a city in North Africa, according to legend, founded by Dido and Phoenician immigrants from Tire in 853 BC. e., that is, a hundred years before the founding of Rome. The Carthaginians (otherwise called Puns) were good merchants and artisans, and their city flourished. In the III century. BC e. Carthage entered into a struggle with Rome, and three so-called Punic Wars took place, unsuccessful for Carthage and ending with the capture and destruction of this city (146 BC).
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CARTHAGE
slave owner city-state (Phoenician - new city) in the North. Africa, in the 7th - 2nd centuries. BC. one of the largest powers. K. was founded in 825 BC. immigrants from the Phoenician. Thira. Thanks to convenient geographic position K. early became a major center intermediary. trade, maintaining close ties with the countries of the East. Mediterranean, Aegean Bass., Italy and Tartessus. In the 8th - 7th centuries. K. founded a number of colonies on the Mediterranean coast of the North. Africa, as well as on about. Ebes (Ebusus, middle of the 7th century). The withdrawal of colonies secured the dominance of K. for bargaining. ways to the south from the Pyrenees. peninsula, and also allowed to remove from the city those representatives of the social. the lower classes, to-rye could oppose the domination of the aristocracy. In the course of the struggle with the Greeks and Tartessites, representing. in the 7th century a serious threat to the Phoenician colonies in the West. Mediterranean, in the South. Spain, Zap. Spain, Zap. Sicily and Sev. Africa, there was a unit. Phoenician colonies, among which K. occupied a predominant position. K. was an oligarch. state., power in Krom was in the hands of otd. groupings trade.-agricultural. aristocracy, constantly borovsh. among themselves for supremacy and influence. In con. 9th c. BC. in K., perhaps, there was royal power: legends. founder K. Elissa is named in the source. "queen". However, after her death, power is unknown. circumstances passed to the Council of Ten, along with the Crimea, there was also a Council of Elders. In the 2nd floor. 6th c. BC. commander Malach established his military in K. dictatorship based on on nar. militia, but it did not last long and was replaced by an oligarch. the dictatorship of the Magonids, which relied on a mercenary army; with the loss of the Magonid dynasty, actually. power (in the middle of the 5th century BC), the aristocracy of K. created a “republican” system of government. The Council of Ten was transformed into the Council of Thirty, and the Council of Elders was expanded (from 100 to 300 members). Verkhov. perform. power was concentrated in the hands of two elected magistrates - the Suffets. To control the activities of the magistrates, the Council of 104 was created, members of which were appointed special. commissions - pentarchies, replenished. through cooptation. Independent of the will. nar. masses, these organs served as a reliable citadel of the aristocracy. Magistrates were elected on the principle of "nobility and wealth." Nar. the assembly in K. did not play a noticeable role; it acquired power only in the event of disagreement between the magistrates, having in this case the right not only to discuss proposals that were submitted. magistrates-ratami, but also to put forward their own. As a characteristic trait of a political life K. source. unanimously point out bribery and corruption. Large slaveholding was widely developed in K. s.-x. and crafts. production, in which, along with slaves, semi-free dependent producers - bods - were exploited. Along with private workshops, there were also state workshops in K., where the labor of the state was exploited. slaves. Zemledelch. the population of the territories subject to Carthaginia was obliged to pay to the Carthaginian authorities a tax in the amount of 0.1 of the grain harvest. The brutal exploitation by K. of the population of the conquered territories, especially the Libyan peasantry, caused repeated uprisings. Phoenician colonies, located. to the sowing the coast of Africa (Utica, Hippo, Leptis Minor, Leptis Magna), which were part of the Carthaginian state, had a social community close to K. and political structure and, apparently, used ext. autonomy. They had to pay the carthago. authorities tax-duty from their trade. Having defeated the Phocian Greeks in alliance with the Etruscans at the Battle of Alalia (534 BC), and then, having destroyed Tartessus, K. consolidated his dominance in the West. Mediterranean and monopoly position in the Western Mediterranean trade. However, he was defeated. in the Battle of Himera (c. 480), K. was forced to last. time to suspend their attack on the west. Greeks. All R. 5th c. BC. K. resumed the fight for Sicily, to-ruyu he led with varying success with Syracuse approx. 100 years. In the beginning. 3 in. BC. under his rule was almost all of Sicily, except for Syracuse. Sicily was the main the object of the struggle between K. and Rome and in tech. 1st Punic War (264 - 241 BC). Having been defeated. both in Sicily itself and at sea, K. was forced to abandon Sicily in favor of Rome, and also to pay him the means. indemnity. Unrest among the mercenaries, Krym Carthage. pr-in after the end of the war delayed the payment of salaries, served as a signal for a powerful uprising Libyan. peasantry (241 - 238 BC), in which fugitive slaves also took part (the leaders of the uprising were the Libyan Matos and the fugitive slave Spendius). It was also supported by some Phoenicians. cities in Sev. Africa. The authorities of K. suppressed this movement with great difficulty; to conclude. stage of the struggle on-pressure. the uprising was led by one of the largest Carthaginian commanders, Hamilcar Barca, head. in K. democratic. movement and striving. to the resumption of the struggle with Rome. In the 30s - 20s. 3 in. BC. power in K. passed into the hands of a group headed by. Hamilcar Barca, and the democratic leaders who followed him. circles. Soon after the suppression of the uprising of the Libyans, the Carthaginians. armies under the first Hamilcar Barca, and then his successors - Hasdrubal and after the death of the latter - Hannibal, conquered Spain to the river. Iberus, which led the Carthaginians directly. contact with Rome. The siege and capture of Sagunt by Hannibal served as a pretext for the beginning. 2nd Punic War (218 - 201 BC), during which the Romans and Carthaginians fought for dominance in the West. Mediterranean, for predominance in trade and navigation. Intruder to Italy and inflicting a number of crushes on the Romans. defeat (the largest - at Cannes, 216 BC), Hannibal created directly. threat to the existence of Rome. However, he failed to keep the initiative in his hands. The Romans accumulated strength for a retaliatory strike and transferred the war to the territory. Africa. After the defeat under Zama (202 BC), K. was forced to conclude a peace treaty with Rome. However, this condition was violated during the attacks on K. Numidian. King Masinissa, to whom the Carthaginians resisted. Romans, fearful. economic growth. the power of K., used this event as a pretext for the beginning. The 3rd Punic War (149 - 146 BC), as a result of which K. was completely destroyed and the civilization he created almost perished without a trace.
