Reforms of Alexander 2 - briefly: preconditions, reasons, main provisions, results
I wish you good health, Andrey Puchkov is in touch. Today, using the example of the topic “Alexander 2 Reforms”, I will show how to work out this topic when preparing for exams on my own. For more details on this simple technique, see the article at the link, link at the end of the post.
General characteristics of the reforms
The reforms of Alexander II are called bourgeois because they contributed to the development of capitalism in Russia. Capitalism presupposes the free development of four basic forms of capital: land, free labor market, entrepreneurship, means of production (the ability to start factories, factories, produce tools). As it is not difficult to guess, the main reform that somehow accompanied the development in Russia was the abolition.
The rest of the reforms flowed from this one. We will talk about it in the next post, and in this we will briefly analyze the rest of the reforms.
Zemstvo reform of 1864
Causes. The need to create local self-government for peasants who were previously serfs. Previously, it was the nobleman who controlled his serfs. After they received personal freedom, the nobleman became a private person for the former serfs. Therefore, it was required to create local self-government.
The progress of the reform. On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were adopted. In 1870, the "City Statute" was adopted, which reformed local self-government in cities. By the way, under what emperor did it appear at all? Write the answer in the comments!
The main provisions of the reform:
- In counties and provinces, zemstvos (zemstvo assemblies) were established, which had administrative and economic powers.
- Zemstvos were re-elected every three years, the elections were curial - for three curiae: noble, merchant and peasant.
- Zemstvos were all-class bodies of local self-government, but the electoral law was such that in fact they were under the guardianship of the nobles.
The consequences of the reform.
- Some kind of local self-government appeared in Russia.
- Zemstvos became the social support of the liberal intelligentsia. This is generally an important consequence. All its sides cannot be disassembled within the framework of this post.
Judicial Reform of 1864
Causes. After the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to radically reform the judicial system. Because, firstly, our courts in Russia have been class-based until now, and, secondly, when there was serfdom, the court for serfs (read, for the bulk of the population) was the landowner. Now the serfs became free and the estates de jure ceased to exist, but in fact they began to erode.
The progress of the reform. In November 1864, new judicial statutes were adopted.
The main provisions of the reform.
- Classless courts were introduced in Russia.
- New principles of legal proceedings were introduced in Russia: competitiveness (the side of the prosecution, the side of the defense), publicity (the press began to be allowed into the courts), the independence of judges, and jury trials were introduced.
- A new system of courts arose: the world court (for small cases), the crown court (district, judicial chamber).
- Courts-martial and tribunals were preserved.
Consequences
Russia has the best judicial system ever. By the way, this has been proven.
Military reform
Causes. The backwardness of the Russian army, the armament of the army, which was shown by the Crimean War (the presence of smooth-bore guns against rifled ones among the British and French; the presence of a sailing fleet against a steam one among the Allies).
The main provisions of the reform
- Instead of recruitment service (which had existed since Peter the Great), universal military service was introduced. She was omnipotent.
- Military service was to be served by persons aged 21 to 40 years. Six years in the Army and seven years in the Navy.
- An educational qualification was introduced: the higher the level of the completed educational institution, the less to serve in the army. There were other restrictions, in particular, the only son in the family did not go to the army.
- Some peoples of Russia were exempted from military service.
Consequences
Russia received a more or less combat-ready army, which showed itself well against the backward Turkish army during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
In addition to these reforms, a new University Charter of 1863 was adopted, and a Censorship Reform was carried out in 1865. However, the last two innovations are not tested in the USE tests. Although I always recommend that my students know some of the nuances.
Post Scriptum: within the framework of this post, we, of course, will not be able to make out all these nuances. They are disassembled in my video course « » , as well as in my preparation courses for the exam in history.
Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov
(Great reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.
Background and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2
Russia longer than any other states remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had finally become obsolete, and the conflict that had been brewing since the 18th century reached its peak. It was necessary to urgently change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.
With the development of technology and the advent of industrial technology, the need for manual labor was increasingly eliminated, but the landowners still actively used the labor of the peasants, taxing them with huge taxes. As a result, the peasantry was ruined everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in the serf economy and the income of the landlords. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the ruined landlords, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.
The developing industry also suffered, because due to the widespread enslavement of the peasants, there was not enough free labor force that could service the machines in the factories.
In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such an environment, talk began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.
Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, in one of his speeches to the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it would happen from below (revolution).
The era of great reforms began.
