-residential building, adapted at the end of the 19th century for the Angleterre hotel. In the center of the square is the last work of Montferrand, a monument to Emperor Nicholas I, made by the sculptor P. K. Klodt.

The interior layout of St. Isaac's Cathedral is typical of Orthodox religious buildings of the 18th century. Over 4,000 sq. m two rows of pylons is divided into three naves. In the main dome, resting on four massive pylons, the height reaches 69 m, the height of the side aisles is 28 m. The entrance to the temple is served by three large doors from the southern, northern and western sides of the building.

In the eastern part - the main altar and the iconostasis, rising, like the altar barriers of ancient Russian churches, to the level with the vaults.

The slender Corinthian portico of the iconostasis of ten malachite columns supports the attic, the divisions of which continue the vertical orientation of the columns and emphasize the severity of its architecture. In front of the iconostasis there is a solea fenced with a white marble balustrade with gilded balusters.

Three large arches in the iconostasis serve as entrances to the altar of the temple. The central arch is decorated with two lapis lazuli columns and the royal doors, behind which is the main altar of St. Isaac of Dalmatia. In the altar window there is one of the largest stained-glass windows in Europe with an area of 28 sq. m, made at the Munich manufactory by master Ainmiller. The altarpiece of Jesus Christ is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the depth of color.

Despite the fact that the stained-glass window is an uncharacteristic detail of the decoration of an Orthodox church, in St. Isaac's Cathedral it organically fits into the interior and gives the altar a unique, solemn look.

Cutting through the main iconostasis, the side arches open the side aisles with small iconostases for viewing. The left nave leads to St. Alexander Nevsky, right - in the chapel of St. Catherine.

In the magnificent decor of the temple, the design of the drum of the main dome is of great importance. 12 statues of caryatid angels protruding from the plane of the walls, together with marble pilasters, form a single vertical and contribute to a clear division of the drum. Between the sculptures, made by electroforming, there are picturesque images of 12 apostles.

Well lit by the windows of the drum, the gilded figures of angels stand out against the background of the walls as a bright spot and, together with the painting, create a rich decorative effect.

The interior decor of the cathedral is crowned with a ceiling painting with an area of 816 square meters. m, created by the outstanding artist of the XIX century K. P. Bryullov. The circular composition of this canvas is dictated by the architecture of the temple. The balustrade, written along the very edge of the ceiling, allows a soft and natural transition from architectural to picturesque forms. It illusory enlarges the entablature of the drum, and the center of the ceiling, free from images, evokes a feeling of the depth of air space and the infinity of the firmament. The composition of the plafond is completed by a sculpture of a dove soaring under the arch - a symbol of the Holy Spirit.

The design of the drum of the main dome from the point of view of synthesis of various types of art is the most successful in St. Isaac's Cathedral.

An important detail in the interior decoration of the temple is gilded details, cast bronze, with a relief ornament, bases and capitals of columns, medallions, caissons, garlands, as well as openwork gilded chandeliers weighing about 3 tons each. In total, 300 kg of gold was spent on the gilding of the cathedral, another 100 kg - on the gilding of the domes.

St. Isaac's Cathedral is a vivid example of the synthesis of architecture with various types of arts and crafts.

His numerous paintings, mosaics, sculptures, a spectacular combination of colored stone and gilding create a rich, saturated color scheme.

Continuity in the decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedrals

One of the features of St. Isaac's Cathedral is the style of its interior decoration. In comparison with other Russian churches of the 19th century, it differs not only in its program and artistic execution of the interior decoration, but also in the structure of the iconostasis, the location of the icons, and the color scheme.

It is impossible to explain this only by the religion of the chief architect, the Catholic Montferrand, since the observance of the Orthodox canons during the construction and decoration of the temple was strictly monitored by a special commission of the Holy Synod. According to the protocols of the Construction Commission, one can see how the holy fathers ordered academicians and professors to change the details of the composition, the size of the figures, and even the color shades of the sketches of future murals.

Meanwhile, an analysis of archival materials suggests that the features of the interior of this cathedral are due to the traditions laid down during the design of the first St. Isaac's churches.

In the affairs of the Naval Ministry, it is reported about St. Isaac's Church: "... in it are the images of the Savior, the Mother of God, Nicholas, John Chrysostom, Isaac of Dalmatsky, Alexander Nevsky, Andrew the First-Called ... Above the royal doors, the image of the Savior with a cross in his hand, written on lemon damask , on the sides of the Savior are cherubs on blue taffeta, the frames are gilded. Under the icons there are pedestals painted on a grassy canvas ... The curtains on the doors are calico ... ". And one more thing: "five felts (gray-black) color were added to the floor near the doors ...".

If, in accordance with these descriptions, we imagine the iconostasis of the first St. Isaac's Church, then its dominant colors will be yellow-gold and green with two blue vertical stripes along the royal doors. Due to the architectural features of the drawing barn, rebuilt into the first St. Isaac's Church, its iconostasis up to 4 m high and more than 6 m wide did not need horizontal load-bearing structures, and for the visual effect of greater height was divided by vertical green stripes starting from the floor.

It is known that Emperor Peter I gave his icons for the arrangement of the first St. Isaac's Church, and they were transferred to the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Cathedral.

Judging by the places allotted for them in the iconostasis project, the size of the images was no more than 100 x 60 cm and 80 x 50 cm. On four projects of the iconostasis of St. Isaac's Cathedral, these sizes are preserved by various authors.

The size of these icons and the mention of the placement of images of the Savior and archangels painted on canvas on the iconostasis of the first St. Isaac's Cathedral suggest that it was difficult to place any other icons there.

In turn, the horizontal structure of the iconostasis did not allow creating a multi-row (4- or 5-tier) iconostasis for this temple. Therefore, part of the icons - "twelfth holidays" - were transferred to the walls of the temple or its pillars. This is also confirmed by the designs of the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Cathedral, which provided for the placement of no more than eight icons and three sculptural groups above the royal gates.

Despite the fact that the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Church, about 8 meters wide and more than 12 meters high, made it possible to place additional tiers of icons, this did not happen. The structure of the iconostasis remained the same, as vertical as in the first church. The design of the iconostasis provided for several groups of columns, the height of which exceeded half the height of the iconostasis itself.

The same trends in the design of the iconostasis were also preserved in the third St. Isaac's Cathedral (designed by architect A. Rinaldi).

Its iconostasis consisted mainly of vertical structures, the color solution was white, gold and green. Unfortunately, the main altar of this cathedral has not been preserved, but, most likely, it did not violate the vertical articulation. The iconostasis contained no more than 10 - 12 icons of considerable size. The previously mentioned icons of a small size, transferred from the first to the subsequent St. Isaac's churches, were located in the interior.

It is interesting to note that when Montferrand began to build the fourth cathedral, a special extension was made next to the third temple being dismantled for its icons, and divine services were held in it. After 1828, due to intensive construction work, by Imperial decree and the request of parishioners, the most revered icons of St. Isaac's Cathedral were moved to a room on the second floor of the western wing of the Admiralty, where the temporary aisles of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Andrew the First-Called.

After the opening and consecration of the fourth St. Isaac's Cathedral in 1858, some of the icons from the Admiralty were returned to the newly consecrated church, while others (for example, the image of St. Andrew the First-Called) were left in the Admiralty.

On the iconostasis of the current St. Isaac's Cathedral, the traditional design is clearly visible, starting from the first wooden St. Isaac's Church.

So, despite the large area of the iconostasis, a limited number of icons are placed here, moreover, the same as in the first church of St. Isaac of Dalmatia (images of the Savior, the Mother of God, St. Nicholas of Myra, St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Alexander Nevsky). Only the faces of the saints named after the kings and queens, under whom four St. Isaac's churches were built, have been added.

The "twelfth" holiday icons are placed in the interior of the cathedral, which corresponds to their location in the previous St. Isaac's churches. The background of the images (lemon damask - yellow) was replaced with a golden mosaic cantorel. The vertical columns are preserved and made of malachite, as if reproducing the "grassy" (green) pedestals of the first St. Isaac's Church painted on the canvas.

The blue background near the royal doors was replaced by columns made of Afghan lapis lazuli, and the painted figures above the royal doors are reproduced by the sculptural group "Christ in Glory". The curtains above the doors were kept red, and even the marble slabs of the typesetting floor repeat the gray tone of the felts of the first St. Isaac's Church.

These features of the color and compositional solution of the interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral suggest that the traditions in its decoration, laid down under Emperor Peter I, were preserved, and were one of the criteria for the construction of all the churches of St. Isaac of Dalmatsky in St. Petersburg.

stained glass

Everyone, approaching the main iconostasis of the cathedral, will be delighted with the pomp and richness of its decorative decoration: the gilding of the sculpture, the beauty of the malachite and lapis lazuli of the columns, the mysterious shimmer of the golden cantorel background of the mosaic images.

But if at the same time the royal doors of the main altar are opened, then attention will focus, first of all, on the altar stained glass image of the Risen Lord.

He is depicted against a yellow-blue sky, dressed in a purple cloak with gold embroidery, adorned with green emeralds and pale purple amethysts.

The figure of Jesus Christ occupies almost the entire space of the altar window, it seems to be cramped within these frames, and it seems that in a moment the Lord will enter the temple.

The effect of presence is emphasized by the unsharp, but well-defined dynamics of the composition. The lower part of the window is occupied, as it were, by a cloud that is barely perceptible floating towards the viewer, and thanks to this, the figure of Christ seems to be elevated. In His hands is a fluttering scarlet banner with a white cross.

The grandiose dimensions of the Risen Lord indicate the significance of the image and its dominant position. The upper part of the window in the form of a semicircular arch emphasizes the dynamics of the rays of the halo. The face of Jesus Christ is highlighted with brighter lighting due to the lightening of the color.

A similar element of decoration is traditional for a Catholic church, but perhaps the only one in the Orthodox Church.

The appearance of a stained-glass window with an area of 28.5 sq. m in St. Isaac's Cathedral is caused by romantic moods, inspired by the images of the Middle Ages.

The painting is made in the style of the Italian Renaissance. This is one of the largest stained-glass windows in Europe, and the largest in Russia.

Place a stained glass window in the altar window of St. Isaac's Cathedral was recommended by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze, the author of the original (not accepted) project of the interior decoration of the temple. This was approved by Emperor Nicholas I, the Holy Synod and supported by O. Montferrand, since this detail of decoration did not contradict his own decor plan.

Von Klenze himself supervised the production of the stained-glass window, having developed a frame of a special design for it. The Bavarian architect personally applied to his patron King Ludwig I for permission to make a stained-glass window in Munich, and received his consent.

In 1841, Klenze, with a messenger, handed over his drawings to the chairman of the Commission for the construction of the cathedral, His Serene Highness Prince P. M. Volkonsky.

Soon, the prince, on behalf of the Highest name, informed the architect that he could place an order at the Munich Royal Factory. From that moment on, Klenze's role was reduced to mediating between the German stained glass artists and the head of the Commission.

The design drawing of the stained-glass window was altered several times, the final version was developed by the artist G. M. von Hess and basically followed academic traditions: the so-called "academic tricolor" dominates in the picture - red, blue and yellow-white tones.

In many ways, the extraordinary beauty, juiciness, subtlety and freshness of color is the merit of the masters of the Munich factory, and, mainly, one of the best stained-glass windows in Europe, M.-E. Ainmiller.

At the disposal of this amazing master was the glass of more than 100 different colors and shades. He used laminated glass and glass painted with special paints.

For example, the purple mantle of Christ is made of two layers of red-yellow glass. The precious stones on the stained-glass window are, apparently, convex prisms inserted with the help of lead. The color effect of the halo is based on the fact that individual layers in the three-layer glass are partially removed, and thus the yellow color has acquired a greenish tint.

Craftsmen from Munich also skillfully used monochrome glass. The clouds in the picture are made of solid smoky-gray glass, the banner of the cross is made of ruby, the cross on the banner is made of white.

Some details of the stained-glass window were painted with special paints, fired in a muffle furnace and then subjected to mechanical processing.

Stained glass was brewed at a factory in the town of Benediktbeuern, which at first belonged to M. Z. Frank, and then became the property of Einmiller, who invented a method for producing glass with the finest transitions of tones. In order to reliably convey people's faces and exposed parts of the human body on stained glass, he invented the so-called "parchment" glass.

By the end of 1843, work on the stained-glass window was completed. In the summer of 1844, the boxes with the disassembled painting were delivered to St. Petersburg by sea. Master G. Kuhl assembled a stained-glass window and installed it for demonstration to the tsar.

After the Highest approval, the painting was again dismantled, and installed in the main altar after the completion of the finishing work in the cathedral.

The stained glass window consists of two metal frames connected by rods. Thick mirror glass is inserted into the outer frame, the stained-glass window itself is mounted in the inner frame from elements of colored translucent glass, fastened with lead solder. In the window frame, it is held by metal fasteners.

The altarpiece "The Resurrected Christ" organically entered the structure of the decorative and artistic decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral. The fact that he appeared in an Orthodox church did not contradict the spirit of the time when Russian romanticism flourished.

References: Internet resource: http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/tantana/post219557930

APPENDIX 2

Analysis of the painting by V. Surikov "Boyar Morozova"

The history of the creation of this painting is richest in materials that tell about the mysteries of the artistic work of Vasily Surikov. Almost all stages of her compositional searches have been preserved, recorded in various sketches - from the very first sketches to watercolors, sometimes covered with a graphing grid (that is, designed to be transferred to the canvas).

The first sketch of the painting "Boyar Morozova" painted in oils was made by Surikov in 1881. The idea of the picture has not yet fully matured, but V. Surikov already imagined the whole scene quite concretely. But another artistic idea pushed back work on this painting for a long time: from 1881 to 1883, Surikov worked on Menshikov in Berezov, and then went abroad.

There, far from his homeland, peering intently at the immortal canvases of the Renaissance masters, Surikov continued to bear the images of his new great creation - the folk drama Boyar Morozova. Returning to Russia in the summer of 1884, he was finally able to come to grips with the embodiment of a long-standing grandiose plan, but it was not until the spring of 1887 that Boyar Morozova was completed by him. The new work was named after the central character of the painting - the noblewoman Morozova, one of the prominent participants in the "split".

The moment he chose for the picture did not change: a crowd of people and a sleigh with a frantic noblewoman during her journey through the streets of Moscow - "the shame of following the noblewoman Fedosya Prokopyevna Morozova for interrogation in the Kremlin for her adherence to a split in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich."

The external reason for the split was, as you know, the church reforms begun by Patriarch Nikon in 1655: the correction of liturgical books and a change in ritual (in particular, the dispute was about how to be baptized - with two or three fingers).

The split became widespread among the serfs and townspeople. The theological disputes about two-fingeredness and three-fingeredness were little understood by the people, but two-fingeredness was its own, popular, and three-fingeredness was alien and imposed from above. In the minds of the broad masses of the people, the upholding of the "old faith" was a peculiar form of protest against the state, which, while introducing the "new faith" by force, at the same time strengthened the feudal oppression. The schism clearly reflected the features of the class anti-feudal struggle. In the ranks of the adherents of the split, there were also individual boyar families, but, as Soviet historical science notes, these were only isolated cases, explained by the fact that the government's desire for the centralization of Russia ran into stubborn opposition from the reactionary boyars. The schism, on the whole, retained until the end of the 17th century a living connection with the popular movement and served as an outer shell for the spontaneous protest of the masses. Therefore, the tsarist government suppressed the schismatic movement in every possible way. The noblewoman Morozova was also subjected to cruel persecution.