Carthage- Phoenician, or Punic, state with its capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tyre after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the inhabitants of the city were famous for their business acumen.
Location
Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a city hall, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.
Story
Carthage was founded by people from the Phoenician city of Tyre at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a gem for a piece of land bounded by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of location was left to her. After the deal was made, the colonists chose a convenient place for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single oxhide. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. Giarb, the leader of the Makaktan tribe, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years. Judging by the items found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade links connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt. In the VIII century BC. e. the situation in the Mediterranean has changed dramatically. Phoenicia was captured by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive outflow of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able to form colonies on its own. The first Carthaginian colony in the western Mediterranean was Ebess on the Pitius Islands. At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to resist the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panorm, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, an alliance of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica. The favorable geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (population reached 700,000 people), unite the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.
Carthage before the Punic Wars
In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punians were defeated, but Magon I reformed the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessos was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed. The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was a regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; to this end, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main opponent of the Punians was Syracuse, the war lasted at intervals for almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.
In the III century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the intensified Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. For the first time this manifested itself at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was conducted mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome's fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. the Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. the Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet, and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. e. in the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a big victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.
Hamilcar Barca
In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean towards the Punians, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to put up a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after the defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and paying an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were led by Hanno.
The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to effectively govern led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly gave him the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal was chosen as the commander-in-chief of the army. For 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines delivered very large incomes, a strong army was created in battles. In general, Carthage became much stronger than it was even before the loss of Sicily.
Hannibal Barca
After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander-in-chief. Hamilcar raised all his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - in the spirit of hatred for Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason for war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Spanish city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around through the Alps to the territory of Italy. There he won a number of victories - at Ticinum, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Cannes, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transition to the side of Carthage of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city, Capua. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him significant reinforcements, the situation of Carthage became very complicated.
Campaigns of Hannibal
Rome soon moved the fighting to Africa. Having entered into an alliance with the Numidian king Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punians. Hannibal was called to his homeland. In 202 B.C. e. in the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Rome Spain and all the islands, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they did not have the right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome. After the end of the war, Gannon, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, who were hostile to Hannibal, the heads of the aristocratic parties, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia in the war, which was an ally of Carthage.
Fall of Carthage
Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to recover quickly and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade has long become an essential branch of the economy, the competition of Carthage hindered its development. His quick recovery was also of great concern. The king of the Numidians, Massinissa, constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; realizing that Rome always supported the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and decided in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punians were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately filed claims in connection with the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded that all weapons be handed over, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. After asking for a month to think it over, the Punians prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, of the 500,000 population, 50,000 were taken prisoner and became slaves. The literature of Carthage was destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Mago. A Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage, ruled by a governor from Utica.
The legendary wealth of Carthage
Built on the foundation laid by the ancestors of the Phoenicians, Carthage created its own trade network and developed it to an unprecedented size. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops. Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Approximately 480 BC. e. navigator Himilcon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And after 30 years, Hanno, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, on which there were 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city in the ancient world. " At the beginning of the III century BC. e. thanks to technology, fleet and trade... the city has moved to the forefront", - says the book "Carthage". The Greek historian Appian wrote of the Carthaginians: Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian».
Regions and cities
The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - approximately correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the authority of the city. There were also real Phoenician colonies - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about the relations of Carthage with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage managed to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian empire was vast. In Africa, its easternmost city was over 300 km east of Aea. Between it and the Atlantic Ocean, the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. The colonies and trading posts were for the most part located at a distance of about one day's sail from each other. Usually they were on islands near the coast, on capes, in the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country, from where it was easy to get to the sea. The power consisted of Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilibey and other well-fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island. Gradually, Carthage also established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th c. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks entrenched themselves on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before the campaign of Hannibal in Italy, great success was achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain.
Government system
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the mainland, it had an advantageous geographical position that favored trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west.