The main reforms of Alexander 2
Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:
- Peasant reform (1861);
- Financial reform (1863);
- Education Reform (1863);
- Zemstvo reform (1864);
- Judicial Reform (1864);
- Reform of the state self-government (1870);
- Military reform (1874);
The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was nevertheless carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy an arable plot for himself for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, the peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, could open trade and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transition to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.
Another reform of Alexander 2 is the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as publicity and freedom of the press (relative) appeared, newspapers could discuss the activities carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted and people were free to leave the country.
The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all estates and the principle of publicity and openness. Jury trial appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.
Zemstvo and city reforms formed open bodies of local self-government, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this greatly simplified the process of city self-government.
The military reform involved replacing the Peter's system of recruits with universal military service. This allowed the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.
Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.
Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2
The political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are not in vain called great. Thanks to them, the foundation was laid for the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for an honest and open trial. The press became freer, which allowed citizens to have the opportunity to discuss and condemn government decisions.
The emancipation of the peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to overcome the crisis and create the conditions for further successful growth, taking into account the new economic realities.
In general, the country has experienced significant changes that have helped it embark on a new path of development, more successful and modern.
Educational reform of Alexander II
The need to change the system of school and university education in the Russian Empire has been brewing for a long time. This was understood by the emperor, and his entourage, and the intellectual elite of society. Therefore, specially created commissions were engaged in the development of reform projects for university and secondary education for several years. The education reform was carried out by the emperor in two stages - in 1863 (higher) and 1871 (secondary)
Founding Documents
1864 - Regulations on elementary public schools;1894 - Regulations on gymnasiums and progymnasiums.
Emperor's actions
The developed reforms and activities within their framework were introduced gradually, but had a tremendous impact on the whole country.A new system of primary and secondary education was introduced, which allowed people from the lower classes to gain knowledge within the walls of educational institutions;
In educational institutions, classical education was introduced, which was introduced simultaneously with the realistic one. This had a positive impact on the overall results of the reform;
Education was considered classical, which was based on the teaching of the ancient Greek language, Latin, mathematics, history, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, in real gymnasiums they taught foreign languages and natural science;
Gymnasium students could enter universities and higher technical schools;
Universities were given broad autonomy. Universities were divided into faculties, and those - into departments. Scientific degrees and titles were introduced.
Teachers independently chose rectors and deans, had the right to invite lecturers from abroad and other universities, a student court appeared, the opportunity to choose lecture and seminar courses, various disciplines, subjects;
Scientific societies could be formed at universities.
Each university had public libraries;
The departments of philosophy and state law were restored;
The role of trustee and pedagogical councils has increased.
Creation of educational institutions
A new system of educational institutions was created, which were divided into several types:Zemstvo schools, which were created by zemstvos;
Church schools;
Public schools belonging to the Ministry of Public Education;
Commercial schools, initiated by representatives of the big bourgeoisie;
Women's educational institutions.
Anyone who wanted to study in gymnasiums could study, but only after passing tests. Graduates of classical gymnasiums or those who passed examinations for passing the course of such a gymnasium entered universities.
Results of the reforms
1. Pedagogical societies have been created.2. Literacy committees appeared.
3. Pedagogical congresses were held.
4. The structure of education has become strictly hierarchical, with an emphasis on the education of all segments of the population.
The reign of Alexander II was marked by political reforms, which, without exaggeration, became crucial for the Russian Empire.
The need for such political transformations was caused by the difficult situation of Russia, in connection with the defeat in the Crimean War, the presence of serfdom, which hindered the development of the state's economy.
The list of major reforms includes:
- Peasant.
- Financial.
- Reforming the system of local self-government.
- Reorganization of the judiciary.
- military reforms.
Positive results of the reform
The most significant is the peasant reform, which in 1861 opened the list of reforms and abolished serfdom. The acquisition of personal freedom and the opportunity to rent land plots contributed to labor market development. Peasants acquired the right to freely choose a profession. The land was transferred to the use of the community, and all rights have local self-government.
The essence of the zemstvo reform (1864) was that the solution of issues of the local economy, the collection of taxes, the approval of the budget was transferred to the elected district and provincial councils. These select institutions were to provide and develop primary education, medical and veterinary services. A natural continuation of the reform of local self-government is the urban one, which replaced the estate administrations of the cities, chosen by the dumas. The advantages of reforming the Zemstvo can be considered raising the level of education by opening a huge number of zemstvo schools. The healthcare system has improved significantly. The construction of large numbers of zemstvo hospitals and schools led to the formation of a "third element" of doctors, teachers, and agronomists. In addition, the creation of infrastructure in the nearest settlements, the construction of roads, medical facilities, and schools contributed to the accelerated development of industry.