What did V. Surikov know in those years about the boyar Morozova? The general outline of her sad story, which I heard as a child in Siberia? What was written about her in D.L. Mordovtsev "The Great Schism" Perhaps he also read the article by N.S. Tikhonravov in the "Russian Messenger" for 1865 and the book by I.E. Zabelin "Home life of Russian queens". But in none of these books, in none of the articles was there even a word about the crowd of people who saw off the noblewoman Morozova, about her black semi-monastic, semi-prisoner attire, about the black board on her chest.

Seventeen-year-old Fedosya Sokovnina, the daughter of one of the tsar's close associates, was married off to an elderly boyar G.I. Morozov. Well-read, self-willed, energetic, even with her husband she openly performed the old church rites, distinguished by her implacability towards the new "official" church.

This church was legalized in 1654, when a church council that met in Moscow adopted a ritual reform prepared by Patriarch Nikon. Of course, the meaning of the ongoing reforms was much deeper than just the new rules for tracing the name of Jesus Christ or the prescription to be baptized with three fingers instead of two.

The new rites caused a protest among a significant part of the clergy, especially the lower clergy, who saw in them a foreign influence, a threat to the purity of the true Orthodox faith. Soon, purely ecclesiastical feuds gained quite a lot of influence among the people. One of the documents of those years says: "The fire of rage against the chiefs, against insults, taxes, oppression and injustice multiplied more and more, and anger and ferocity inflamed."

Boyarynya F.P. Morozova closely linked her fate with the zealots of the old faith, supported the frantic archpriest Avvakum, the main enemy of the Nikonians, and upon the return of the latter from exile in 1662, she settled him in her place. By this time, she was a widow and remained the only manager of her husband's vast wealth. Her house began to look more and more like a refuge for the Old Believers, in fact, it became a kind of schismatic monastery.

Having been widowed at the age of thirtieth, this “fierce-hearted” woman led a harsh ascetic life, distributed her wealth to the poor, and in 1668 secretly received monastic vows from a schismatic elder.

Events soon followed, which became the prologue to the episode chosen by V. Surikov as the plot for his picture.

In the autumn of 1671, the wrath of the Quietest Tsar Alexei fell upon the rebellious noblewoman. At first, however, they tried to "convince" her, but she refused all persuasion to obey the tsar's will and accept new church statutes. In addition, it turned out that she also persuaded her sister, Princess Urusova, to the old faith.

They were chained in "horse iron" and put under guard. Two days later, having removed the fetters from the women, they were taken for interrogation to the Chudov Monastery. But Metropolitan Pavel could not get anything from F.P. Morozova, nor from her sister. They categorically refused to receive communion from the new service books, firmly stood on two fingers and announced that they would only accept old printed books.

More than once women were taken for interrogation, and when they were tortured, F.P. Morozova shouted on the rack: “This is what is great and truly marvelous for me: if I am worthy of being burned by fire in a log house in the Swamp (then “enemies of the fatherland” were executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow), this is glorious to me, because I have never experienced this honor.

Neither persuasion, nor threats, nor painful tortures could break the spirit of Morozova.
A friend and mentor of the noblewoman Morozova, a devout defender of the old faith, Archpriest Avvakum wrote about her like this: “The fingers of your hands are subtle, and your eyes are lightning fast. You throw yourself at the enemy, like a lion.

But they were not executed. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was afraid of too loud publicity and decided to get rid of recalcitrant women without noise. By his order, both sisters were deprived of the rights of the state and imprisoned in the monastery dungeon in Borovskoye. There they died of hunger and cold.

The bright and strong character of the noblewoman F.P. Morozova was in the spirit of Vasily Surikov. He was fascinated by the image of a fiery Russian woman, her spiritual invincibility and will. If until the spring of 1881 the artist was only thinking about the plot, now it is F.P. Morozova took possession of all his thoughts. V. Surikov had the only goal - to show his heroine not lost in the crowd, but with the utmost artistic persuasiveness to highlight the strong features of her character.

It was necessary to find the only composition that could express the thoughts that overwhelmed V. Surikov, could the sad fate of the noblewoman F.P. Morozova to turn into a story about a folk tragedy. He was not particularly interested in the church-dogmatic side of the schism and the dramatic feuds between the noblewoman and the Nikonians. Not in a lonely tragic meditation, not in the throes of mental struggle, the artist wanted to show it, but with the people and on the people.

Vasily Surikov was well aware that history is not made without the people, and even the most outstanding historical figure is helpless outside the people. Where there is no people, there is no hero. And the tragedy of F.P. Morozova (as V. Surikov saw her) is not so much the tragedy of one, albeit such a woman of extraordinary strength of character. This is the tragedy of time, the tragedy of the whole people.

“I don’t understand the actions of individual historical figures without the people, without the crowd, I need to pull them out into the street,” Surikov said. The people, their thoughts and feelings in the era of the split - that's the main thing that attracted Surikov in his chosen historical plot and what he brilliantly revealed in his picture.

In the blue haze of a winter morning, the schismatic noblewoman Morozova, shackled in chains, is being transported over loose, wet snow. Lumberjacks with difficulty make their way through the dense crowd that filled the narrow street with low houses, with golden and blue domes of churches. Morozova raised her heavy chained hand with thin fingers folded into two fingers. With a passionate appeal to firmly stand for their cause, she addresses the people. Terrible is the fiery gaze of her deeply sunken eyes on her emaciated, deathly-pale face. She is ready to accept any torment, go to death.

The image of Morozova, exceptional in strength, dominates the picture, but does not overshadow the crowd of people. Moreover, he is inextricably linked with it: he unites it with himself and at the same time, thanks to it, he acquires a special expressiveness and a special meaning. Morozov is the source that arouses in the crowd a complex range of different experiences, and the center to which the eyes, thoughts and feelings of all the characters in this scene rush. Showing the historical event as a national tragedy, Surikov ingeniously solved the most difficult task of combining the "hero and the crowd." This unity is supported, in particular, by the fact that women's faces in the crowd are related according to the type of face of Morozova herself. The human mass is one, but not a single face dissolves in it, the artist achieves amazing harmony in depicting the mass and the individual human personality: everyone in the crowd perceives the event in his own way, each face is a new voice in a single tragic choir. We see both the malevolence of the priest, who bared his toothless mouth, and the sympathy of the townspeople and the "poor brethren" - the holy fool, repeating the pathetic gesture of Morozova, the wanderer, who bared his head and froze in deep thought, the beggar, kneeling before the schismatic persecuted by the tsar ... Clenching her hands tightly, as if trying not to succumb to weakness, to preserve her courage and strength, sister Morozova, Princess Urusova, hurries after the sleigh. A young townswoman in a blue fur coat and a golden shawl bowed respectfully at the waist...

Depicting the masses on the street, Surikov had to solve the most difficult compositional problems, which he did with remarkable skill. The canvas is perceived as a living piece of reality. The crowd on it lives and worries; moving, a wedge crashing into the crowd, a miserable sleigh. The deep footprints left by the runners, the straw dragging through the snow, the boy running after the sleigh - all make the viewer believe that the sleigh tilted to the left is really moving through loose snow. The impression of the movement of the sleigh is also supported by the increase in movement in the figures - from the right edge to the center: on the right - a holy fool sitting on the snow, then a beggar woman kneeling and reaching for Morozova, and finally walking next to Urusov's sleigh. The dynamism of the whole scene is enhanced by the diagonal construction of the picture. Equally amazing is the coloristic solution of the picture, its picturesque "orchestration", its color range - from black to white, using the entire gamut of the palette. Fascinated by the colorfulness of ancient Russian life, Surikov gives color spots of exceptional sonority - blue, yellow, crimson, black ... But even the most sonorous colorful spots do not fall out of the picture and do not turn it into a decorative canvas; they are subordinated to the general harmony, they are softened and united by soft diffused light, a bluish haze of moist air. Blue tones, echoing golden ones, are scattered everywhere: in the snow, as if woven from color reflections, and in the gray sky, and in the patterns of folk clothes ... The psychological center of the picture, the figure of Morozova, is also highlighted in color; the black stain of her clothes against the background of white snow sounds tragically like a heavy bell. But the bright brilliance, the multicoloredness of the people's crowd give the picture a major, life-affirming sound, expressing faith in the people, in their strength, in the final victory of the people's mind over prejudices, light over darkness.

V. Surikov painted his picture for three years. Sketch followed sketch, in search of nature the artist was tireless. Wherever he went during this time, looking for the most characteristic characters, in the thick of life itself, scooping the future heroes of his picture. He rejected two canvases with sketches already made, and only the third, made to his special order (a rectangle placed on a large edge) satisfied the master.

The composition of "Boyar Morozova" was created after a long and difficult search. Surikov himself said: “The main thing for me is composition. There is some kind of firm, inexorable law here, which can only be guessed by intuition, but which is so immutable that each added or subtracted inch of the canvas, or an extra set point, changes the entire composition at once.

On another occasion, Surikov said: “There are living points in the movement, but there are dead ones. This is real mathematics. The figures sitting in the sleigh hold them in place. It was necessary to find the distance from the frame to the sled in order to set them in motion. A little less distance - the sleigh is standing. And to me, Tolstoy and his wife, when they watched Morozov, they said: “The bottom must be cut off, the bottom is not needed, it interferes.” And there you can’t reduce anything - the sleigh won’t go.

With special perseverance, the artist “searched” for the images of his heroes. In order to collect the necessary material, to find the most characteristic types of people who could serve as nature for the characters in the picture, Vasily Surikov settled in Mytishchi. Here, along the Yaroslavl highway, "for centuries, there were continuous strings of pilgrims heading to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra for centuries, especially in summer. V. Surikov wrote, choking, of all the wanderers who passed by his hut, interesting to him by type."

He always and everywhere eagerly peered into human faces, trying to find among them the social or psychological type he needed, close to the images of those historical characters that were drawn to his creative imagination. “The girl in the crowd, I wrote it with Speranskaya, - then she was preparing to become a nun. And those who bow are all Old Believers from Preobrazhensky, ”said Surikov. The artist was also helped by memories of the past, captured by his powerful visual memory: “Do you remember the priest in my crowd? This is a whole type I have created. This is when they sent me from Buzim to study, since I was traveling with a deacon - Barsanuphius, I was eight years old. He's got pigtails tied up here. We drive into the village of Pogoreloye... He bought himself a green damask, and there he already pecked... He will drink from the damask and look at the light... He drank without eating... "

Gradually, the characters of the picture were found. Here is a pilgrimage wanderer - a typical figure of Ancient Rus', preserved almost unchanged for centuries. Such wanderers from year to year paced the vast expanses of Russia. Wandering pilgrims were both preachers and bearers of news for the people, with their foot pilgrimage they connected the remote corners of the country, they were eyewitnesses of popular riots, and executions, and repentances.

Faced with various aspects of Russian life, coming into contact with various strata of the population, proceeding up and down the Russian expanses, they accumulated rich material for reflection and stories. Such was the wanderer in the painting by V. Surikov. Everything shows that he came from afar, his strong, stocky figure is girded with a wide belt, the ropes tied around his chest support a large knapsack, in his hands he has a tall staff with an intricate handle - an indispensable companion of his wanderings.

This wandering philosopher is full of deep sympathy for the chained noblewoman F.P. Morozova. Behind his wide belt hangs the same Old Believer "lestovka" (leather rosary), as well as the one that hangs from the noblewoman's hand. He looks at her with compassion and at the same time is immersed in himself, as if following his mournful thought. Of all the many-faced crowd, he more than anyone else expresses reflection on the ongoing event, so important in the tragic fate of the split.

And the holy fool, this folk soothsayer, the artist found in one of the Moscow markets.

Deciding the picture as an outdoor scene, Surikov strove to write sketches in the same conditions. “If I painted hell, then I myself would sit in the fire and make me pose in the fire,” the artist once remarked jokingly.
“And I found a holy fool at a flea market. He sold cucumbers there. I see him. Such is the skull of such people. I say let's go. Barely persuaded him. He follows me, everything jumps over the pedestals. I look around, and he shakes his head - nothing, they say, I will not deceive. It was at the beginning of winter. The snow is melting. I wrote it in the snow. He gave him some vodka and rubbed his legs with vodka... He was sitting barefoot in the snow in a linen shirt. His legs even turned blue ... So he painted it in the snow, ”Surikov said cheerfully.
He was delighted with this drunkard who sold cucumbers. V. Surikov brings this mischievous and mischievous person, who is popularly called the "reckless head", to his home, rubs his bare feet with vodka and hurries to capture him in the snow, watching the pink and purple play of spots. “If I painted hell,” the artist later said, “then I myself would sit in the fire and force me to pose in the fire.”

Before the artist had time to cope with the holy fool, a new nature was already needed. And he funny and touchingly chases after the old woman-prayer, involuntarily frightening her, and with boundless greed grabs the staff thrown by her in order to immediately "insert" it into the hands of the wanderer, who is already painted in the picture.

Then a beautiful girl in a blue fur coat and a golden shawl bowed reverently; soon a nun and a girl with arms crossed on her chest were painted; and archers with berdyshes, and a boy in a tanned sheepskin coat; and a grinning toothless mouth, a triumphantly laughing priest in a fur coat and high hat; and secret old believers.

The artist also worked with enthusiasm on the landscape of the picture. Such a Russian winter, such a “multi-colored” snow, such a “blue” humid winter air had never been seen in painting before Surikov. Again, close observation, an avid study of life, a keen vision of the painter, had an effect. Surikov worked tirelessly in nature.

For the picture, deep snow was needed, according to which the noblewoman F.P. Morozov was to be carried in a sledge. The sledges leave furrows of traces in the loose snow, but a very special trace is obtained on the roll, and V. Surikov is looking forward to the snowfall. And then he runs out into the street and follows the first convoy that comes across for a long time.

“Writing in the snow - everything else turns out,” said Surikov. - There they write in the snow in silhouettes. And in the snow everything is saturated with light. Everything is in reflexes of lilac and pink, just like the clothes of the noblewoman Morozova - upper, black; and a shirt in the crowd ... He wrote everything from life: both sledges and firewood. We lived on Dolgorukovskaya (then it was still called Novaya Sloboda) ... There, in the alley, there were always deep snowdrifts, and potholes, and a lot of sledge. I kept following the sledges, watching how they leave a trail, especially on peals. As soon as the deep snow falls, you will ask to drive in the yard on the sledge so that the snow falls apart, and then you start to write a track. And you feel here all the poverty of colors!

Since then, he often went for the sledge, wherever they met him, wrapped them in his yard, forced them to drive through the snow and immediately sat down to write a track, like a jewel, protecting it from random passers-by. He painted a sketch of a snow-covered Moscow boulevard with a figure of a man dressed in black sitting on a bench; he painted dark trunks and branches of bare trees that bend over snowdrifts; he wrote skid marks on clean loose snow.