Compared with many famous cities of antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in the Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out. Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was heavily fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. In the quarter called Megara, there were many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. Ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time. Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal. According to its state structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that at home, in Phoenicia, the power belonged to the kings. The ancient authors, who for the most part admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the state system of Sparta and Rome. The power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finance, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected Suffet magistrates. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in the cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving a high social position. Trade was considered quite a respectable occupation, and the wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect.
Religion of Carthage
The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, imagined the universe divided into three worlds, located one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent, which the Ugaritians called Latana, and the ancient Jews called Leviathan. The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun rising from the eastern ocean, bypassing the earth, plunged into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on dolphins. The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, they revered the gods of Canaan, but not all of them. Yes, and the Canaanite gods on the new soil changed their appearance, absorbing the features of local gods.
The first place among the Carthaginian deities was occupied by the maiden goddess Tannit, known from the 5th century BC. BC e. according to the religious formula of Punic inscriptions as "Tannit before Baal". In importance, she corresponded to the great goddesses of Ugarit - Asherah, Astarte and Anat, but did not coincide with them in functions and in many respects surpassed them, which can be seen at least by her full name. The symbols of Tannit were a crescent, a dove and a triangle with a cross-bar - as if a schematic representation of the female body. One of the main gods of the Carthaginians - Baal-Hammon, who found himself in the shadow of Tannit - retained some features of his predecessor Balu: Baal was also the patron of agriculture, the "bread-bearer", and was depicted with ears of corn in his left hand. Identified with the Greek Kronos, the Etruscan Satre, and the Roman Saturn, Baal-Hammon belonged to the older generation of gods; it was to him that numerous human sacrifices were made. No less revered god in Carthage was Reshef, already known to the Canaanites in the 2nd millennium BC. e., but was not then one of the main gods. The very name Reshef means "flame", "spark", and the god's attribute was a bow, which gave the Greeks reason to identify him with Apollo, although in fact he was most likely the god of thunder and heavenly light, like the Greek Zeus, the Etruscan Tin and the Roman Jupiter . Along with the gods, the Carthaginians revered heroes. Known are the altars of the Filen brothers, who became famous for their exploits in the fight against the local population or the Hellenes. Gods and heroes were worshiped both in the open air, near the altars dedicated to them, and in the temples run by the priests. The combination of priestly and secular positions was allowed. The priesthood of each temple was a collegium, headed by the chief priest, who belonged to the highest strata of the aristocracy. The bulk of the temple staff consisted of ordinary priests and priestesses, whose positions were also considered honorary. Among the ministers were also fortune-tellers, musicians, sacred barbers, scribes and slaves, who occupied a higher position than private and public slaves. The cult attached special importance to sacrifices, usually accompanied by theatrical performances. Part of the harvest, animals and people were sacrificed. Human sacrifices are known to many ancient religions, but if among the Hellenes, Etruscans, Romans they were not of a permanent nature, then in Carthage human sacrifices were made annually - not a single major religious holiday could do without them. The most common were the sacrifices of newborn children. The Carthaginians took the most senior citizens as hostages, the Carthaginian gods demanded as a sacrifice, first of all, the children of the nobility. And none of the prominent politicians and military leaders could save their child from this fate. Over time, the thirst for blood among the Carthaginian gods increased: children were sacrificed to them more and more often and in more and more new territories that were part of the Carthaginian state.
Trade policy
The Carthaginians excelled in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since in its policy it was guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading posts were no doubt founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In an agreement concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was provided that Roman ships should not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing anywhere else in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the borders of Rome and respect its people, as well as its allies. The Carthaginians made agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the coasts of Spain and Italy adjoining it. They also fought against piracy. Carthage, did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century BC. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct barter.
Agriculture
The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. Of the grain crops, wheat and barley were the most important. The wine produced for sale was of average quality. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their addiction to wine, special laws were passed against drunkenness. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of poor quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, on the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided among the wealthy Carthaginians, whose large estates were managed on a scientific basis. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered that this manual be translated into Latin. As tenants, or sharecroppers, local residents worked - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers.
Craft
Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and destined for marketing in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all the markets. The production of luxury goods - for example, the bright purple paint, commonly known as "Tyrian purple" - is known in the later period, when the Romans ruled North Africa, but it can be considered that it existed before the fall of Carthage. In Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex, permanent settlements were founded. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction.
Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metal work. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phoenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. The largest of the handicraft industries was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns, filled with products that were intended for firing, were found. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found everywhere in the areas that were part of the sphere of Carthage - in Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.
Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee from Fez after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche in order to take possession of his wealth.
Its name in Phoenician "Kart-Hadasht" means "New City" in translation, perhaps in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.
According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox-skin would cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large plot of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected on this site became known as Birsa (meaning "skin").
Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, in addition to the essential fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.
The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was poorly developed and, in terms of its main technical and aesthetic characteristics, did not differ from the eastern one. Agriculture was non-existent. The Carthaginians did not then have possessions outside the narrow space of the city itself, and for the land on which the city stood, they had to pay tribute to the local population. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the founder of the city was at the head of the state. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to the ten "princeps" who had previously surrounded the queen.
Territorial expansion of Carthage
Terracotta mask. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.
In the first half of the 7th c. BC. a new stage in the history of Carthage begins. It is possible that many new settlers from the metropolis moved there because of the fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city attested by archeology. This strengthened it and made it possible to move on to more active trade - in particular, Carthage replaces Phenicia proper in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the external expression of which is the change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of the old Canaanite traditions already left in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of art and craft products.
Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was bred by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on the island of Ebes off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in the area soon stumbled upon the rivalry of the Greeks, who settled at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars remained with the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.
Failure in the extreme west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They established a number of colonies to the east and west of their city and subjugated the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate such a situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. An attempt to get rid of tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.
Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the VI century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, which apparently resulted in the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after the victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed over to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat was for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, a reason to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. Magon took the leading place in the state.
Mago and his successors had to solve difficult problems. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities - Caere, Carthage was in especially close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century BC. the Carthaginians and Ceretans entered into an alliance against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC At the Battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretian fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the treaty between Carthage and Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians could not completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sardis.
The Carthaginians, led by rulers and commanders from the Magonid family, waged a stubborn struggle on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subjugated all the Phoenician colonies located there, including ancient Utica, which did not want to become part of their state for a long time, waged war with the Greek colony of Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Doriay to establish himself east of Carthage and ousted the Greeks from the emerging there were their cities to the west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a stubborn struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - the chorus. The other part was left to the Libyans, but subjected to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.
Phoenician comb ring. Carthage. Gold. 6th-5th centuries BC.
Spain at the end of the 6th century BC. the Carthaginians took advantage of the attack of the Tartessians on Hades in order to intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula under the pretext of protecting their half-blooded city. They captured Hades, who did not want to peacefully submit to his "savior", followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. established control over its remains. However, an attempt to extend it to Southeastern Spain met with determined resistance from the Greeks. At the naval Battle of Artemisia, the Carthaginians were defeated and forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their rule.
At the end of the VI - the beginning of the V century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Failed in Africa, Doriay decided to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.
His death was the reason for the war with Carthage for the Syracusan tyrant Gelon. In 480 BC the Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing at that time on Balkan Greece, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where part of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and went to an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in a fierce battle at Himera, they were utterly defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, the son of Mago, died. As a result, the Carthaginians could hardly hold out in the previously captured small part of Sicily.
The Magonids also attempted to establish themselves on the Atlantic shores of Africa and Europe. To this end, in the first half of the 5th c. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:
- in a southerly direction under the leadership of Hanno,
- in the north headed by Himilcon.
So in the middle of the 5th c. BC. the Carthaginian state was formed, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. Its members included -
- the northern coast of Africa to the west of Greek Cyrenaica and a number of the interior territories of this mainland, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
- the southwestern part of Spain and a large part of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of this country;
- Sardinia (actually only part of it);
- Phoenician cities in western Sicily;
- islands between Sicily and Africa.
The internal situation of the Carthaginian state
Position of cities, allies and subjects of Carthage
The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. 1st century AD Carthage.
This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core was Carthage itself with the territory directly subordinated to it - the hora. Hora was located directly outside the walls of the city and was divided into separate territorial districts, managed by a special official, each district included several communities.
With the expansion of the Carthaginian state, non-African possessions were sometimes included in the chorus, as part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the state was the Carthaginian colonies, which supervised the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and crafts, and served as a reservoir for absorbing the "surplus" of the population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.
The structure of the state included the old colonies of Tyre. Some of them (Hades, Utica, Kossura) were officially considered equal with the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and true role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. So, Utica was practically completely subordinate to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, took an anti-Carthaginian position), and the legally inferior cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.
The structure of the state included tribes and cities that were under the allegiance of Carthage. These were the Libyans outside the choirs and the subordinate tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They, too, were in a different position. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, recruiting them into military service, and rather heavy taxes.
The Carthaginians also ruled over the "allies". Those managed independently, but were deprived of a foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was seen as a rebellion. Tax was also imposed on some of them, their loyalty was ensured by hostages. But the farther from the borders of the state, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. A grid of territorial divisions was superimposed on this entire complex conglomeration of cities, peoples and tribes.
Economy and social structure
The creation of the state led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, diverse agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It gave even more products to the Carthaginian merchants (however, often the merchants themselves were wealthy landowners), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trading centers in the Mediterranean.
A large number of subordinate population appeared, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - the "people of Carthage", and at the very bottom - slaves and groups of the dependent population close to them. Between these extremes there was a whole gamut of foreigners, "meteks", the so-called "Sidonian husbands" and other categories of an inferior, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.
There was a counterposition of Carthaginian citizenship to the rest of the population of the state, including slaves. The civil collective itself consisted of two groups -
- aristocrats, or "powerful ones", and
- "small", i.e. plebs.
Despite the division into two groups, citizens acted together as a close-knit natural association of oppressors, interested in the exploitation of all other inhabitants of the state.
The system of property and power in Carthage
The material basis of the civil collective was communal property, which acted in two guises: the property of the entire community (for example, the arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (land, workshops, shops, ships, except for state ones, especially military ones, etc.). d.). Apart from communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of the temples was placed under the control of the community.
Priestess sarcophagus. Marble. 4th-3rd centuries BC. Carthage.
In theory, the civil collective also possessed all the fullness of state power. We do not know exactly what posts were occupied by Malchus, who seized power, and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their position seems to have resembled that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family had become "difficult for the freedom of the state", and the grandchildren of Mago were expelled. The expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the establishment of a republican form of government.