The beginning of the educational reform was laid by the emperor already in the first years of his reign. The reform affected not only the university environment, but also the average level of education. In addition to classical gymnasiums, real schools became widespread in the sixties of the 19th century. The new rules made it possible for peasant children to receive education. The created system of women's education provided women with wide access to education. The new press law reduced the level of censorship.
Judicial reform, which provides for the creation of a system of courts of the world and common courts, ensured more efficient judiciary. The introduction of jury trials, the publicity and publicity of court hearings with the participation of lawyers, the independence of judges had a strong influence on progress in public life and the entire political system.
The military reform, which lasted from 1861 to 1874, ended with the charter on universal military duty, completely changing the order of conscription for military service. Now, instead of a recruiting set, military service applies to all estates. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, military settlements were abolished, and people of all classes were admitted to the established military gymnasiums and cadet schools.
Cons of the reforms of Alexander II
Despite the positive effect of the introduction of reforms relating to almost all aspects of life in Russia in the sixties and seventies of the XIX century, they were not without shortcomings and significant miscalculations. The implementation of the peasant reform did not give the peasants the main thing - the land. The enslaving conditions for the purchase of land for most of the former serfs were predatory and contributed to a sharp stratification of the village communities. Zemstvo reform is considered bourgeois in spirit and character. However, the presence at meetings mainly of representatives of the highest echelons of society made it possible ignore the interests of the lower classes. The voting procedure, when farmers and peasants vote separately, provided the landlords with significant advantages. Zemstvos were limited in obtaining political rights.
The disadvantage of the most progressive judicial reform can be called opportunity to delay proceedings with the help of the judicial bureaucracy, and the development of bribery undermined the credibility of the judiciary. The bulk of court cases were considered in the judicial chamber, consisting of representatives of the upper classes, which worsened the legal status of other classes.
Difficulties in solving urban problems arose due to the lack of funds necessary for their implementation. An increase in the number of employees in government agencies, the police, and other state structures required a large amount of funds, and financing was carried out, among other things, at the expense of part of the city budget revenues. The positive results of reforming the education system in Russia were reduced due to the fact that the tuition fee system did not allow children from the lower strata of the population to receive secondary and higher education.
The results of the reforms of Alexander II
The main achievement of the complex of reforms carried out in the 19th century by Emperor Alexander II is the huge and cultural upsurge in the development of civil society in Russia. The country began an active development of the economy. Objective conditions have been created for the establishment of capitalism as the main formation. The elimination of the landlords' monopoly on peasant labor, the activation of the labor market, made it possible to overcome the economic crisis. The new judiciary gave the courts political independence. The implementation of the Zemstvo reform contributed to the introduction of self-government, the development of education, medicine, industry, and the development of different parts of the country.
Chronology
- 1855 - 1881 Reign of Alexander II Nikolaevich
- 1861 February 19 Abolition of serfdom in Russia
- 1864 Conducting judicial, zemstvo and school reforms
- 1870 City reform implemented
- 1874 Military reform
Zemstvo reform (1864)
On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” - a legislative act that introduced the zemstvo.
It should be borne in mind that for a country whose majority of the population were peasants who had just liberated from serfdom, the introduction of local governments was a significant step in the development of political culture. Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-class organizations, such as noble assemblies. The feudal lords were indignant at the fact that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly "a slave of yesterday is sitting next to his recent master." Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, philistines and peasants.
Members of zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The chairmen of the meetings were the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The assemblies formed the executive bodies - county and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and to hire employees.
The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-estate self-government was limited only to economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local means of communication, care for the medical care of the population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc. New bodies of all-estate self-government were introduced only at the level of provinces and districts. There was no central zemstvo representation, and there was no small zemstvo unit in the volost. Contemporaries wittily called the Zemstvo "a building without a foundation and a roof." The slogan "crowning the building" became from that time the main slogan of the Russian liberals for 40 years - right up to the creation of the State Duma.
Urban reform (1870)
Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, and led to an increase in the role of cities as centers of the economic, socio-political and cultural life of the country.
The city reform of 1870 created all-estate bodies of local self-government. Administrative functions were no longer assigned to the entire city society, but to its representative body - the Duma. Elections to the Duma took place every four years. The number of members of the Duma - vowels - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. There were much more vowels in the capital's dumas: in Moscow - 180, St. Petersburg - 252. At a meeting of the duma, an executive body of public administration was elected - the council and the mayor, who was the chairman of both the executive and administrative bodies.