But Surikov set himself the task of reproducing not only the winter landscape, but also recreating on the canvas a Moscow street of the late 17th century. Therefore, according to him, “... alleys were looking for, looking; and where the roofs are high. And the church in the depths of the picture is St. Nicholas, which is on Dolgorukovskaya.

Every detail of the picture was carefully sought out, selected, lovingly painted. “He loved beauty everywhere,” Surikov admitted. - In the woods, what a beauty: in kopylks, in elms, in sleds. And in the bends of the runners, how they sway and shine, what twists they have. After all, Russian firewood needs to be sung ... ”Avidly studying nature, Surikov never became her slave. The deep realistic feeling inherent in him invariably guided him in the selection and generalization of impressions of reality.

The cupolas of the churches, the street itself, and the houses, and the snow had already been painted, but V. Surikov continued to search for the main thing - the image of the noblewoman herself.

He himself later told his biographer and writer Voloshin: "... I first painted the crowd in the picture, and then after it."

Surikov was looking for Morozova for a long time: “In the type of the noblewoman Morozova, there is only one of my aunts, Avdotya Vasilyevna, who was behind Uncle Stepan Fedorovich, an archer with a black beard. She began to lean towards the old faith. My mother, I remember, was always indignant: all of her were wanderers and pilgrims. She reminded me of the type of Nastasya Filippovna from Dostoevsky. Only I first painted the crowd in the picture, and then after it. And no matter how I write her face - the crowd beats. It was very difficult to find her face. After all, how long have I been looking for it. The whole face was small. Lost in the crowd. In the village of Preobrazhensky, at the Old Believer cemetery - after all, that's where he found her. I had one old woman I knew - Stepanida Varfolomeevna, from the Old Believers. They lived in Bear Lane - they had a prayer house there. And then they were evicted to the Preobrazhenskoe cemetery. There in Preobrazhensky everyone knew me. Even the old women allowed me to draw themselves and the girls-trainers. They liked that I was a Cossack and did not smoke. And then a teacher from the Urals, Anastasia Mikhailovna, came to them. I wrote a sketch from her in the garden at two o'clock. And as he inserted it into the picture, she defeated everyone.

But this sketch did not complete the work. He also tried to write the face of his wife, and then he somehow saw a reader from the Urals. "And as I inserted it into the picture, she defeated everyone." From it, he wrote a sketch, signed in 1886 and bearing the name "Head of the noblewoman Morozova."

This work, which completed the persistent search, was kept for a long time in the collection of the artist's family and belonged to the number of "cherished", not subject to sale. She was especially dear to the artist. They say that the "cherished" head of Morozova expressed a desire to buy one of the Russian Grand Dukes. “You don’t have enough money, prince,” the artist answered boldly and decisively. Now the "Head of the noblewoman Morozova" is in the Tretyakov Gallery.

Mortally pale, haggard, with burning eyes, trembling nostrils and nervous lips, the noblewoman's face is full of such passionate conviction, will and fire that it is difficult to tear oneself away from it. In the thin figure of F.P. Morozova, in the thin long fingers of her hands, in the way she sits, convulsively clinging to the sled with one hand, and the other hand shot up in a two-fingered sign - V. Surikov conveyed her passionate life and sorrowful fate.

Why can one stand for hours in front of this picture, all the time discovering something new for oneself in it, looking at and experiencing, wondering and admiring its deep psychological authenticity and admiring the wonderful play of colors? Maybe because martyrdom has an invincible power over the Russian soul? She bows before him, and it is precisely in the "charming power of other people's torment" (according to the subtle remark of the writer V. Nikolsky) that one of the reasons for the attractiveness of "Boyarynya Morozova", before which the Surikov crowd still bows.

Avidly studying nature, Surikov never became her slave. The deep realistic feeling inherent in him invariably guided him in the selection and generalization of impressions of reality. Surikov's artistic conception was fully manifested in "Boyaryna Morozova", a work of the period of his creative maturity, the highest flowering of his creative powers. “Boyarynya Morozova” is deeply and vividly national both in content, and in the images created by the artist, and in the characters revealed here, and in its pictorial solution, in the “music” of color itself. This is a work that could have arisen only on Russian soil, especially close and understandable to a Russian person. And at the same time, the universal, world significance of "Boyar Morozova" is indisputable. The tragic, heroic beginning contained in it, its picturesque harmony excite any heart sensitive to art.

This plan will be needed throughout the year, including for workshops at the museum.

1. Introduction

What work are you talking about? Author, title, date, collection, technique(in the form of full-fledged phrases, not a catalog reference). The biography does not need to be rewritten.

Purpose and tasks of the work(4-5 phrases in the introduction). What are you writing about and why? Why were these works chosen? How exactly will the analysis be done? Why is this analysis needed? Why do you need to compare works?

Introductory words about a period, a style, an epoch…

2. Description and analysis of the work

In each of the subparts, the relationship between the formal device and the image is carried out.. When comparisons description and analysis either proceed sequentially (the second work is compared with the first) or in parallel.

Description of the artwork. What is shown? Genre, theme, plot.

Composition scheme and its functions

size
format (vertically and horizontally elongated, square, oval, round, aspect ratio)
geometric patterns
main composition lines
balance, the ratio of parts of the image with each other and with the whole,
viewing sequence

Space and its functions.

Perspective, vanishing points
flatness and depth
spatial plans
distance between the viewer and the work, the viewer's place in the space of the picture or outside it
point of view and presence of angles, horizon line

Chiaroscuro, volume and their role.

volume and plane
line, silhouette
light sources, time of day, lighting effects
emotional impact of light and shadow

Color, color and its functions

predominance of tonal or local color
warm or cold colors
linearity or picturesqueness
main color spots, their relationships and their role in the composition
tone, valery
reflexes
emotional impact of color

Surface texture (Smear).

the nature of the stroke (open texture, smooth texture)
smear orientation
smear size
glazing

3. Conclusion

Reiterating key findings regarding image, the meaning of the work.

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Analysis of the architectural work House Pashkov

“The task of the artist with the help of form is to destroy the material,” F. Schiller, from the book by B.R. Vipper, Introduction to the Historical Study of Art. Indeed, the main task of architecture is to transform the material, modify it and subordinate it to its artistic goals. And, as a result, create a single composition based on an expressive combination of volume and space. Architects are also called upon to link three sides in the harmonious composition of the building: on the one hand, convenience and benefit (functional task); on the other hand, strength and economy (constructive and technical and economic task); with the third - the beauty of forms (aesthetic task). And in the end, the goal of the composition becomes - to achieve unity of form and content. And to achieve this is not so easy. Consider one of the most prominent houses in Moscow. What properties, what architectural techniques determined the high appraisal of this building?

pashkov house architectural

Pashkov House was built in 1784-1786. in the second half of the XVIII century. Vasily Bazhenov commissioned by the wealthy landowner Pashkov. It was a time when the noble simplicity and restraint of classicism broke with the rich generosity of the baroque. The recognized master of that time, Vasily Bazhenov, managed to create the style of Moscow classicism, which organically combines the principles of baroque and classicism here. This is confirmed by the favorite methods of these styles. For example, the long façade overlooking Mokhovaya Street is made in the classical style, which is characterized by uniformity, consistency and emphasized correct order. Its composition unfolds clearly symmetrically relative to the axis of the central building. To the right and left of it, two one-story galleries depart, which end with two-story identical outbuildings. Pashkov's house has two main facades - one looks at the roadway and has a palace, solemn character, the other is oriented to the courtyard and has a more comfortable, estate look. A cylindrical belvedere rises up (Bazhenov made it as a through rotunda, surrounded by paired columns with a dome, crowned with a sculpture of the Greek goddess Minerva) in combination with the two lower ones, it formed a clear isosceles triangle. These are the techniques of the classicism style, which literally means “exemplary” in Latin. Baroque shades are clearly visible in the design of architectural decoration, in particular, the order system of the facade of the central building, on the one hand, strict classical, on the other hand, made in its details (vases on the balustrades, sculptures, stucco decoration details) with greater freedom and originality compared to ordinary classical canons.

The house has not survived to this day in its original form, it was rebuilt several times. In particular, in 1812 the house was destroyed by fire. The architects tried to restore the house according to the images of the 18th century, the way it was originally created.

View of the architectural typology of the building

Pashkov's house is a palace type of architecture, a type that emphasizes a certain way (type) of life. In this case, Bazhenov develops a type of Russian urban noble estate and builds the Pashkov House as an architectural complex consisting of a three-story main building topped with a rotunda-belvedere and two-story outbuildings connected to it by one-story galleries.

At first, looking closely at the building, it seems that the house is small. But it seems larger than it is, thanks to the galleries and outbuildings stretching along the street in one straight line, adjacent to the main building. They seem to complete the overall architectural composition along the edges. Such a three-part composition, consisting of a central building, passage galleries and outbuildings, is not a whim of the architect - it is justified by the life of that time. The main house housed the living rooms and state rooms of the owner. In the outbuildings there was a kitchen, servants lived and guests stayed. Galleries made it possible to pass from the outbuildings to the house without going outside, which was especially important in inclement weather or in winter.

Place in space

The architectural space of the composition of the House is organized. Its location is well thought out. And not only in the urban ensemble, but also within the composition itself. The impressive appearance of the building is partly due to the place of its construction. Pashkov's house stands on the high Vagankovsky hill, as if continuing the line of its rise, on the open corner of two descending streets.

The urban architectural ensemble of the house can be described as panoramic. The elevated position of the site and its visibility from all sides contributed to a better identification of the volumetric and high-rise nature of the composition of the structure, which organically entered the ensemble of the Kremlin's surroundings.

The mass of the building in visual perception depends on the visual assessment of the amount of material of the overall architectural form. The mass here is dissected with a fairly free arrangement. The slender pyramidal silhouette of the Pashkov House, emphasized by the side wings, the aspiration to the top of its middle building, as well as its relief thanks to the rotunda-belvedere - all this, rather, goes back to the traditions of the folk architecture of Ancient Rus'. The so-called organic growth of the mass of Bazhenov's building here reaches a high power of expression.

Construction type

The design is rack-and-beam. The building is distinguished by a clear layout and organized tectonic scale.

architectural decor

In general, the architectural decor of the House can be called plastic. But it is so rich that it is necessary to dwell on it in more detail.

a) the principle of the location of the architectural decor

The location of the architectural decor near Pashkov's house according to the principle of rowing, such a principle is just characteristic of palace architecture. Order elements and elements of architectural decor alternate and follow in orderly rows.

The gallery of the basement, as it were, balances the main building with the outbuildings and, following the law of juxtaposition, extends the entire length of the facade.

The location of the architectural decor - determines the composition of the building.

b) composition

The solemnly light and rich composition of the Pashkov House is a wonderful example of Bazhenov's compositional skill and his broad urban planning approach to a separate building as part of an urban ensemble.

The whole architectural complex can be characterized as a deep-spatial view of the composition, as it includes the main house, outbuildings, front entrance yard, garden and various outbuildings. What requires movement in depth, entry. But if we consider the Pashkov House separately, then its length and the predominance of dimensions in height over dimensions in depth - tells us that the composition of the house is clearly frontal. The construction is decided mainly in the facade planes, here is the main semantic and aesthetic architectural load. Moreover, on the face of the dominance of symmetry. Two-story outbuildings seem to balance the building relative to the central axis of the main facade. There is also a version that the façade from the Kremlin is not a front one at all, but a park one, and on the reverse side there is a vast courtyard, conceived by Bazhenov just like a front one.

c) order system

The order system of the House is very rich, it is obviously assumed by its design. In contrast to the horizontal rusticated ground floor, there are two main floors of the central façade building. The Corinthian composite order is used in the protruding portico, which unites both floors and visually increases the scale of the building. The same exact order decorates the pilasters on the walls of the central building.

On the sides of the four-column portico are statues placed on the bases of the columns. The columns and pilasters of the outbuildings use a complex Ionic order with four-sided diagonal capitals. They emphasize the artistic independence and the role of the outbuildings in the composition of the facade.

The balustrade, framing the roof of the central building, carries lush vases on pillars, softening the transition from the frieze and cornice to the rotunda that completes the central volume. It uses an overlaid Ionic order (later restored as a replacement for the former Corinthian order). Thus, the architects seemed to make the house heavier by placing a heavier order over a lighter one. But the rotunda-belvedere in general is not such a static form and emphasizes the upward aspiration of the entire composition, facilitating the overall impression of the building.

As in other art forms, rhythm plays an important role in architecture. It is his supremacy that makes it possible to speak of architecture as the art of a carefully rhythmic space. That is why architecture is often called “frozen music”. Indeed, in the art of music, rhythm is also the most important compositional means.

The rhythmic elements of the Pashkov House include: the colonnade, the arcade, the rustication of the basement floor, the frieze, and numerous rhythmically repeating decorative elements.

However, the rhythm of any work of art is not a simple alternation. This is a kind of unity in which many rhythmic rows are merged. So here the rhythmic pulsation of the colonnade, grouped into three porticos of exactly the same size and number of columns, the precisely adjusted rhythm of the vertical parts of the column (the only difference is in the order), the whimsical rhythms of the design of the frieze, dynamic rustication, pilasters - all this is carefully thought out and merged by the architect into a single harmony.

With the help of architectural rhythm, Bazhenov builds the perception of the viewer both in space and in time. Rhythm is very important. Indeed, relative to the structure, the viewer can remain motionless, and then the main role in his perception is played by spatial rhythms. But as soon as the viewer begins to bypass the building or, moreover, to enter it, then he lives the rhythm in time. Thus, the perception of architectural ensembles is reminiscent in nature of the perception of a musical or literary work, where the form unfolds sequentially, fragment by fragment. Moreover, architecture today is usually defined as the art of building the space of human existence. And the architect, building the space itself, makes it rhythmically pulsate in the perception of the viewer.

The fundamental purpose of the building

The fundamental purpose of the building is administrative. Initially conceived as an illusion of harmony and rationality of the monarchy, the policy of enlightened absolutism, it turns over time into a public building.

Today the Pashkov House is one of the buildings of the Russian State Library named after V. I. Lenin. It is protected by the state and remains one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. Unfortunately, recently it has been practically closed from the eyes of casual visitors; we can admire its grandeur only from the side of Mokhovaya Street.

Conclusion

From the point of view of the form-creating fantasy, the superiority of architecture over other areas of art is obvious. What is this phenomenon? And the fact that architectural forms have no direct analogies in nature, it does not reproduce and does not imitate a foreign language, but speaks its own. Thus, we can say once again that architecture is a kind of synthesis of the arts, embodied in space. Monumentality, decorativeness, applied art, so characteristic of both sculpture and painting, and got the name - architecture.

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Primitive analysis algorithm:

Algorithm for the analysis of works of art

Meaning of the title of the painting.
Genre affiliation.
Features of the plot of the picture. Reasons for painting. Search for an answer to the question: did the author convey his intention to the viewer?
Features of the composition of the picture.
The main means of artistic image: color, drawing, texture, chiaroscuro, style of writing.
What impression did this work of art have on your feelings and mood?
Where is this piece of art located?