The highest power in the republic, at least officially, and at critical moments actually, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civil collective. In fact, the leadership was carried out by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among the wealthy and noble citizens, primarily two sufets, in whose hands the executive power was for a year.
The people could intervene in the affairs of government only in the event of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, although very limited, councilors and magistrates. In addition, the “people of Carthage” were tamed in every possible way by the aristocrats, who gave him a share of the benefits from the existence of the state: not only the “powerful”, but also the “small” profited from the sea and trade power of Carthage, people sent for supervision were recruited from the “plebs”. over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars gave a certain benefit, because in the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were also represented at various levels of the land army, from privates to commanders, and especially in the navy.
Thus, in Carthage, a self-contained civil collective was formed, with sovereign power and based on communal property, next to which there was neither royal power, standing above citizenship, nor a non-communal sector in the socio-economic plan. Therefore, we can say that a policy arose here, i.e. this form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of the ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phoenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the development of ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.
The formation of the Carthaginian policy and the formation of the state were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian state arose in the course of a fierce struggle between the Carthaginians, both with the local population and with the Greeks. The wars against the latter had a pronounced imperialist character, for they were waged for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.
Rise of Carthage
From the second half of the 5th c. BC. the third stage of Carthaginian history begins. The state had already been created, and now it was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this initially were all the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC the Carthaginian commander Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars began in Sicily, which continued intermittently for more than a century and a half.
Gilded bronze cuirass. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.
Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subjugated the Elimes and Sikans who lived in the west of Sicily and launched an offensive against Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable opponent of Carthage. In 406, the Carthaginians besieged Syracuse, and the plague that had just begun in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. Peace 405 BC secured the western part of Sicily for Carthage. True, this success turned out to be unstable, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either east or west as one side or another succeeded.
The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded with an aggravation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of Libyans and slaves. End of the 5th - first half of the 4th c. BC. were a time of sharp clashes within citizenship, both between individual groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the “plebs” involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, the slaves rose up against the masters, and the subject peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calm within the state, the Carthaginian government was able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume outward expansion.
Then the Carthaginians established control over the southeast of Spain, which they unsuccessfully tried to do a century and a half ago. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, again finding themselves under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to seek help from their metropolis of Corinth, and an army arrived from there, led by a capable commander, Timoleon. Hanno, the commander of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily, failed to prevent the landing of Timoleon and was recalled to Africa, and his successor was defeated and cleared the Syracusan harbor. Gannon, returning to Carthage, decided to use the situation that had arisen in connection with this and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20,000 slaves, and called the Libyans and Moors to arms. The rebellion was defeated, Hanno, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only one of his son Gisgon managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.
However, the turn of affairs in Sicily soon forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgona. The Carthaginians were severely defeated by Timoleon, and then a new army was sent there, led by Gisgon. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual detachments of Timoleon's army. This allowed in 339 BC. to conclude a peace that was relatively advantageous for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonid family became the most influential in Carthage for a long time, although there could be no talk of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.
Wars with the Greeks of Syracuse went on as usual and with varying success. At the end of the IV century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, threatening Carthage directly. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to seize the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens opposed him, crushing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repulsed from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. 3rd century BC. All these endless and tedious wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily from each other.
The emergence of a new rival - Rome
The situation changed in the 60s. 3rd century BC, when a new predator intervened in this fight - Rome. In 264 the first war broke out between Carthage and Rome. In 241, it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.
This outcome of the war exacerbated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which hired soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the non-payment of the money due to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, and slaves who hated their masters. The uprising unfolded in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also covering Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had previously become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing to "pacify" the Carthaginian possessions. They had to say goodbye to Sardinia, yielding it to Rome, which threatened a new war.
The second aspect of the crisis was the growing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to turn theory into practice. A democratic "party" emerged, led by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two groups emerged.
- One was headed by Gannon from the influential Hannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
- and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkid family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, literally, "lightning") - they were for an active one, with the goal of taking revenge from the Romans.
Rise of the Barkids and war with Rome
Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932.
Wide circles of citizenship were also interested in revenge, for which the influx of wealth from subordinate lands and from the monopoly of maritime trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the Democrats, sealed by the marriage of Hasdrubal to the daughter of Hamilcar. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the intrigues of enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barcid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.
After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in one hand. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice similar practices following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as was the case under the Magonides, but at the local level. Such was the power of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers in the Iberian Peninsula independently. Strong reliance on the army, close ties with democratic circles in Carthage itself, and the special relationship that the Barkids had with the local population contributed to the emergence in Spain of a semi-independent power of the Barkids, essentially of a Hellenistic type.
Already Hamilcar considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian commanders (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But victory in the war remained with Rome.
Peace 201 BC deprived Carthage of the navy, all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, the king of which the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article laid a "delayed mine" under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves did not have the right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of the position of a great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy that had ruled the republic for so long.
Internal position
At this stage, a radical transformation of the economic, social and political life of Carthage did not occur. But certain changes did take place. In the IV century. BC. Carthage began to mint its own coin. A certain Hellenization of a part of the Carthaginian aristocracy takes place, and two cultures arise in the Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power is concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent power of the Barkids arose, the heads of which felt their kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East, and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.