Suffrage was based on the bourgeois property qualification. The right to participate in elections, regardless of class, was given to owners of immovable property taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying certain commercial and industrial fees to it. Various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, monasteries also used the right to vote as a legal entity. Only men who had reached the age of 25 were allowed to take part in the voting personally. Women who had the necessary electoral qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, hired workers, the overwhelming majority of whom did not own real estate, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of intellectual labor: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, turned out to be deprived of the right to vote, but rented apartments.
The tasks of managing the municipal economy were entrusted to new public institutions. A wide range of issues of urban economy and improvement were transferred to their jurisdiction: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City dumas were also obliged to take care of “public welfare”: to assist in providing the population with food, to take measures against fires and other disasters, to help protect “public health” (set up hospitals, help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), to take measures against begging, to promote the spread of public education (to establish schools, museums, etc.).
Judicial Reform (1864)
Judicial statutes of November 20, 1864 decisively broke with the pre-reform judiciary and legal proceedings. The new court was built on a non-estate basis, the irremovability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings were proclaimed; when considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of jurors was envisaged. These are all characteristic features of a bourgeois court.
Magistrate's Court was created in counties and cities to consider minor criminal cases. The magistrate's court had jurisdiction over cases for which a punishment in the form of a reprimand, remark or suggestion, a fine not exceeding 300 rubles, arrest not more than three months, or imprisonment not more than a year followed.
When considering criminal cases in the district court, it was provided jury institute. It was introduced despite the resistance of conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude towards the idea of jurors by the fact that the people had not grown up to this yet, and such a trial would inevitably have a “political character”. According to judicial statutes, a juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old, who was not under trial and investigation, who was not excluded from service in court and was not subjected to public condemnation for vices, who was not under guardianship, who did not suffer from mental illness, blindness, dumb and lived in this county for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required.
The second instance for district courts was judicial chamber, having departments. Its chairman and members were approved by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. It served as the appellate court for civil and criminal cases heard in district courts without a jury.
The Senate was treated as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice.
The prosecutor's office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, it was headed by the prosecutor general, who is also the minister of justice.
Chairmen of courts, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and judicial investigators were irreplaceable, they were assigned high salaries in order to secure honest professionals for judicial institutions.
The largest step towards the introduction of the principles of bourgeois justice was the establishment of the institution of the Bar.
On November 20, 1866, it was allowed "to print in all time-based publications about what happens in the courts." Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming a prominent phenomenon in the press.
Military reforms (60-70s)
By revising military reform one should take into account its dependence not only on the socio-economic situation in the country, but also on the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to a rapid buildup of the military potential of all powers. Emerging in the middle of the XIX century. the decomposition of the state system of Russia was reflected in the state of the army. The unrest in the army was clearly revealed, there were cases of revolutionary actions, there was a decline in military discipline.
The first changes were made in the army already in the late 50s - early 60s. Military settlements were finally abolished.
WITH 1862 A gradual reform of local military administration was begun on the basis of the creation of military districts. A new system of military administration was being created, eliminating excessive centralization and facilitating the rapid deployment of the army in case of war. The Military Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.
IN 1865 began to be carried out military judicial reform. Its foundations were built on the principles of openness and competitiveness of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts have been established: regimental, military district and chief military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.
The development of the army largely depended on the availability of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1960s, more than half of the officers had no education at all. It was necessary to resolve two important issues: to significantly improve the training of officers and open access to officer ranks not only for the nobles and non-commissioned officers who had served, but also for representatives of other classes. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short period of study - 2 years, in which people who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.
On January 1, 1874, the charter on military service was approved. The entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. For the army, basically, a 6-year term of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve were established (for the fleet - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits have been established. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempted from active service. The new system made it possible to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war.
The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, education.
Education reforms
The economic process and the further development of social life in Russia were seriously hampered by the low educational level of the population and the lack of a system of mass training of specialists. In 1864 a new provision was introduced about elementary public schools, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people. In the same year it was approved charter of gymnasiums, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions. Adopted the year before university charter, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced; the university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. The results were not long in coming: by 1870 there were 17,700 elementary schools of all kinds, with about 600,000 students enrolled; the number of university students increased by 1.5 times. It was, of course, not enough, but incomparably more than in the pre-reform period.
Internal unity and liberal orientation of the whole complex of reforms 60 - 70s allowed Russia to take an important step towards bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave an impetus to the formation of civil society, caused a social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are the undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.