Algorithm for analyzing works of architecture

What is known about the history of the creation of an architectural structure and its author?
Indicate the belonging of this work to the cultural and historical era, artistic style, direction.
What embodiment did Vitruvius' formula find in this work: strength, usefulness, beauty?
Indicate artistic means and techniques for creating an architectural image (symmetry, rhythm, proportions, light and shade and color modeling, scale), tectonic systems (post-beam, lancet-arch, arch-dome).
Indicate the belonging to the type of architecture: three-dimensional structures (public: residential, industrial); landscape (landscape or small forms); urban planning.
Indicate the connection between the external and internal appearance of an architectural structure, the connection between the building and the relief, the nature of the landscape.
How are other types of art used in the design of its architectural appearance?
What impression did the work have on you?
What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?
Where is the architecture located?

Algorithm for analyzing works of sculpture

The history of the creation of the work.
About the author. What place does this work occupy in his work?
Belonging to the artistic era.
The meaning of the title of the work.
Belonging to the types of sculpture (monumental, memorial, easel).
The use of material and the technique of its processing.
Dimensions of the sculpture (if it is important to know).
The shape and size of the pedestal.
Where is this sculpture located?
What impression did this work have on you?
What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?

Sample Questions for Analyzing a Work of Art

Emotional level:

What impression does the work make?
What mood is the author trying to convey?
What sensations can the viewer experience?
What is the nature of the work?
How do the scale, format, horizontal, vertical or diagonal arrangement of parts, the use of certain architectural forms, the use of certain colors in the picture and the distribution of light in the architectural monument help the emotional impression of the work?

Subject level:

What (or who) is in the picture?
What does the viewer see when standing in front of the facade? In interiors?
Who do you see in the sculpture?
Highlight the main thing from what you saw.
Try to explain why this seems to be the main thing for you?
By what means does the artist (architect, composer) single out the main thing?
How are objects arranged in the work (subject composition)?
How are the main lines drawn in the work (linear composition)?
How are volumes and spaces compared in an architectural structure (architectural composition)?
Story level:
Try to retell the plot of the picture.
Try to imagine what events can happen more often in this architectural structure.
What can this sculpture do (or say) if it comes to life?

Symbolic level:

Are there objects in the work that symbolize something?
Do the composition of the work and its main elements have a symbolic character: horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circle, oval, color, cube, dome, arch, vault, wall, tower, spire, gesture, pose, clothing, rhythm, timbre, etc. .?
What is the title of the work? How does it relate to its plot and symbolism?
What do you think the author of the work wanted to convey to people?

Plan for analysis of a painting

1. Author, title of the work, time and place of creation, history of the idea and its implementation. Model selection.
2. Style, direction.
3. Type of painting: easel, monumental (fresco, tempera, mosaic).
4. Choice of material (for easel painting): oil paints, watercolor, gouache, pastel. Characteristics of the use of this material for the artist.
5. Genre of painting (portrait, landscape, still life, historical painting, panorama, diorama, icon painting, marina, mythological genre, everyday genre). Characteristics of the genre for the artist's works.
6. Picturesque plot. Symbolic content (if any).
7. Picturesque characteristics of the work:

color;
light;
volume;
flatness;
color;
artistic space (the space transformed by the artist);
line.

9. Personal impression received when viewing the work.

Specifics:

Composition scheme and its functions
- size
- format (vertically and horizontally elongated, square, oval, round, aspect ratio)
- geometric patterns
- main composition lines
- balance, the ratio of parts of the image with each other and with the whole,
- viewing sequence
Space and its functions.
- Perspective, vanishing points
- flatness and depth
- spatial plans
- distance between the viewer and the work, the viewer's place in the space of the picture or outside it
- point of view and presence of angles, horizon line
Chiaroscuro, volume and their role.
- volume and plane
- line, silhouette
- light sources, time of day, lighting effects
- emotional impact of light and shadow
Color, color and its functions
- predominance of tonal or local color
- warm or cold colors
- linearity or picturesqueness
- main color spots, their relationships and their role in the composition
- tone, valery
- reflexes
- emotional impact of color
Surface texture (Smear).
- the nature of the stroke (open texture, smooth texture)
- smear orientation
- smear size
- glazing

Description and analysis of architectural monuments

Topic 1. Artistic language of architecture.

Architecture as an art form. The concept of "artistic architecture". Artistic image in architecture. The artistic language of architecture: the concept of such means of artistic expression as line, plane, space, mass, rhythm (arrhythmia), symmetry (asymmetry). Canonical and symbolic elements in architecture. The concept of the building plan, exterior, interior. Style in architecture.

Topic 2. The main types of architectural structures

Monuments of urban art: historical cities, their parts, sites of ancient planning; architectural complexes, ensembles. Monuments of residential architecture (estates of merchants, nobles, peasants, profitable houses, etc.) Monuments of civil public architecture: theaters, libraries, hospitals, educational buildings, administrative buildings, railway stations, etc. Cult monuments: temples, chapels, monasteries. Defense architecture: prisons, fortress towers, etc. Monuments of industrial architecture: factory complexes, buildings, forges, etc.

Garden and park monuments, garden and landscape art: gardens and parks.

Topic 3. Description and analysis of an architectural monument

Building plan, building material, composition of the external volume. Description of the street and courtyard facade, door and window openings, balconies, exterior and interior decoration. Conclusion about the style and artistic merits of an architectural monument, its place in the historical and architectural heritage of the city, village, region.

METHODS OF MONOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF AN ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENT

1. Analysis of constructive and tectonic systems involves:

a) graphical identification on perspective or orthogonal projections of the monument of its constructive basis (for example, drawing the outlines of vaults and domes with a dotted line, “displaying” the internal structure on the facade, a kind of “combining” the facade with the section, shading the surfaces on the sections in order to clarify the structure of the interior etc.)

b) elucidation of the degree of proximity and interconnectedness of structural elements and the corresponding tectonic architectural forms (for example, the identification of girth arches, vaults in sections and their definition, their influence on the forms of zakomars, kokoshniks, three-lobed arches, etc.)

c) drawing up certain tectonic schemes of a monument (for example, a diagram of the vaulted grass cover of a Gothic cathedral or a “cast” diagram of the internal space of a pillarless temple - in axonometry, etc.);

2. The analysis of proportions and proportions is carried out, as a rule, in orthogonal projections and consists of two points:

a) search for multiple ratios (for example, 2:3, 4:5, etc.) between the main dimensional parameters of the monument, taking into account the fact that these proportions could at one time be used during construction to set aside the necessary values in kind. At the same time, the dimensional values (modules) that are repeatedly encountered in the monument should be compared with historical measures of length (feet, sazhens, etc.);

b) the search for a more or less constant geometric relationship between the sizes of the main forms and articulations of the monument based on the regular relations of the elements of the simplest geometric figures (square, double square, equilateral triangle, etc.) and their derivatives. The revealed proportions should not contradict the logic of constructing the tectonic forms of the monument and the obvious sequence of erection of its individual parts. The analysis can be completed by linking the dimensions of the original geometric figure (for example, a square) with the modulus and with historical measures of length.

In the training exercise, one should not strive to identify too many relationships, it is much more important to pay attention to the quality of the selected proportions and proportions, that is, their compositional significance, their connection with the dimensional relationships of the main tectonic divisions of volumes and the possibility of their use in the process erection of a monument.

3. Analysis of metro-rhythmic patterns can be carried out both on orthogonal drawings and on perspective images of the monument (drawings, photographs, slides, etc.). The essence of the method is reduced to graphic underlining (by line, tone, shading or color) on any image of the monument of metric and rhythmic series of forms both vertically and horizontally. The metric rows distinguished in this way (for example, colonnades, window openings, cornices, etc.) and rhythmic rows (for example, tiers decreasing in height, changing spans of arches, etc.) make it possible to identify “static” or “dynamic” architectural composition of this monument. At the same time, the elucidation of the patterns of change in the members of the rhythmic series of forms is closely related to the analysis of proportions. As a result of the study, conditional schemes are drawn up, reflecting the features of the construction of metro-rhythmic series of forms of this architectural monument.

4. Graphic reconstruction allows you to recreate the lost appearance of the monument at any stage of its historical existence. The reconstruction is carried out either in the form of an orthogonal drawing (plan, facade), when there is an appropriate underlying base, or in the form of a perspective image made from a drawing from life or a photograph (slide). As a source for reconstruction, one should use published ancient images of the monument, various historical descriptions, as well as materials on similar monuments of the same era.

For educational purposes, the student is invited to make only a sketch reconstruction, which only in general terms conveys the nature of the original or changed appearance of the monument.

In a number of cases, a student may confine himself to comparing reconstruction options for the same monument made by different researchers. But then it is necessary to give these options a reasonable assessment and highlight the most probable of them. The student must graphically substantiate his choice with the image of similar monuments or their fragments.

A special type of reconstruction - the restoration of the original and subsequently lost color of the monument - is carried out on the basis of orthogonal facades or perspective images with the possible inclusion of a historical urban environment.

When performing a graphic reconstruction task, the method of drawing and photomontage can be widely used.

5. The construction of architectural pictures is a technique for analyzing monuments with a developed three-dimensional composition, designed for gradual perception over time, such as the Erechtheion in Athens or the Pokrovsky Cathedral in Moscow. When walking around such a monument, the viewer, due to the covering of some volumes by others, perceives a lot of perspective images flowing into one another, which are called architectural paintings.

The student's task is to single out qualitatively different groups of architectural paintings, designate on the plan the zones of perception of these groups of paintings and illustrate each group with one, characteristic, in the form of a perspective drawing or photograph (slide).

The number of qualitatively different paintings usually does not exceed five or six.

6. The analysis of scale and scale consists of identifying the large-scale role of divisions of the architectural volume and graphical selection on orthogonal or perspective images of the monument of characteristic details - “scale indicators”, such as steps, balustrades, etc. Particular attention should be paid to the role of the order as a universal tool architectural scale.

METHODS FOR COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS

1. Comparison of the three-dimensional composition of two monuments is carried out by comparing plans, facades or sections, reduced to a common scale. It is very effective to overlay or combine plans, facades and sections; sometimes, when comparing the projections of two monuments, it is useful to bring them to some common size, for example, to the same height or width (in this case, the proportions of the monuments are also compared).

Comparison is also possible for the purpose of comparing perspective images of monuments in the form of drawings from nature or photographs. In this case, drawings or photographs should be taken from similar angles and from such points, from which the characteristic features of the volumetric composition of the monuments are revealed. It should be ensured that, in terms of their relative size, the images of the monuments approximately correspond to the ratios of their sizes in nature.

In all cases of comparative comparisons, the difference between monuments usually comes out more clearly than the moments of their similarity. Therefore, it is necessary to graphically emphasize what brings the compared objects together, for example, the identity of compositional techniques, the analogy in the combination of volumes, the similar nature of divisions, the location of openings, etc.

Description and analysis of monuments of sculpture

The artistic language of sculpture

When analyzing works of sculpture, it is necessary to take into account the own parameters of sculpture as an art form. Sculpture is an art form in which a real three-dimensional volume interacts with the surrounding three-dimensional space. The main thing in the analysis of sculpture is volume, space and how they interact. sculpture materials. Types of sculpture. genres of sculpture.

Description and analysis of the work of sculpture.

Sample plan:

1. What is the size of this sculpture? Sculpture is monumental, easel, miniature. Size affects how it interacts with space.

2. In what space was the analyzed work located (in the temple, on the square, in the house, etc.)? What point of view was it designed for (from a distance, from below, near)? Is it part of an architectural or sculptural ensemble or is it an independent work?

3. To what extent the work in question covers three-dimensional space (round sculpture and sculpture related to architecture; architectural and sculptural form, high relief; relief; bas-relief; picturesque relief; counter-relief)

4. What material is it made in? What are the features of this material? Even if you are analyzing casts, it is important to remember what material the original was made from. Go to the halls of the originals, see how the sculpture looks like, made in the material you are interested in. What features of the sculpture are dictated by its material (why was this material chosen for this work)?

5. Is the sculpture designed for fixed viewpoints, or does it fully open when walking around? How many complete expressive silhouettes does this sculpture have? What are these silhouettes (closed, compact, geometrically correct or picturesque, open)? How are silhouettes related to each other?

6. What are the proportions (ratios of parts and the whole) in this sculpture or sculptural group? What are the proportions of the human figure?

7. What is the pattern of the sculpture (development and complication of relations between large compositional blocks, the rhythm of internal articulations and the nature of surface development)? If we are talking about relief, how does the whole change when you change the angle of view? How does the depth of the relief vary and spatial plans are built, how many are there?

8. What is the texture of the sculpted surface? Homogeneous or different in different parts? Smooth or “sketchy” traces of the touch of tools are visible, natural-like, conditional. How is this texture related to material properties? How does texture affect the perception of the silhouette and volume of a sculptural form?

9. What is the role of color in sculpture? How do volume and color interact, how do they influence each other?

10. What genre does this sculpture belong to? What was it for?

11. What is the interpretation of the motif (naturalistic, conditional, dictated by the canon, dictated by the place occupied by the sculpture in its architectural environment, or some other).

12. Do you feel the influence of some other types of art in the work: architecture, painting?

Description and analysis of paintings

Artistic language of painting

The concept of painting. Means of artistic expression: artistic space, composition, color, rhythm, character of a colorful stroke. Painting materials and techniques: oil, tempera, gouache, watercolor, mixed media, etc. Easel and monumental painting. Varieties of monumental painting: fresco, mosaic, stained glass, etc. Painting genres: portrait, landscape, everyday genre, still life, animalistic, historical, etc.

Description of paintings

Determination of the basic parameters of the work: author, date of creation, size of the picture, picture format: horizontally or vertically elongated rectangle (possibly with a rounded end), square, circle (tondo), oval. Technique (tempera, oil, watercolor, etc.) and on what basis (wood, canvas, etc.) the painting was made, etc.

Analysis of paintings

Sample analysis plan:

Is there a plot in the picture? What is shown? In what environment are the depicted characters, objects located?
Based on the analysis of the image, you can draw a conclusion about the genre. What genre: portrait, landscape, still life, nude, everyday life, mythological, religious, historical, animalistic, does the painting belong to?
What task do you think the artist is solving - visual? expressive? What is the degree of convention or naturalism of the image? Does conventionality gravitate toward idealization or toward expressive distortion? As a rule, the composition of the picture is associated with the genre.
What are the components of a composition? What is the ratio of the object of the image and the background / space on the canvas of the picture?
How close to the picture plane are the objects in the image?
What angle of view did the artist choose - from above, below, flush with the depicted objects?
How is the position of the viewer determined - is he involved in the interaction with the image depicted in the picture, or is he assigned the role of a detached contemplator?
Can the composition be called balanced, static, or dynamic? If there is movement, how is it directed?
How is the pictorial space built (flat, indefinitely, the spatial layer is fenced off, deep space is created)? How is the illusion of spatial depth achieved (difference in the size of the depicted figures, showing the volume of objects or architecture, using color gradations)? The composition is developed by means of drawing.
How pronounced is the linear beginning in the picture?
Are the contours delimiting individual objects emphasized or concealed? By what means is this effect achieved?
To what extent is the volume of objects expressed? What techniques create the illusion of volume?
What role does light play in a painting? What is it like (smooth, neutral; contrasting, sculpting volume; mystical). Is the light source/direction readable?
Are the silhouettes of the depicted figures/objects readable? How expressive and valuable are they in themselves?
How detailed (or vice versa generalized) is the image?
Is the variety of textures of the depicted surfaces (leather, fabrics, metal, etc.) conveyed? Coloring.
What role does color play in the picture (is it subordinate to the drawing and volume, or vice versa, does it subordinate the drawing to itself and builds the composition itself).
Is the color just a coloring of the volume or something more? Is it optically faithful or expressive?
Do local colors or tonal color predominate in the picture?
Are the borders of color spots distinguishable? Do they coincide with the boundaries of volumes and objects?
Does the artist operate with large masses of color or small smears?
How are warm and cold colors written, does the artist use a combination of complementary colors? Why is he doing this? How are the most illuminated and shaded places transferred?
Are there glare, reflexes? How are the shadows written (deaf or transparent, are they colored)?
Is it possible to distinguish rhythmic repetitions in the use of any color or combination of shades, is it possible to trace the development of any color? Is there a dominant color/color combination?
What is the texture of the pictorial surface - smooth or pasty? Are individual strokes distinguishable? If so, what are they - small or long, liquid, thick or almost dry paint applied?