Carthage had considerable expanses of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states, large agricultural plantation farms developed on a large scale in Carthage, where the labor of numerous slaves was exploited. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily, and then in Italy.
In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived the writer-theorist of the plantation slave economy Magon, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army besieging Carthage in the middle of the 2nd century. BC, an order was given to preserve this work. And he was really saved. By order of the Roman Senate, Mago's work was translated from Phoenician into Latin, and then was used by all the theorists of agriculture in Rome. For their plantation economy, for craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among the prisoners of war and bought.
Sunset of Carthage
The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities to exploit the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent populations got out of control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area was drastically reduced, and trade again assumed predominating importance.
Glass vessels for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC
If earlier not only the nobility, but also the "plebs" received certain benefits from the existence of the state, now they have disappeared. This, of course, caused an acute social and political crisis, which has now gone beyond the existing institutions.
In 195 BC Hannibal, having become a Sufet, carried out a reform of the state system, which dealt a blow to the very foundations of the former system with its dominance of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers. Under these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting sharp contradictions within the civil collective. First, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans, forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work he had begun. But the oligarchs could not keep their power intact.
By the middle of the II century. BC. Three political factions fought in Carthage. In the course of this struggle, Hasdrubal, who led the anti-Roman group, became the leading figure, and his position led to the establishment of a regime of the type of Greek junior tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome began a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war was practically reduced to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of the citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage ended.
The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of an eastern city into an ancient state, the formation of a policy. And having become a policy, Carthage also survived the crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that we do not know what the way out of the crisis could be here, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, they already switched to a new historical path as part of them.
Carthage arose several centuries before the small Gallic settlement of Lutetia, which later became Paris. It already existed in those days when the Etruscans appeared in the north of the Apennine Peninsula - the Romans' teachers in art, navigation and crafts. Carthage was already a city when a furrow was made around the Palatine Hill with a bronze plow, thereby performing the ritual of founding the Eternal City.
Like the beginning of any of the cities, whose history goes back centuries, the founding of Carthage is also associated with a legend. 814 BC e. - The ships of the Phoenician queen Elissa moored near Utica, a Phoenician settlement in North Africa.
They were met by the leader of the Berber tribes who lived nearby. The local population had no desire to allow a whole detachment that arrived from across the sea to a permanent settlement. However, to the request of Elissa to allow them to settle there, the leader agreed. But with one condition: the territory that aliens can occupy must be covered with the skin of only one bull.
The Phoenician queen was not at all embarrassed and ordered her people to cut this skin into the thinnest strips, which they then laid out on the ground in a closed line - tip to tip. As a result, a rather large area came out, which was enough to lay a whole settlement, called Birsa - “Skin”. The Phoenicians themselves called it "Karthadasht" - "New City", "New Capital". After the name it was transformed into Carthage, Cartagena, in Russian it sounds like Carthage.
After a brilliant operation with the skin of a bull, the Phoenician queen took another heroic step. Then the leader of one of the local tribes wooed her to strengthen the alliance with the newcomer Phoenicians. After all, Carthage grew and began to gain respect in the district. But Elissa refused female happiness, chose a different fate. In the name of establishing a new city-state, in the name of the exaltation of the Phoenician people, and so that the gods would sanctify Carthage with their attention and strengthen royal power, the queen ordered a large fire to be built. For the gods, as she said, ordered her to perform the rite of sacrifice ...
And when a huge fire flared up, Elissa threw herself into the hot flame. The ashes of the first queen - the founder of Carthage - fell into the ground, on which the walls of a powerful state soon grew, which survived centuries of prosperity and died, like the Phoenician queen Elissa, in a fiery agony.
This legend has no scientific confirmation yet, and the most ancient finds that were obtained as a result of archaeological excavations date back to the 7th century BC. e.
The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, a higher level of culture to these lands and quickly established themselves as skilled and skilled workers. Along with the Egyptians, they mastered the production of glass, excelled in weaving and pottery, as well as in leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of bronze and silver products. Their goods were valued throughout the Mediterranean. The economic life of Carthage was built as a rule on trade, agriculture and fishing. It was at that time that olive groves and orchards were planted along the banks of present-day Tunisia, and the plains were plowed up. Even the Romans marveled at the agrarian knowledge of the Carthaginians.
Hardworking and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone water tanks, grew wheat, cultivated orchards and vineyards, erected multi-storey buildings, invented various mechanisms, observed the stars, wrote books...
Their glass was known throughout the ancient world, perhaps even more so than Venetian glass in the Middle Ages. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secret of which was carefully concealed, were valued incredibly highly.
The cultural impact of the Phoenicians was also of great importance. They invented the alphabet - the same alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for the writing of many peoples: for Greek writing, and for Latin, and for our writing.
Already 200 years after the city was founded, the Carthaginian state becomes prosperous and powerful. The Carthaginians founded trading posts on the Balearic Islands, they captured Corsica, and eventually began to take over Sardinia. By the 5th century BC. e. Carthage had already established itself as one of the largest empires in the Mediterranean. This empire covered a significant territory of the present Maghreb, had its possessions in Spain and Sicily; The fleet of Carthage through Gibraltar began to enter the Atlantic Ocean, reached England, Ireland and even the coast of Cameroon.