Description and analysis of graphic works

Artistic language of graphics

Graphics as a form of fine art. The main means of artistic expressiveness of graphics: line, stroke, spot, etc. Linear and black and white drawing. Engraving, types of engraving: xylography, lithography, linocut, etching, monotype, aquatint, etc. Easel graphics. Book graphics. Poster art, posters. Applied graphics.

Description of works of graphics

Determination of the basic parameters of the work: author, date of creation, sheet size, format, technique.

Analysis of graphic works

Sample analysis plan:

General definition of the spatial situation, characteristics of the depicted space. Space - deep or not, closed or open, on which plan the accents are concentrated. The predominant (most essential for this work) means of constructing depth and their use. For example: the nature of linear or aerial perspective (if used). Characteristics of the depicted space. Integrity / dismemberment of space. Division into plans, distribution of attention (singling out of certain plans or uniformity of perception). Point of view. The interaction of the viewer and the depicted space (this item is necessary even if there is no image of deep space).
Location, ratio, relationships of elements on the plane and in space.

Determining the type of composition - if possible. In the future, a clarification: how exactly this type of composition is embodied in this graphic work, what are the nuances of its use. Format characteristics (proportion size). The ratio of format and composition: the image and its borders. Distribution of masses within the sheet. Compositional accent and its location; its relationship with other elements; dominant directions: dynamics and statics. The interaction of the main elements of the composition with the spatial structure, placement of accents.

Analysis of graphic technique.
The result of the analysis is the identification of the principles of constructing the form, its expressive qualities and impact. Based on the formal and expressive qualities of the work, one can raise the question of its meaning (content, idea), i.e. move on to interpreting it. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the plot (how is the plot interpreted in this work?), the specifics of the depiction of characters (in the plot picture and portrait - postures, gestures, facial expressions, gaze), symbolism (if any), etc., but at the same time time is the means of representation and hence the impact of the picture. It is also possible to correlate the identified individual features of the work with the requirements of the type and genre to which it belongs, with a broader artistic context (the author's work as a whole: the art of the era, school, etc.). From this, a conclusion can follow about the value and significance of the work, its place in the history of art.

Description and analysis of works of arts and crafts and folk art

Types of arts and crafts and folk art

Painting on wood, metal, etc. Embroidery. Carpet weaving. Jewelry Art. Wood carving, bones. Ceramics. Artistic varnishes, etc.

Description of monuments of decorative, applied and folk art

Kind of decorative and applied art. Material. Features of its processing. Dimensions. Appointment. Characterization of color, texture. The degree of correlation between the utilitarian and artistic-aesthetic functions of the object.

Analysis of monuments of arts and crafts and folk art

Sample analysis plan

What is this item for?
What are its dimensions?
How is the decoration of the item located? Where are the zones of figurative and ornamental decorations located? How is the placement of images related to the shape of the object?
What types of ornaments are used? On what parts of the object are they located?
Where are figurative images located? Do they take up more space than ornamental ones, or are they just one of the ornamental registers?
How is a register with figurative images built? Is it possible to say that free composition techniques are used here or the principle of juxtaposition is used (figures in identical poses, minimum movement, repeat each other)?
How are the figures depicted? Are they mobile, frozen, stylized?
How are the details of the figures transferred? Do they look more natural or ornamental? What techniques are used to transfer figures?
Look, if possible, inside the object. Is there an image and ornaments? Describe them according to the diagram above.
What primary and secondary colors are used in the construction of ornaments and figures? What is the tone of the clay itself? How does this affect the character of the image - does it make it more ornamental or, conversely, more natural?

Lyrics:

The analysis of a work is a complex work of the intellect, requiring a lot of knowledge and skills.

There are many approaches, techniques, methods of analysis, but they all fit into several complex actions:

1) decoding the information contained in the fabric of the work itself,
2) an analytical study of the process and circumstances of the creation of a work of art, helping to deepen and enrich its understanding,
3) the study of the historical dynamics of the artistic image of the work in individual and collective perception.

In the first case, there is work with the work as a value in itself - a "text"; in the second, we consider the text in context, revealing traces of the influence of external impulses in the artistic image; in the third, we study the changes in the artistic image depending on how its perception changes in different eras.

Each work of art, by virtue of its originality, dictates its own path, its own logic, its own methods of analysis.

Nevertheless, I would like to draw your attention to a few general principles of practical analytical work with a work of art and give some advice.

"Eureka!" (analysis intrigue). The first and most important thing is that the work of art itself suggests the path by which one can penetrate into the depths of the meaning of the artistic image. There is a kind of “hook” that captures the mind with a sudden question. The search for an answer to it - whether in an internal monologue, in communication with employees or students - often leads to insight (Eureka!). Therefore, conversations of this kind - you must learn how to conduct them with a group - are called heuristic. Analytical work in a museum or architectural environment usually begins with such questions – “decoding” the information contained in the artistic “text”.

Asking a question is often more difficult than finding an answer.

- Why does Alexander Ivanov's "Naked Boy" have such a tragic face?

- Why is the figure of a young man lifting a paralyzed man in the painting “The Appearance of the Messiah” by the same Ivanov, dressed in the clothes of Christ?

— Why is the icon case in K.S.’s picture empty? Petrov-Vodkin "Mother" 1915?

— Why P.D. Fedotov in the second version of the painting "Major's Matchmaking" removes the chandelier - the detail that he was looking for for so long?

— Why in the sculptural bust of Sh.I. Makhelson by Shubin’s marble is polished to a greasy gloss, while in most cases the “skin” of faces in his portraits seems matte?

There are many such questions that can be recalled, all of them are evidence of a unique, personal vision inherent in each person. I deliberately do not give answers here - try to find them yourself.

In analytical work with a work of art, you will be helped not only by the ability to see it with a fresh eye, to perceive it directly, but also by the ability to abstract, isolating certain moments of perception and elements of form and content.

If we are talking about plastic arts, these are compositional, diagrams, analytical sketches, coloristic “layouts”, analysis of spatial construction, “playing” of accessories, etc. All these and other means can be used in the work. But one thing should be remembered: any analytical technique is, first of all, a way of interpreting the elements of form, of comprehending them. Measure, lay out, draw diagrams, but not for the sake of these diagrams themselves, but in the name of understanding their meaning, because in a truly artistic image there are no “voids” - the material itself, and the size, and the format, down to the texture, i.e. the surface of the object art is full of meaning. In other words, it is about the language of art.

Despite their originality, uniqueness, works of art lend themselves to typology, they can be grouped, of course, primarily by type of art.

The problem of typology will be the subject of study for you in the courses on art theory and aesthetics, and at the beginning of the course we would like to pay attention to those aspects of it that play an important role in the analysis, especially the interpretation of art. In addition, we get the opportunity to stipulate the meaning of fundamental concepts (the significance of this work was mentioned above).

So, a work of art can belong to one of the types, which are divided into: single-component (monostructural), synthetic and technical.

One-component - painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture, literature, music, arts and crafts.
Synthetic - theatrical and spectacular arts.
Technical - film, television, computer graphics.

One-component arts are divided, in turn, into:

spatial (architecture, painting, graphics, arts and crafts)
temporary (literature, music),

as well as pictorial (painting, graphics, sculpture) and non-pictorial (architecture, arts and crafts, literature, music).

Since there are different points of view in the classification of the arts, and since all these definitions are not absolute, but relative, we will stipulate them, and first of all we will dwell - very briefly - on the problem of space and time in art, because it is not as simple as it might seem on at first glance, and is very significant in the analysis of the work.

First of all, we note that the division of arts into spatial and temporal is very conditional and is based on the features of the existence of a work: the material carriers of spatial arts are really objective, occupy a place in space, and only grow old and collapse in time. But after all, the material carriers of musical and literary works also occupy a place in space (notes, records, cassettes, and finally, performers and their instruments; manuscripts, books, magazines). If we talk about artistic images, then they "occupy" a certain spiritual space and in all arts develop in time.

Therefore, we will try, having noted the existence of these categories as classificatory, to talk about them from an analytical standpoint, for us - in this case - more important.

We noted above that every work of art, as a material-ideal phenomenon, exists in space and time, and its material basis is somehow connected primarily with space, and the ideal one with time.

However, a work of art relates to space in other aspects as well. Natural space and its experience by a person have a huge impact on the artistic image, giving rise, for example, in painting and graphics to various systems of spatial constructions, determining the features of solving spatial problems in architecture, the image of space in literature. In all arts, the "space of a thing", "the space of a person", "the space of society", the natural - earthly and cosmic - space, and finally, the space of the highest spiritual reality - the Absolute, God, are distinguishable.

The vision of the world is changing, followed by the system of artistic thinking; this movement from the old system to the new is marked by changes in the concept of space. Thus, the transfer of the focus of attention from the highest spiritual reality — God, the Heavenly World in the 17th century to a person in Russian art of the 17th century seemed to narrow the horizon of the artist, and the infinity of the reverse perspective was replaced by the limitedness of the direct one.

Time is also mobile and multifaceted.

This is the real time of the material carrier, when the notes turn yellow, the films demagnetize, the oiled boards turn black, and the time of the artistic image, endlessly developing, practically immortal. This is also an illusory time that exists inside the artistic image, the time in which the depicted thing and person, society, humanity as a whole live. This is the time of creation of the work, the historical era and period of life, and finally, the age of the author, this time is the length of the action and the time of "pauses" - breaks between depicted episodes. Finally, this is the time of preparation for perception, perception in contact with the work, experience and comprehension of the perceived artistic image.

In each of the arts, space and time are displayed differently, and this is discussed in the following chapters, each of which is devoted to a special type of art with its inherent structure of the artistic image.

It is no coincidence that I wrote “displayed” and not “depicted”, because we need to separate these concepts as well.

To display means to find a figurative equivalent to the phenomenon of reality, to weave it into the fabric of an artistic image, to depict - to create a visual - visible, verbal - verbal or sound - auditory analogue of a thing. The arts are divided, as mentioned above, into pictorial and non-pictorial not because in music it is impossible to depict, for example, the noise of a train or the cry of a rooster (or even a whole poultry yard), but in literature it is impossible to describe almost any visible or audible object. This is possible both in music and in literature: in the first case, we are dealing with onomatopoeia, in the second, with description. Moreover, a talented author, who has deeply experienced contact with a work of painting, sculpture, music, can find such words that his description will become a full-fledged and highly artistic verbal (verbal) analogue of a work of fine or musical art.

Architectural works (not to mention their parts: lotus-shaped columns of Egyptian temples, bark, atlantes, relief and other decorative sculptural elements) can also be images: for example, in the 1930s in the Soviet Union it was fashionable to build houses in the form of cars or other items. In Leningrad, a school was even built in the shape of a sickle and a hammer, although this can only be seen from a bird's eye view. And various vessels in the form of birds, fish, human figures, etc. in non-fine arts and crafts!

In contrast, works of fine art often "depict nothing" like abstract painting and sculpture.

So this classification feature turns out to be relative. And yet it exists: there are visually, that is, visually perceived "fine arts", which are based on the image of the phenomena of the world, and non-pictorial, verbal and musical.

Art is always conditional and cannot (not to mention that it should not) create a complete likeness of this or that phenomenon of living life. The artist does not duplicate the existing reality, he creates artistic and figurative models of the world or its elements, simplifying and transforming them. Even painting, the most "illusory" of the arts, seemingly capable of capturing and conveying on the canvas all the richness of the multicolored world, has an extremely limited ability to imitate the breed.

I really love CS. Petrov-Vodkin. At one of his exhibitions, his "Our Lady - Tenderness of Evil Hearts" - the radiance of pure scarlet, blue and gold - was placed in the hall of the Russian Museum on the wall next to the window.

For many years, the picture was hidden in storerooms, and now that it was in the hall, one could sit and look at it, it seemed, ad infinitum. The background shone with a cosmically deep, piercingly pure light of the depths of heaven, shading, together with the scarlet maphorium, the beautiful meek face of the Mother of God ...

I sat for a long time, it got dark outside, the winter evening shone in the window - and what a shock for me was the quiet glow of the modest winter Petersburg twilight in the window - they looked next to the blue in the picture of Petrov-Vodkin, like a shining sapphire next to the blue paper, which is pasted over matchboxes. That's when I had a chance not to find out, but to see and feel how the possibilities of art in imitating life are really limited, if we judge it based on the favorite criterion of a naive viewer: whether the image is similar or not similar to the original. And it is not at all in his strength to reproduce the phenomena of life as similarly as possible, as mimetic as possible.

An artistic image is not a mere repetition of life, and its verisimilitude, verbal or visual, is by no means the main quality. Art is one of the ways of mastering the world: its knowledge, evaluation, transformation by man. And each time in an artistic image - in different ways in different types of art and in different artistic systems - the phenomenon (what is perceived by the feelings of a person is revealed to him) and the essence (the essence of the phenomenon, the totality of its essential properties) are correlated, to display which art is recognized .

Each system of artistic thinking forms its own method of cognizing the essence - the creative method. At school, you already got acquainted with such specific European creative methods as baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, modernism, socialist realism, surrealism, etc. Of course, you remember that each method was created in the name of understanding, appreciation, transformation of man and the world as a whole and their individual qualities. Remember how knowledge about a person is consistently “gathered”: baroque studies and displays the world of stormy, unbridled feelings of a person; classicism - its all-measuring balanced mind; sentimentalism affirms the human right to privacy and lofty, but purely personal feelings; romanticism - the beauty of the free development of the individual "for good or for bad", its manifestations in the "fatal minutes" of the world; realism reflects the social foundations of the formation and life of a person; symbolism again rushes into the mysterious depths of the human soul, and surrealism tries to penetrate into the depths of the subconscious, etc. So each of these creative systems has its own subject of image, isolated in a single object - a person. And their functions: affirmation of the ideal, study, exposure, etc.

In accordance with this, a method is also developed for transforming an object, which makes it possible to reveal its actual content: this is the idealization of an object - transformation, the artistic liberation of “imperfect reality from its imperfection”, likening it to an ideal (Brief Philosophical Encyclopedia. M., 1994) in such methods as baroque, classicism, romanticism, which differ among themselves in that the ideal itself is understood differently; it is a typification characteristic of realism, and a symbolization that mankind used at different stages of the artistic exploration of the world.

Looking at the history of the development of art at a very high level of generalization, we can say that it develops between the two poles of the artistic-figurative modeling of the world: from the desire to create it to the utmost, to the illusion of a plausible reproduction to the ultimate generalization. These two methods can be correlated with the work of the two hemispheres of the brain: the left analytical, dividing the phenomenon into parts in the name of its knowledge, and the right - generalizing, imaginative, creating integral images (not necessarily artistic) for the same purpose.

On Earth, there are zones dominated by people with a noticeable advantage in the development of one of the hemispheres. You can even, of course, very conditionally, say that the concepts of "East", "man of the East" are associated with right-hemispheric - imaginative (figurative) thinking, while "West", "man of the West" with left-hemispheric, analytical, scientific.

And here we are faced with a visible paradox.

Recall: the left hemisphere oversees abstract-logical, verbal, analytical thinking; right - concrete, figurative, non-verbal, generalizing.

At first glance, it is easy to determine what is more specific: a portrait that conveys the appearance and character of a certain person, or, say, a little man at a traffic light - an extremely generalized designation of a person, a bunch of grapes painted in a Dutch still life, or an endless vine in an oriental ornament, consisting of many conditional, brought to the level of ornamental elements of leaves and clusters.

The answer is obvious: mimetic images - a portrait, a still life - are concrete, ornamental generalizations are more abstract. In the first case, the concepts “this person”, “this bunch” are needed, in the second, “man”, “bunch” are sufficient.

It is somewhat more difficult to understand that the portrait and still life, being artistic images, are at the same time more analytical - “left-hemispheric” than the elements of the ornament. Indeed, imagine how many words would be needed to describe the portrait - the verbal "translation" of this image would be quite long and more or less boring, while the vine in the ornament is defined by one, at most three words: climbing vine ornament. But, having sketched a vine from nature, the author of the ornament repeated this image more than once, achieving the ultimate generalization, which allows reaching the level of a symbol containing not one, but many meanings.

If you want to learn more about the Western analytical (mimetic, imitative) and Eastern generalized (ornamental) ways of creating a visual image, read the excellent book by L.A. Lelekov "The Art of Ancient Rus' and the East" (M., 1978). Discussing the two systems of artistic-figurative thinking, the author contrasts two series of statements.

The first belongs to Socrates: "Painting is the image of what we see."

The second is to the Buddha: "The artist has prepared the colors in order to create a picture that cannot be seen in color."

The ancient legend about the competition of two skillful painters - Zeuxis and Parrhasius - tells how one of them painted a vine branch and how birds flocked to this picture to peck the berries depicted on it - so great was the illusion of life filling it. The second deceived the eye of his colleague, depicting on the canvas the curtain with which the picture was supposedly covered, with such art that he asked him to quickly draw it back. The creation of an illusion - the imitation of the visible - was the highest goal for each of the rivals.

Buddha speaks of a completely different goal: a visible image painted with colors is only a carrier of an image that is born in a person’s soul. The Christian philosopher John of Damascus echoes the Buddha: "Every image is a revelation and an indication of the hidden."

In fact, the vine that adorns the pillars of the iconostases is a symbol of life and fertility, the Garden of Eden (Christ's garden), a symbol of eternity.

Here is how L.A. Lelekov about another ornament: the interweaving of alternating fruit and flower, which is very common in Oriental ornaments, denotes “the concepts of the unity of cause and effect and the eternity of being, the themes of creation and the incessant renewal of life, the relationship of the past and the future, the collision of opposites” (Ibid. S. 39).

But just as between relatively few groups of pronounced “left hemispheres” — scientists and “right hemispheres” — artists, there is a multitude of transitional types that prevail in number, so between naturalistic — equal to itself, self-valuable and having no hidden meanings, an illusory image of visibility (phenomenon) and pure an ornament containing many meanings lies a vast space occupied by images of a mixed type - we talked about them above.

Perhaps the most harmonious among them is the realistic image, when the artist strives to embody the essence of the phenomenon, to symbolize the visible. Yes, Al. Ivanov, discovering the laws of the plein air and developing a method for embodying the internal properties and qualities of a person in her external appearance, filled his creations with a deep symbolic meaning.

Abstractionist artists of the 20th century, decomposing, distributing their paintings, refusing to create a “second”, illusory reality on the canvas, turned to the sphere of human superconsciousness, tried to capture the image in its originality, in the depths of the human soul, or, on the contrary, constructed it.

Therefore, in the analysis, following the intrigue of the first question that arose, you will have to think about what is the “space-time continuum” of the artistic image of the work, the subject of the image, the method and means of transforming the object. And one more important question arises before you: what are the elemental composition and connection - the structure of the artistic image.

The artistic image of a work is an integrity, and like any integrity, it can be represented, described as a system consisting of elements (each of which, in turn, is also integral and can be represented as a system) and their interconnections. Structuredness and a sufficient number of elements ensure the functioning of the artistic image as a whole, just as the presence of the necessary parts and their correct assembly - connection, structure, ensure the progress and timely ringing of an alarm clock.

What can be designated as elements of an artistic image? Rhyme, harmony, color, volume, etc.? These are form elements. The subject of the image, object, essence, phenomenon? These are content elements. Arguing logically, it should obviously be recognized that the elements of the artistic image of a work are also images: a person in the entire range from the simplest symbolic image in petroglyphs to a psychological portrait; the material object world in an innumerable variety of man-made things, the totality of which is often called civilization or "second nature"; social ties, from family to universal; nature miraculous in all its manifestations and forms: the animate world of animals, the inanimate world - near, planetary and cosmic; finally, that higher spiritual order, which is present in all artistic systems and which is called differently by the sages of different eras: the Higher Mind, the Absolute, God.

Each of these images is realized in different ways in different arts and has a superspecific, generic character.

Acquiring concreteness within a work of art, such an image can be included as a component in a system of a more complex whole (for example, images of nature occupy an important place in Turgenev's novels, in Rimsky-Korsakov's operas, and in Repin's paintings). One of the images can take a central place, subordinating the rest (such are the monostructural genres of fine art - portrait, landscape, etc.), or it can form an extensive layer of works of art - from series in the work of one master (for example, "Petriada" in .A. Serova) I to such gigantic formations as "Leniniana" in Soviet art.

So in the process of analyzing a work, figurative elements can be distinguished and connections between them can be established. Often, such work helps to understand the author's intention more deeply, and to be aware of the feelings experienced in communicating with the work, to better understand and interpret the artistic image.

Summing up this short section on analysis of a work of art as a self-sufficient integrity of the "text" Let's highlight the most important:

1) analysis is only one of the operations included in the system of working with a work of art. One of the most important questions that you must answer in the process of analytical work is as follows: how, in what way and by what means was the artist able to achieve exactly the impression that you experienced and realized in pre-analytical communication with the artistic image?
2) analysis as an operation of dividing the whole into parts (although involving elements of synthesis) is not an end in itself, but a way of deeper penetration into the semantic core of the artistic image;
3) each work of art is unique, inimitable, therefore it is methodically correct - and it is very important for the teacher - to find the "intrigue of analysis" - the key question that will entail, especially in collective work, a chain, or rather, a system of questions, the answers to which and will form a holistic picture of the analysis;
4) every work of art is an artistic-figurative model of the world, which reflects the actual facets, parts, aspects
world and its main elements: man, society, civilization, nature, God. These facets, parts, aspects of Being constitute a meaningful basis - the subject of the image, which, on the one hand, is already objective reality, since it is only a part of it, and on the other, it is initially richer, because it carries the attitude of the author, is enriched in the creative process, gives the increment of knowledge about the world in an objectified form, in a work of art, and finally, it is actualized in the process of creativity. In analytical work, you must answer the questions: what is the object of the image in this work? what is the subject of the picture? what new things do we learn about the world by assimilating the artistic image of the work?
5) each work of art belongs to one of the types of art, in accordance with which the method of transforming the subject of the image, the formation of the artistic image, the specific language of art is formed.
6) art as a whole and a separate work as a phenomenon of the material world exist in space and time. Each epoch, each aesthetic system develops its artistic conception of time and space according to its understanding of these realities and its goals. Therefore, the analysis of the features of the embodiment of space and time in a work is a necessary analytical operation;
7) an artistic-figurative model of the world can be pictorial (visual) or non-pictorial (auditory, verbal or visual-constructive). The imitation of life (even to the point of striving to create an illusion-“deceit”) or, on the contrary, the complete “deobjectification” of an image, like all intermediate forms, is not an end in itself, it is always meaningful, serves as the embodiment of goal-setting, revealed in analysis. At the same time, a relationship is established between the phenomenon and the essence, the comprehension and development of which ultimately constitutes one of the main functions of art. So in the process of analysis, it is necessary to understand what phenomenon underlies the artistic image (image object), what properties, qualities, aspects of the object were of interest to the artist (image object), how, in what way the object was transformed and what is the structure - elemental composition and structure - the resulting artistic image. Answering these questions, one can quite well understand the meaning of a work of art, what is the essence that shines through the fabric of an artistic image.

Before I finish talking about analysis and its place in working with a work of art, let me give you two pieces of advice.

The first concerns the meaning of analysis. Regardless of whether this or that work of art is close or internally alien to you, analysis - interpretation will help you understand the author, and in a conversation about the work, justify your assessment. In relations with art, it is better to replace “like - dislike” with other formulations:

“I understand and accept” or “I understand, but I don’t accept!” And at the same time always be ready to justify your opinion.

The second tip will be especially useful to you if you have to work at a contemporary art exhibition or visiting an artist in his studio.

For any normal person, the presence of the author is a deterrent, so at a contemporary art exhibition, always work as if the author is standing next to you - this is a very real opportunity.

But the main thing: once and for all, renounce the idea that there is a "right" and "wrong" art, "good" and "bad". A work of art is subject to evaluation: after all, its creator can be a master, or maybe a swaggering dilettante, a super-adaptive opportunist, a speculator.

But in the exhibition hall, you should not rush to act as a prosecutor, it is better to first try to understand why the work caused such irritation in you instead of the expected joy: is it because you intuitively felt the disharmony of the image, its general destructive power, the waves of negative energy coming from it, or that, due to the peculiarities of your personality, you did not fall into “resonance” with those, figuratively speaking, vibrations that the artistic image caused.

How differently we all perceive art - both in its elements and in general - I felt completely unexpectedly near the TV screen. ... I love Kolomenskoye very much - with its calm white church of the Kazan Mother of God, the slender tent of the Church of the Ascension of Christ rapidly rising above the Moskva River, the gilded domes of the Cathedral of John the Baptist in Dyakovo on the mountain behind the ravine, With bunches of trees, ancient pillars and treasured stones in dense green grass. For many years, in the course of art history, I have been telling students about these wonderful creations of the 16th-17th centuries. But a little story in the "Travel Club" on TV was a revelation for me. The leading clergyman showed and proved that the metrically formed ensemble embodied in natural and architectural forms the image of the icon of Sophia - the Wisdom of God. I, a person with an established rational consciousness, would never have been able to see this miracle in such a way. But now, of course, with references to the source, I will offer students, among others, this interpretation.

Literature:

Wölfflin

Janson H.V., Janson E.F. Fundamentals of art history - to find. Found. Share. And Gombrich too.

In contact with

We look at the world with our own eyes, but artists taught us to see it. S. Maugham.

Symbolism and Art Nouveau in Russian Art at the Beginning of the 20th Century. PETROV-VODKIN Kuzma Sergeevich (1878- 1939) "Bathing a red horse"

The events of October 1917 in the first post-revolutionary years - this time has become history and even a legend for us. Perceiving it differently than our fathers and grandfathers, we strive to feel and comprehend the era, its pathos and drama, plunging into its art, bypassing the categorical statements of politicians.

In one of the books published in 1926 (Shcherbakov N.M. The Art of the USSR. - New Russia in Art. M., AHRR Publishing House, 1926), the idea was expressed: “... in such crystals - a picture, a song , a novel, a statue - a monument - not only the deathly, mirror shadow of life is stored for a long time, but also a part of the energy, which for centuries retains its charge for those who approach it "»

Kuzma Sergeevich Petrov - Vodkin (1878 - 1939), a representative of the Russian avant-garde, was born in the city of Khvalynsk, Saratov province, in the family of a shoemaker. He studied for a short time in Samara, St. Petersburg, from 1897 at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under A.E. Arkhipov and V.A. Serov. A trip to Italy and North Africa, studying at the Ashbe school in Munich and Parisian studios, acquaintance with European art significantly expanded the artistic horizons of Petrov-Vodkin. The early period of the artist's work is marked by a symbolist orientation ("Dream", 1910), in which the influence of Vrubel and Borisov-Musatov is guessed. Petrov-Vodkin became famous in Russia in 1912, when his painting Bathing a Red Horse was exhibited at the World of Art exhibition, which struck the audience with its bold originality. This work of the artist marks an important milestone in his work: the symbolism of his artistic language finds a plastic and figurative expression in the traditions of icon painting, coloring - in the tricolor system: red, blue, yellow. The artist seeks to discover in man the manifestation of the eternal laws of the world order, to make a concrete image the personification of the connection of cosmic forces. Hence the monumentality of the style, and the "spherical perspective", i.e. the perception of any fragment from a cosmic point of view, and the understanding of space as "one of the main storytellers of the picture."

Bathing a red horse.

On a huge canvas, an almost flat red horse, which occupies a good half of the surface of the entire canvas (and it is large: 160 x 180 cm), sits a naked boy painted in orange-yellow paint. With one hand he holds on to the bridle, with the other he leans on a huge red horse rushing forward, deliberately turning towards us, as if posing. The horse does not fit into the frame of the picture, rests on its edges. The eye glitters feverishly, the nostrils tremble, but the man restrains him. Not a giant, but a fragile young man, a teenager easily sits on a horse, trustingly putting his hand on an elastic croup, easily and freely controls the horse, clearly standing out against the blue-green background of the reservoir, in which two more boys are engaged with their horses.

What is the meaning of such a strange image? The fact that the essence is not in the everyday plot (art does not deal with everyday life) of bathing horses (this is also evident from the name - after all, there are no red horses), it is clear: the meaning of the picture is encrypted, you must be able to read it. According to one of the modern interpretations, very common, the horse is perceived as a symbol of Russia, personifying its beauty and strength, it is associated with Blok's image of the "steppe mare", rushing at a gallop, in which Russia's past, and its modern, and that eternal that will remain forever. Another interpretation, even more generalized, expressed by art critic D. Sarabyanov: “This is a dream of beauty, not everyday, but unexpected, a feeling of awakening, gathering energy before future trials, this is a premonition of big events, changes.”