He had no equal in the entire Mediterranean. Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian galleys were built in such a way “that they could move in any direction with the greatest ease ... If the enemy, fiercely attacking, crowded such ships, they retreated without endangering themselves: after all, light ships are not afraid of the open sea. If the enemy persisted in the pursuit, the galleys turned around and, maneuvering in front of the formation of enemy ships or covering him from the flanks, again and again went to ram. Under the protection of such galleys, heavily loaded Carthaginian sailing ships could go to sea without fear.
Everything went well for the city. At that time, the influence of Greece, that constant enemy of Carthage, greatly decreased. The rulers of the city maintained their power through an alliance with the Etruscans: this alliance was a kind of shield that blocked the Greeks from reaching the trading oases of the Mediterranean. In the east, things also went well for Carthage, but in that era, Rome turned into a strong Mediterranean power.
It is known how the rivalry between Carthage and Rome ended. The sworn enemy of the famous city, Mark Porcius Cato, at the end of each of his speeches in the Roman Senate, no matter what was said, repeated: “But still I believe that!”.
Cato himself visited Carthage as part of the Roman embassy at the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Before him appeared a noisy, prosperous city. Large trade deals were concluded there, coins of different states settled in the chests of money changers, the mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks.
Cato also visited the provinces, where he could see rich fields, lush vineyards, orchards and olive groves. The estates of the Carthaginian nobility were in no way inferior to the Roman ones, and sometimes surpassed them in luxury and splendor of decoration.
The senator returned to Rome in the most gloomy mood. Going on a journey, he hoped to see signs of the decline of Carthage - that eternal and sworn rival of Rome. For more than a century there has been a struggle between the two most powerful powers of the Mediterranean for the possession of colonies, convenient harbors, for dominance at sea.
This struggle went on with varying success, but the Romans were able to permanently oust the Carthaginians from Sicily and Andalusia. As a result of the African victories of Aemilian Scipio, Carthage paid Rome an indemnity of 10 thousand talents, gave away its entire fleet, war elephants and all Numidian lands. Such crushing defeats were supposed to bleed the state, but Carthage was reborn and strong, which means that it will once again pose a threat to Rome ...
So thought the senator, and only dreams of the coming revenge dispersed his gloomy thoughts.
For three years, the legions of Aemilian Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately its inhabitants resisted, they could not block the path of the Roman army. The battle for the city continued for six days, and then it was taken by storm. For 10 days, Carthage was given to plunder, and then demolished from the face of the earth. Heavy Roman plows plowed what was left of its streets and squares.
Salt was thrown into the ground so that the Carthaginian fields and gardens would no longer bear fruit. The surviving inhabitants, 55 thousand people, were sold into slavery. According to legend, Aemilian Scipio, whose troops took Carthage by storm, wept, looking at how the capital of a powerful state was dying.
The winners took gold, silver, jewelry, ivory, carpets - everything that had accumulated over the centuries in temples, shrines, palaces and houses. Almost all books and chronicles perished in the fires. The Romans handed over the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since that time it has disappeared without a trace. Only a treatise on agriculture by the Carthaginian Mago has survived.
But the greedy robbers who ravaged the city and razed it to the ground did not rest on this. It seemed to them that the Carthaginians, whose wealth was legendary, had hidden their jewels before the last fight. And for many more years, treasure hunters roamed the dead city.
24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans began to build a new city in its place according to their own patterns - with wide streets and squares, with white-stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Everything that could somehow survive the defeat of Carthage was now used in the construction of a new city, which was already being revived in the Roman style.
In less than a few decades, Carthage, which had risen from the ashes, turned into the second city of the state in beauty and significance. All historians who described Carthage of the Roman period spoke of it as a city in which "luxury and pleasure reign."
But the Roman dominion did not last forever. By the middle of the 5th century, the city was under the rule of Byzantium, and a century and a half later, the first military detachments of the Arabs came here. By retaliatory strikes, the Byzantines again regained the city, but only for three years, and then it remained forever in the hands of the new conquerors.
The Berber tribes met the arrival of the Arabs calmly and did not interfere with the spread of Islam. Arab schools were opened in all cities and even small towns, literature, medicine, theology, astronomy, architecture, folk crafts began to develop ...
During the Arab rule, when the dynasties at war with each other changed very often, Carthage is relegated to the background. Destroyed once again, he could no longer rise, turning into a symbol of majestic immortality. People and ruthless time left nothing from the former greatness of Carthage - the city that ruled over half of the ancient world. Neither the German lighthouse, nor the stone from the fortress wall, nor the temple of the god Eshmun, on the steps of which the defenders of the great ancient city fought to the last.
Now on the site of the legendary city is a quiet suburb of Tunisia. A small peninsula cuts into the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort. Here you can see fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet. Historians believe that the palace was built so that the admiral could always see the ships he commanded. And only a pile of stones (presumably from the acropolis) and the foundation of the temple of the gods Tanit and Baal testify that Carthage was in fact a real place on earth. And if the wheel of history had turned differently, Carthage, instead of Rome, could have become the ruler of the ancient world.