The vagueness of the idea of the picture was also confirmed by Petrov-Vodkin himself, who said two years after its creation, when the world war began, that “unexpectedly for him, a thought flashed through him - so that’s why I wrote“ Bathing the Red Horse ”(Rusakov Yu.A. Petrov - Vodkin. Art., 1975.) Although in recent years he has already been ironic about this, rejecting what has been said, emphasizing the unwillingness to tie his picture to any particular historical event: “When the war broke out, our smart art critics said:“ Here what did “Bathing the Red Horse” mean, and when the revolution took place, our poets wrote: “This is what the red horse means” - this is the holiday of the revolution ”(quoted from: Mochalov L.V. Petrov - Vodkin - L.," Aurora "., 1971.) The vagueness of the idea of the work, the vagueness of the forebodings contained in it are a true expression of the state of mind not only of Petrov-Vodkin, but of the intelligentsia in general in the first two decades of the 20th century. Experiences, aspirations, dreams of people, as it were, materialized in the symbolic image of a red horse. They are not separately everyday, but high, huge, eternal, like the eternal dream of a wonderful future. To express this state, a special artistic language was needed.

The innovation of Petrov-Vodkin is based on his understanding of the art of modern and previous eras, primarily the work of the Impressionists and Matisse, and the traditions of ancient Russian art (remember, for example, the famous icon of the Novgorod school of the 15th century “The Miracle of George about the Serpent”), which possessed rich means of depicting the eternal , spiritual, pure morality. A clearly defined silhouette of objects, locally painted surfaces, the rejection of the laws of perspective and the depiction of volumes, the special use of color - Petrov-Vodkin's famous "tricolor" are present in this landmark canvas for the artist, revealing the originality of his artistic language. In folk tales, there is also the image of a rider on the Red Horse. The word "red" in Russian has a broad meaning: red is beautiful, which means not only beautiful, but also kind; red - girl.

The active appeal of the artist to the traditions of icon painting is not accidental. His first teachers were the icon painters of his native Khvalynsk, located on the high bank of the Volga.

Everything in the picture is built on contrasts. Red color sounds alarming, inviting. And like a dream, like a forest distance - blue, and like a sunbeam - yellow. Colors do not collide, do not oppose, but harmonize.

“The main sign of the new era was movement, the mastery of space,” the artist asserted. How to convey it? How to master space in painting? Petrov-Vodkin sought to convey the infinity of the world, using the so-called. "spherical perspective". Unlike the linear one discovered by Renaissance artists, where the point of view is fixed, the spherical perspective implies a plurality, mobility of points of view, the ability to view the depicted object from different angles, allowing you to convey the dynamics of action, the variety of perspectives of vision. The spherical perspective determined the nature of the composition of Petrov-Vodkin's paintings and determined the rhythm of the painting. Horizontal planes have received roundness, like the spherical surface of the earth, planetary.

The vertical axes diverge in a fan-like manner, obliquely, and this also brings us closer to the feeling of outer space.

Petrov-Vodkin's color gamuts are conditional: the color planes are local, closed. But, possessing a subtle, innate sense of color, the artist, on the basis of his theory of color perspective, created works, an emotionally figurative system, which were accurately and fully revealed by the ideological concept, the pathos of the picture.

Petrov-Vodkin accepts the revolutionary era in Russia with his characteristic philosophical wisdom. He writes: “In the chaos of construction, for everyone who is not absorbed in personal scores ... one string rings alarm: It will be a wonderful life! It will be a wonderful life!” (Quoted from: Kamensky A. A. Romantic montage. M., Soviet artist. 1989)

The favorite themes of Petrov-Vodkin's work are, especially in the difficult 20s, the themes of motherhood and childhood, etc.:

"1918 in Petrograd" - "Petrograd Madonna"

Portrait of Anna Akhmatova

self-portrait

Still life with a blue ashtray

Still life with a mirror

Still life with letters

Pink still life. apple branch

Morning still life

and large monumental canvases, in which the result of his understanding of the past and the present

"Death of the Commissioner"

After the death of the artist, his work was deleted from Soviet art, and only in the 1960s, it was rediscovered and realized.

Literature

1. Emokhanova L.G. World Art. Tutorial. M., 1998.

2. We read and talk about Russian artists. Textbook on the Russian language for foreign students. Ed. T.D. Chilikin. M., 1989.

3. Parkhomenko I.T. History of world and domestic culture. M., 2002.

4. Sokolova M.V. World culture and art. M., 2004.

5. Ostrovsky G. Stories about Russian painting. M., 1989.

6. Rapatskaya L.A. Russian artistic culture. M., 1998.

The formation of realism in Russian music. MIKHAIL IVANOVICH GLINKA (1804 - 1857)

Opera "LIFE FOR THE Tsar"

“Music is created by the people, and we, composers, only arrange it.” M.I. Glinka.

MI Glinka entered the history of music as the founder of Russian national musical classics. He summed up all the best that had been achieved by Russian composers of previous periods (Varlamov, Alyabiev, Verstovsky, Gurilev, Dubyansky, Kozlovsky, etc.), raised Russian music to a new level and gave it a leading role in world musical culture.

The art of M.I. Glinka, like the work of A.S. Pushkin and other figures of his era, was born of a social upsurge in Russia that arose in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist movement - 1825.

M.I. Glinka became the first classic of Russian music because he was able to deeply and comprehensively express in his work the advanced ideas put forward by this social upsurge. The main ones are the ideas of patriotism and nationality. The main content of Glinka's work is the image of the people, the embodiment of their thoughts and feelings.

Before Glinka, in Russian music, the people were depicted only in their everyday life: in everyday life - their rest, fun. Glinka for the first time in Russian music depicted the people as an active force, embodied the idea that it was the people who were the real carriers of patriotism.

Glinka was the first to create full-fledged musical images of heroes from the people who go to the feat for the sake of their native country. In such images as Ivan Susanin, Ruslan and others, Glinka summarizes the best spiritual qualities of the whole people: love for the motherland, valor, spiritual nobility, purity and sacrifice.

Truly embodying the most essential, typical features of the heroes and the whole people, Glinka achieves a new, highest degree of REALISM.

In his work, Glinka relies on the folk song basis: “The people create music; and we, the artists, only arrange it.” Proximity, inner affinity with folk art is felt everywhere in Glinka: in everyday episodes (as with other composers before Glinka), and in heroic and lyrical ones.

Glinka is Pushkin in music. Pushkin A.S. just like Glinka, he introduced folk images, folk language into Russian literature.

Glinka possessed all the achievements of composer's skill. He studied the experience of foreign composers - Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, while he remained a deeply national, Russian composer.

The opera A Life for the Tsar is the first example of a heroic folk musical drama in the history of music. It is based on a historical fact - the patriotic feat of a peasant in the village of Domnino, near Kostroma, Ivan Osipovich Susanin, committed at the beginning of 1613. Moscow had already been liberated from the Polish invaders, but the invaders still roamed the Russian land. One of these detachments wanted to capture Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, who lived near the village of Domnino. But Susanin, whom the enemies wanted to make their guide, pretending to agree, led a detachment of Poles into the dense forest and killed them, while dying himself.

Glinka in his opera embodied the idea of the greatness of the feat accomplished in the name of the motherland and people. The dramaturgy of the opera is based on the conflict of two forces - the Russian people and the Polish gentry. Each action of the opera is one of the stages in the disclosure of this conflict, which is revealed not only in the plot of the opera, but also in its music. The musical characteristics of Russian peasants and Poles are opposite: for Russians, SONGS are characteristic - for Poles, DANCES. The socio-psychological characteristics are also opposite: the Polish invaders are accompanied by either careless or militant music of Polonaise and Mazurka. Russians are depicted with calm and courageous songs of a folk-peasant or soldier's warehouse. "Polish" music by the end of the opera loses its warlike spirit and sounds depressed. Russian music, more and more filled with power, pours out into a mighty jubilant hymn "Glorify".

Heroes of the opera from among Russian peasants - Susanin, Antonida (daughter), Vanya (adopted son), warrior Sobinin. They are individual and at the same time personify one of the sides of the character of their people: Susanin - wise greatness; Sobinin - courage; Antonida - cordiality. The integrity of the characters makes the heroes of the opera the embodiment of the ideals of the human personality.

2nd act of the opera - "Polish Act" - "Polonaise" and "Mazurka" - typically Polish dances, distinguished by the brightness of the national character. "Polonaise" sounds proud, grand and militant. (Hearing).

"Mazurka" - bravura, with a sweeping melody. Music paints a portrait of the Polish gentry, covering their greed, self-confidence, vanity with external splendor. (Hearing).

Both "Polonaise" and "Mazurka" appear not as peasant, but as knightly dances.

Glinka was the first to attach great dramatic importance to dancing. With the "Polish act" of this opera, Glinka laid the foundation for Russian ballet music.

"Aria of Susanin" - (4th act), the dramatic culmination of the entire opera. Here the main features of the hero's appearance are revealed at the decisive hour of his life. Opening recitative - "They smell the truth ..." based on the unhurried, confident intonations of the song warehouse. The aria itself "You will rise, my dawn ..." expresses deep thought, excitement and heartfelt sorrow and courage. Susanin sacrifices himself for the Fatherland. And love for her gives him strength, helps him endure all suffering with dignity. The melody of the aria is simple and strict, widely chanted. It is full of warmth of intonation, characteristic of the Russian lyrical song. The aria is built in 3 private forms: the first is of a concentrated, restrained character; the second is more excited and expressive; the third is a repetition of the first part. (Hearing).

In this aria, Glinka for the first time, on the basis of folk song intonations, created music imbued with genuine tragedy, "raised the folk tune to tragedy." This is the composer's innovative approach to folk song.

The ingenious "GLORY" crowns the opera. This chorus embodies the idea of patriotism and the greatness of the Motherland, and here it receives the most complete, complete and vivid figurative expression. The music is full of solemnity and epic power, which is typical for the HYMN. The melody is akin to the tunes of heroic, valiant folk songs.

The music of the finale expresses the idea that Susanin's feat was accomplished for the sake of the people and therefore immortal. Three choirs, two orchestras (one brass, on stage) and bells perform the music of the finale. (Hearing).

In this opera, Glinka retained the features of a romantic worldview and embodied the best features of Russian realistic music: powerful passion, rebellious spirit, free flight of fantasy, strength and brightness of musical color, high ideals of Russian art.

Literature

1. Russian musical literature. Ed. E.L. Fried. L., 1970

2. Cannes - Novikova E. A little story about M.I. Glinka. M., 1987.

3. Livanova T.M. M.I. Glinka. M., 1962.

4. Remizov I.V. Glinka M.I. M., 1960.

Ideas of the Enlightenment in Foreign Literature Jonathan Swift (1667 - 1745) "Gulliver's Travels"

Our age is worthy only of satire. J. Swift

Born in the Age of Enlightenment, great works of art are now in their fourth century. Thoughts, passions, deeds of people of that distant time become close to people of other eras, capture their imagination, instill faith in life. Among such creations is Mozart's opera "The Marriage of Figaro" with its hero who never loses heart and does not give up under any circumstances. Among such creations are Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" and paintings by William Hogarth and Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin and other masters of the era.

If a traveler arrives in Dublin, the capital of Ireland, he is sure to be taken to a small house where the dean of the Cathedral of St. Petra Jonathan Swift. This house is a shrine for the Irish people. Swift is an Englishman, but was born in Dublin, where the father of the future writer moved in search of work.

Swift's independent life began in the English estate of Moore Park, where, after graduating from the University of Dublin, he received a secretary position from the influential nobleman Sir William Temple. The former minister Temple, having retired, settled on his estate and began to engage in literary work. Swift, who possessed an extraordinary talent for writing, was simply a godsend for Temple, who shamelessly used the work of a young secretary.

This service weighed heavily on the young secretary, but he was kept at Moore Park by the extensive library of the Temple and its young pupil, Esther Johnson, for whom Swift carried a tender attachment throughout his life.

Stela (as Swift called her) followed her friend and teacher to the Irish village of Laracore, where he went after Temple's death to become a priest there. Years later, Swift would write to Stele on her birthday:

Heart friend! suits you

Today is the thirty-fifth year.

Your years have doubled

However, age is not a problem.

I won't forget, Stela, no

How you bloomed at sixteen

However, the upper hand over beauty

Takes your mind today.

When to divide the gods

Gifts such in half,

Whatever age for human feelings

Revealed two young nymphs such

So dividing your summers

To double beauty?

Then the whimsical fate

I would have to heed my plea

As sharing my eternal ardor,

So that it belongs to two.

Swift had to endure the Stela, and he deeply mourned the death of "the most faithful, worthy and priceless friend with whom I ... was ... blessed."

Swift could not limit himself to only the humble work of a pastor. Even during Temple's lifetime, he published his first poems and pamphlets, but the real beginning of Swift's literary activity can be considered his book "The Tale of the Barrel" - (an English folk expression that makes sense: talk nonsense, talk nonsense), written for the general improvement of the human race.

Voltaire, after reading The Tale of the Barrel, said: “Swift assures that he was full of respect for his father, although he treated his three sons with a hundred rods, but incredulous people found that the rods were so long that they hurt their father.”

"The Tale of the Barrel" brought Swift great fame in the literary and political circles of London. His sharp pen is appreciated by both political parties: Whigs and Tories.

Swift initially supported the Whig party, but very soon left them because of disagreement with their foreign policy. The Duke of Marlborough, head of the Whigs, sought to continue the bloody war with France for the "Spanish Succession". This war ruined the country, but Marlborough grew rich on military supplies. Swift began to support the Tories and fought against the war with his pen.

In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht was concluded, not without the direct influence of the writer. This treaty is even called "Swift's Peace".

Now Swift had become such a powerful figure in political circles that it proved inconvenient to leave him as a village priest.

Friends assured him that he would be elevated to at least the rank of bishop. But high-ranking churchmen could not forgive the brilliant satirist of his famous "Tale of the Barrel". After years of hesitation, the queen gave Swift the position of dean (rector) of Dublin Cathedral, which was tantamount to an honorary exile.

For eight years, Swift was in Dublin, Ireland, almost without a break. And in 1726, at the age of fifty-eight, he again found himself at the center of the political struggle. This time he turned his talent to the defense of the Irish people.

The reason for Swift's speeches in the political arena was the scandal that erupted around Irish money. The English businessman Wood, who minted copper money for Ireland, put some of the copper received from the English government into his pocket. The Irish, on the other hand, were paid in shillings, which contained 10 times less copper than English coins of the same denomination. Swift published a series of pamphlets called "The Clothmaker's Letters" in which, ostensibly on behalf of a Dublin cloth merchant, he described the appalling poverty of the Irish and blamed the English government for this, which undermined the economy of Ireland through Wood's hands.

Swift's pamphlets caused an uprising in Dublin. The Prime Minister of England, Lord Walpole, ordered the arrest of Swift. But the closed and stern dean of Dublin Cathedral became the favorite of the Irish people. A special detachment was created to protect him, day and night on duty near Swift's house.

As a result, Prime Minister Walpole received an answer from Ireland: "It would take ten thousand soldiers to arrest Swift." The matter had to be hushed up. Viceroy

Ireland Lord Carteret declared: "I rule Ireland by the pleasure of Dr. Swift"

Swift died in 1745 and was buried in Dublin Cathedral. On his tombstone was engraved an inscription of his own making": "Here lies the body of Jonathan Swift, dean of this cathedral church, and severe indignation no longer tears his heart. Go, traveler, and imitate, if you can, the stubborn defender of courageous freedom. Swift was distinguished by extraordinary secrecy. He surrounded with special mystery the creation of the main work of his life - a novel on which he worked for more than six years - "Journey to some distant countries of the world by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then the captain of several ships." Even the publisher, who received the manuscript of the novel from an "unknown person" in 1726, did not know who its author was. Swift placed the manuscript on his doorstep and called. When the publisher opened the door, he saw the manuscript and the departing cab. Swift immediately left London and returned to Dublin.