Since the middle of the 20th century, excavations have been carried out there, and it turned out that not far from Birsa, under a layer of ash, a whole quarter of Carthage has been preserved. To this day, all our knowledge of the great city is mainly the testimony of its enemies. And therefore the evidence of Carthage itself is now becoming increasingly important. Tourists come here from all over the world to stand on this ancient land and feel its great past. Carthage is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and therefore it must be preserved ...
Today we will talk about the once powerful and richest city - Carthage. Now only picturesque ruins remain of it. Today, Carthage is also a revered city; for example, the residence of the President of Tunisia is located here. However, only memories remain of its former glory. Today, a photo of Carthage in Tunisia is available in all tourist brochures of this country. Therefore, we offer a closer look at this ancient city, its history, culture and location.
Carthage (Tunisia): history
According to legend, this city was founded by the Tyrian princess Elissa, who was forced to flee from her native places after a palace coup. It happened in 814 BC. Elissa and her supporters sailed the sea for a long time until they reached the African coast, where they landed on land in the Gulf of Tunis. The locals were very happy with the foreigners, who brought with them a lot of amazing goods. The fugitive queen wanted to buy a plot of land equal in area to the size of an oxhide. The local leader was very surprised at this proposal and made fun of Elissa for a long time. He was sure that all her people would never be able to fit in such a small space, but he nevertheless agreed to the deal. The next night, Elissa ordered to cut the skin of an ox into thin strips and enclose a fairly large piece of land with them, thus marking her new possessions. It was in this way that the city of Carthage in Tunisia was founded. It is no coincidence that the citadel built in its center is called Birsa, which means “skin” in translation.
By the III century BC, Carthage (Tunisia) became the largest state in the western Mediterranean. Its geographical location allowed it to control all the ships passing by. The Carthaginians were very businesslike, resourceful and warlike. They surrounded themselves with a high fortress wall, and along with the merchant fleet, they also created their own navy, numbering more than two hundred ships. Thus, Carthage turned out to be impregnable both from land and from the sea.
Carthage was not ruled by the Senate, where the best people of their time were elected, as in Rome. Here, all decisions were made by the plebs, that is, the people. However, some scholars are sure that in fact in Carthage the oligarchy (a group of the richest citizens) ruled everything. Be that as it may, along with Rome, this city was the most cultural and developed at that time.
The Carthaginians actively sailed to other countries and subjugated a number of lands in southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. At first they were on good terms with Rome. Both states supported each other in military operations. However, friction soon arose between them over the possession of Sicily, as a result of which the First Punic War began in 264 BC. Military operations went on with varying success. However, in the end, the Carthaginians were defeated. However, they were a stubborn people and were able to recover. This was followed by two more which eventually ended in complete victory for the Romans. So the call of a Roman statesman named Mark Porcius Cato came true, who ended each of his speeches with a phrase that later became winged: “Carthage must be destroyed!” The wars of the Roman Empire destroyed the city of half a million. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the ruins of Carthage were sprinkled with salt so that no one would have a desire to settle here. However, after some time, the Romans regretted the complete destruction of the city, because it was possible to get by only with the elimination of its army. Eventually they began to rebuild and repopulate Carthage. The city after some time became the main center of Africa.
In the 2nd century AD, the Carthaginians adopted Christianity. In the VI century, along with the collapse of the Roman Empire, this once majestic city also fell into decay. After only a hundred years, it was captured by the Arabs. The remains of local structures were used by the new rulers of Carthage to build a new city - Tunis. Today Carthage is a suburb of Tunisia. And due to its greatest historical value, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Carthage (Tunisia): description and geographical location
So, today this city is one of the main ones. Few tourists who find themselves in this region deprive themselves of the opportunity to touch the ancient history of the once great empires. Carthage on the map of Tunisia is not difficult to find. It is located in the northern part of this state on the shores of the Gulf of Tunis, which is part of the Mediterranean Sea.
Carthage Hotels
The number of rooms in this settlement can be called modest. This is due to the fact that Carthage is a unique place, there is no possibility of building hotels. The only option for travelers who definitely want to stay here is the five-star Villa Didon Hotel with 20 rooms. If you are looking for a more budget option, then it makes sense to choose a hotel in the city of Tunisia or Gammarth.
Excursions
One of the must-see places in Carthage is the Baths of Antoninus. In their size, they were second only to the Roman counterpart. Today, little remains of its former grandeur, but you can appreciate the scale of the building by looking at their model erected here. Not a single excursion to Carthage (Tunisia), as a rule, is complete without a visit to Tophet, which is an open-air burial altar. Here the Phoenicians sacrificed their firstborn in order to appease the gods. In addition, it is worth taking a look at the Roman amphitheater, which accommodated 36 thousand spectators, the remains of a huge aqueduct, as well as the Maalga water cisterns.
shopping
In addition to the standard souvenirs for any country in the form of magnets, key rings, postcards, etc., here merchants offer tourists items that supposedly have historical value: coins, mosaics, pieces of steles and columns, etc. You should not fall for this fishing rod. You can buy such things only as a souvenir, but do not hesitate to bargain.
Cafes and restaurants
On both sides of Habib Bourguiba Avenue, which runs along the coastline, there are a whole host of cafes where you can quench your thirst with cool juice or have lunch. If you want to pamper both your stomach and your eyes, then visit the restaurant in the five-star Villa Dido Hotel, which offers stunning views of the whole of Carthage.