We all read this fascinating book as children. Although it was written for adults. Therefore, let's try to read it again and try to penetrate the author's intention.

The composition of the novel consists of 4 parts. Each of the parts is a story about some fantastic country. The story is told on behalf of the protagonist - Gulliver, a navigator who, by chance, ends up in these countries. In other words, like Robinson Crusoe, this is a travel novel. Let's remember how the novel begins.

Gulliver ends up in Lilliput - a country inhabited by tiny people, 12 times smaller than a normal person.

We learn that there is a monarchy in Lilliput and the emperor is at the head of the state, the same small man as all the Lilliputians, but he calls himself "The Joy and Horror of the Universe." In the empire “... About seventy moons ago, two warring parties were formed, known as the Tremexens and Slemexens. The first are supporters of high heels, the second - low ... His Majesty is a supporter of low heels and decided that all employees of government and court institutions should use low heels. We see how “substantial” their differences are.

High-ranking persons, applying for an important public position, compete in the ability to jump on a tightrope. Swift means by such exercises the ability to deftly weave intrigues, to curry favor with the monarch.

Lilliputia is at war with the neighboring state of Blefuscu over which end to break the eggs from. Many years ago, the heir to the throne cut his finger at breakfast, breaking an egg from the blunt end. “Then the emperor, his father, issued a decree ordering all his subjects, under pain of severe punishment, to break eggs from a sharp end. This decree embittered the population to such an extent that ... it was the cause of six uprisings ... The Blefuscu monarchs steadily fomented these uprisings and sheltered their participants in their possessions. There are up to eleven thousand fanatics who went to the death penalty for refusing to break eggs from a sharp end.

We see how absurd the cause of these bloody wars is. And Gulliver understands this, but can he influence the events of Lilliputian life? Gulliver is at first a prisoner of the Lilliputians. He does not offer any resistance and is only concerned not to harm these small creatures. Then he received a very limited freedom, signing nine clauses of obligations, and immediately rendered the rulers of Lilliput an invaluable service by capturing the enemy fleet. Thanks to this, a peace treaty was concluded on favorable terms for Lilliput.

How did the emperor repay Gulliver for this and other services rendered by him?

On the slander of envious people, Gulliver was accused of treason and sentenced to death, but then the emperor "out of his usual kindness, decided to spare his life and be content with the command to gouge out both his eyes," and then starve him to death.

So the emperor and his henchmen repaid Gulliver for his complaisance, kindness and help.

Gulliver no longer hopes for the mercy of the emperor and flees to Blefuska, from there, having built a boat, he goes to his homeland.

Thus ended Gulliver's first journey.

What is fantastic in the land of Lilliput? The small size of the inhabitants of this country and everything that surrounds them? Compared to normal human growth, Gulliver is exactly 12 times larger than Lilliputians, which is why it is he who seems to Lilliputians a fantastic creature. In all other respects, Lilliputia is a very real country.

It is obvious that Lilliputia resembles Swift's modern England, with its two warring parties, behind-the-scenes intrigues of politicians, with a religious schism that is not worth a damn thing, but costs the lives of thousands of people.

We also recognize the ancient enmity of the neighbors - England and France, only Swift changed their geographical position: Lilliputia is his mainland, and Blefuscu is an island.

What is the meaning of the fantastic reduction in size? Why did Swift need Lilliput if he wanted to describe England?

Swift depicts all the orders and events of Lilliputian life in such a way that this country, behind which England is visible, looks very funny. Having turned his fatherland into Lilliput and made us believe in its reality, Swift exposes English customs, politics, religion to caustic satirical ridicule.

In other words, Lilliputia is the modern bourgeois England seen by the artist and revealed by the means of art with a social system that Swift denies.

Having shown that modern English society is not ideal, Swift sends his hero to other "remote countries of the world." For what? In search of this ideal.

Did Swift find the ideal social order in which people would be free, equal and would feel a sense of brotherhood for each other?

To answer this question, we read a fragment from the second part of the novel: “Seeing me, the baby ... raised ... a cry, ... he mistook me for a toy. The hostess, guided by a feeling of maternal tenderness, took me and placed me in front of the child. He immediately grabbed my waist and put my head in his mouth. I screamed so desperately that the child dropped me in fright. Fortunately, the hostess managed to substitute her apron for me. Otherwise, I would certainly have crashed to death."

This fragment from the second part of the novel "Journey to Brobdingnag" Gulliver here himself found himself in the role of a midget in relation to the inhabitants of this country, which caused curious situations.

For example, the story of two rats, from which Gulliver courageously defended himself, wielding his dagger.

Let us recall the episode with the frog that nearly sank Gulliver's boat with a sail. And the story of the monkey, which nearly tortured poor Gulliver to death, mistaking him for a cub, is absolutely dramatic.

All these episodes are very funny both for the giants and for the readers. But Gulliver himself was in real danger to his life.

How does Gulliver manifest himself in these funny, humiliating and dangerous situations?

He does not lose his presence of mind, nobility, self-esteem and curiosity of the traveler. For example, having killed a rat that could have torn him to pieces a minute ago, Gulliver busily measures its tail and informs the reader that the length of the tail was two yards without one inch.

The humiliating position of a small toy did not make Gulliver either cowardly or vicious. To the antics of the royal dwarf, he invariably responds with generosity and intercession. Although the dwarf once stuck it into a bone, and another time he almost drowned it in a bowl of cream.

What does Gulliver do in the land of giants? He is learning Brobdingnag so that he can converse with the kind and intelligent King of Brobdingnag.

What are the king and Gulliver talking about?

The king asks Gulliver about the English state structure, about which Gulliver tells in great detail. His report to the king took five audiences.

Why does the king listen to Gulliver's stories with such interest? The king himself answered this question. He said: "...although sovereigns always hold fast to the customs of their country, but I would be glad to find something worthy of imitation in other states"

And what "worthy of imitation" did Gulliver offer the king? He spoke in detail about the destructive effects of guns filled with gunpowder. At the same time, Gulliver kindly offered to make gunpowder. The king was horrified by this proposal. He was deeply indignant at the terrible scenes of bloodshed caused by the action of these destructive machines. “To invent them,” said the king, could only be some kind of evil genius, an enemy of the human race. Nothing gives him such pleasure, said the king, as scientific discoveries, but he would rather agree to lose half the kingdom than to be privy to the secret of such an invention. war did not find anything worthy of imitation. The King of Brobdingnag states that “... good government requires only common sense, justice and kindness. He believes that anyone who, instead of one ear or one stalk of grass, manages to grow two in the same field, will render humanity and his homeland a greater service than all politicians taken together.

This is an enlightened monarch, and his state is an enlightened monarchy. Can this state be considered ideal, such as the Enlighteners dreamed of? Of course not! The inhabitants of this country are driven by greed, a thirst for profit. The farmer brought Gulliver to exhaustion, earning money from him. Seeing that Gulliver was sick and could die, the farmer sold him to the queen for a thousand zlotys.

On the streets of the capital, Gulliver saw beggars. Here is how he describes it: “It was a terrible sight. Among the beggars was a woman with such wounds on her chest that I could climb into them and hide there, as in a cave. Another beggar had a goiter the size of five bales of wool hanging around his neck. The third stood on wooden legs twenty feet high each. But most disgusting of all were the lice that crawled on their clothes.

As we can see, the society of the country of giants is not spared from social ulcers, despite the fact that this country is headed by a king-scientist, a philosopher-king who cares about his subjects, but the driving force behind the life of society is money, a passion for profit. Therefore, one part of society is getting richer without hindrance, while the other is begging.

Swift showed that an enlightened monarchy is not capable of ensuring the triumph of freedom, equality and fraternity for its subjects if the power of money over people is preserved in this state, and hence poverty and inequality.

But the author does not lose hope. Maybe somewhere else there are other countries arranged more fairly. The search is not over. And Gulliver, miraculously freed and returned to his homeland, did not lose his passion for travel.

“We weighed anchor on August 5, 1706 ...” Thus began the third journey of Gulliver - “Journey to Laputa”

Gulliver ends up on a flying island. Who did he see there?

“Never before have I seen mortals who would cause such surprise with their figure, clothing and facial expression. All of them had their heads slanted to the right and to the left: one eye squinted inward, while the other looked straight up. Their outerwear was decorated with images of the sun, moon, stars interspersed with images of a violin, flute, harp, trumpet, guitar, clavichord"

What are the strange inhabitants of the island doing?

The Laputians are busy with the most abstract sciences and arts, namely, mathematics, astronomy and music. They are so immersed in their thoughts that they do not notice anything around. Therefore, they are always accompanied by servants, who, as necessary, pat the masters on the lips, then on the eyes, then on the ears with huge bubbles inflated with air, thereby encouraging them to listen, see, speak.

In the capital there is an academy of projectors, where they are engaged in rather strange scientific research. One of the scientists extracts the sun's rays from cucumbers. Another came up with a new way of building buildings - from the roof. The third breeds naked sheep. Such "great" discoveries, all this scientific activity is not aimed at improving people's lives. The country's economy is shattered. People are starving, walking in rags, their homes are being destroyed, and the scientific elite does not care about this.

What is the relationship between the king of Laputa and his subjects living on earth?

In the hands of this monarch is a terrible punishing machine - a flying island, with the help of which he keeps the whole country in subjection.

If in some city they refuse to pay taxes, then the king stops his island above them, depriving people of the sun and rain, throwing stones on them. If they persist in their disobedience, then the island, by order of the king, is lowered directly on the heads of the recalcitrant and flattened them along with the houses.

Such is the destructive power that the achievement of science can have when it is in the hands of an inhuman ruler. Science in this country is inhumane, it is directed against people.

Three countries passed before the eyes of the traveling Gulliver, in which there was one type of government - the monarchy.

Readers, together with Gulliver, came to the conclusion that any monarchy is evil. Why?

We can confirm this. Even an enlightened giant king cannot create ideal economic and social conditions for people to live. Monarchy in its worst case, when an evil despot who is indifferent to the interests of the people has unlimited power, is the greatest evil for mankind.

In the fourth part, Gulliver enters the country of the Houyhnhnms. The inhabitants of this country are horses, but, according to Gulliver, their rationality and moral qualities are superior to people. Houyhnhnms do not know such vices as lies, deceit, envy and greed. Their language does not even have words for these concepts. They do not quarrel among themselves and do not fight. They don't have weapons. They are kind and noble, above all value friendship. Their society is built on reasonable principles, and their activities are aimed at the benefit of all its members. The state system of this country is a republic. Council is their form of government.

“Every four years at the vernal equinox… there is a council of representatives of the whole nation. ... At this council the situation of the various districts is discussed: whether they are sufficiently supplied with hay, oats, cows and Yahoo. If something is missing in one of the districts, then the council delivers there what is needed from other districts. Decisions to this effect are always adopted unanimously.”

To Gulliver, this country seemed ideal. But is it ideal from our point of view?

The Houyhnhnms have no written language, and therefore no literature. They do not develop either science or technology, i.e. they do not strive for social progress. Their vaunted rationality still cannot be compared with the inquisitive human mind, endlessly striving to learn new things.

"The basic rule of life for them is the complete submission of their behavior to the guidance of the mind" But this practically excludes all feelings. Even the death of their loved ones, they are "reasonable", that is, indifferent. Here it is appropriate to recall the episode with one mare who was late for a visit due to the sudden death of her husband. She apologized for being late, and the whole evening was as calm and cheerful as the other guests.

Gulliver is nevertheless expelled from their country by the good Houyhnhnms, having decided that it is unreasonable to keep such a dubious creature in their society. What if he does them some harm?

Gulliver returns to his homeland, where he now spends most of his time in the stable. Travel is over. You can also sum up. Having guided his hero through various countries, does Swift find the ideal social structure?

No. Swift does not find a positive ideal either in his contemporary English bourgeois society (Lilliput), or in the enlightened monarchy of the giants, or on the flying island of scientists. And the virtuous republic of the Houyhnhnms seems like a utopia, it is no coincidence that this is still a society of horses, not people. What is the main strength of Swift's novel?

The strength of his novel is in the satirical ridicule of unjust forms of social existence. There are unusual creatures in the fourth part of the novel that play a large role in the story. Who are the Yahoos? What is the meaning of their appearance in the novel?

Yehu are dirty, ugly wild animals that abound in the land of the Houyhnhnms. In their appearance, they are very reminiscent of a person. Upon close examination, Gulliver also saw this similarity and was horrified. But are Yahoos only in appearance similar to humans?

The gray horse, after such conversations with Gulliver, came to the conclusion that there are many similarities in the customs and mores of the European peoples with the customs of Yahoo. “... The causes of strife among these cattle are the same as the causes of strife among your fellow tribesmen. In fact, if you give five Yahoos food that would be enough for fifty, then they, instead of calmly proceeding to eat, start a fight. Everyone tries to capture everything for himself. Often in a fight they inflict serious wounds on each other with claws and teeth. Yehu fight not only over food, but also over jewels - multi-colored shiny pebbles that they hide from each other. There is another similarity with people. For example, they delight in sucking the root, which affects them in the same way that spirits and drugs affect Europeans. In most herds there are rulers who are distinguished by a particularly vicious disposition and therefore keep the whole herd in obedience. They surround themselves with nasty favorites that everyone else hates. Gray horse spotted in

this is a great resemblance to European monarchs and their ministers. Where did these vile animals come from in the country of the Houyhnhnms? According to legend, a couple of vile Yahoos once arrived in this country from across the sea. They multiplied, became wild, and their descendants completely lost their minds. In other words, Yahoos are degenerate people who have lost their culture and civilization, but retained all the vices of human society.

Swift here argues with Defoe and his image of an ideal, reasonable bourgeois, since the history of Yahoo is an anti-Robinsonade. In the fourth part, Swift's satire reached its climax. The funny becomes scary. Swift painted a picture of the degeneration of human society, living according to the laws of Yahoo.

The fourth part is the final conclusion, the result of this philosophical journey. As long as mankind is driven by a thirst for profit, power and bodily pleasures, society will not be built according to the laws of reason. Moreover, it will follow the path of degradation and destruction. Swift consistently and logically debunks the enlightenment-bourgeois ideology, going from the particular to the general, from one particular country to a universal generalization.

The brilliant satirist was far ahead of his era. What is the contemporary sound of the novel for us? Have Swift's warnings lost their relevance?

If greed, deceit, the power of money and things, drunkenness, drug addiction, blackmail, servility, exorbitant ambition and ambitions that were not realized in the past and which cannot be realized in the present, provocations and endless feuds with their own kind, turning into terrible, bloody wars, will reign over humanity, then people risk turning into Yahoo. And no amount of civilization and a high level of scientific and technological progress will save them from this. It is terrible if culture hopelessly lags behind civilization! People change clothes, but vices, acquiring a civilized look, remain.