Chinese culture in the face of the XXI century. Chinese culture

The culture of Ancient China is not only one of the most ancient in the history of mankind, but also one of the most unique and distinctive. For five thousand years, it has developed in its own way, away from other civilizations. The result of such a long continuous process has become a rich cultural heritage, which is of great value to world culture.

The development of the culture of ancient China

The culture of ancient China has a rich past, and the beginning of its formation is considered to be the 3rd century BC. e. It is characterized by a wealth of spiritual values, as well as amazing stamina. Despite the endless wars, rebellions and destruction, this civilization was able to maintain its ideals and core values.

Since the Chinese civilization existed in complete isolation until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., its culture acquired a number of unique features, which subsequently only strengthened their positions.

The features of the culture of ancient China include:

• Pragmatism. The values ​​of real earthly life are of the greatest importance.
• Great commitment to tradition.
• Deification and poeticization of nature. The central deity was the Sky, mountains and waters, which the Chinese had worshiped since ancient times, were in high esteem.

Rice. 1. Nature in the art of ancient China.

The worship of the forces of nature was reflected in the art of ancient China. Thus, the landscape direction in painting, architecture, and literature arose and became widespread in the country. Only Chinese culture is characterized by such a deep aesthetic penetration into the natural world.

Writing and literature

The writing of Ancient China can be safely called unique. Unlike the alphabetical system, each character - a hieroglyph - has its own meaning, and the number of hieroglyphs reaches several tens of thousands. In addition, ancient Chinese writing is the most ancient, with the exception of cave paintings.

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Initially, texts were written on wooden boards with thin bamboo sticks. They were replaced by soft brushes and silk fabric, and then paper - the most important invention of Ancient China. Since then, writing has moved to a new stage of development.

Rice. 2. Ancient Chinese writing.

Fiction was held in high esteem, and historical and philosophical works were of the greatest value. The Shijing collection, which includes 305 poetic works, became a real treasury of ancient Chinese poetry.

Architecture and painting

A distinctive feature of architecture in ancient China is the complexity of buildings. While many ancient peoples erected ingenuous one-story buildings, the Chinese already in the 1st millennium BC. e. they knew how to build two- and three-story buildings that required certain mathematical knowledge. The roofs were covered with tiles. Each building was decorated with wooden and metal plaques with symbols of prosperity, health and wealth.

Many ancient architectural structures had a common feature - raised corners of the roof, due to which the roof visually looked like it was bent down.

Much attention in ancient China was paid to the construction of monasteries, carefully carved into the rocks, and multi-tiered towers - pagodas. The most famous is the seven-story Wild Goose Pagoda, which reaches a height of 60 meters.

Rice. 3. Monasteries carved into the rocks.

All the painting of Ancient China, as well as other types of art, is permeated with admiration for the beauty of nature and the harmony of the universe, it is filled with contemplation and symbolism.

In Chinese painting, the genres of "flowers-birds", "people", "mountains-waters" were very popular, which for many years did not lose their relevance. Each depicted object carried a certain meaning. For example, the pine symbolized longevity, the bamboo symbolized resilience, and the stork symbolized loneliness.

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When studying the topic "Culture of Ancient China", we learned what factors influenced the development of an original and unique ancient Chinese culture. Having learned briefly about the culture of Ancient China, we identified the characteristic features of architecture, writing, painting, and literature.

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The ideological core of Chinese culture was Confucianism - a philosophical and ethical doctrine that arose in the VI century BC. The sage was the founder Confucius(551 -479 BC). Confucianism asserted the eternity and immutability of society and the world as a whole. Each member of society must occupy a predetermined place for him. Humanity, mercy must permeate relations between people. Everyone is obliged to help another, to achieve what he himself aspires to and not to do what you do not want for yourself. This ethical attitude was later formulated in and called golden rule of morality.

Confucius identified society with the state. The state was understood by Confucius as a large family in which the sovereign (emperor) is "Son of Heaven" , And "Father and Mother of the People" . In such a state, strict rather than legal mechanisms dominated. For a long time, Confucianism served as the state religion in China. ideologies.

Another important area of ​​Chinese philosophy was Taoism (the founder of Lao Tzu VI century BC). The central concept of Taoism was proclaimed "dao" - path. From the point of view of Taoism, everything in the world is in motion, in change, on the way, everything is impermanent and finite. It is necessary to follow the established world order, corresponding to the Tao. To ensure immortality, one must perform special exercises reminiscent of yoga.

The Chinese for a long time adhered to the belief in their exclusivity and considered all other peoples until the middle of the 18th century as barbarians.

Chinese civilization is the oldest of civilizations. Already in the X century BC. it was a highly developed culture. China gave the world hieroglyphic writing, silk, paper, phosphorus, a compass, a plow, gunpowder, an engine. The achievements of Chinese medicine, astronomy and mathematics are known all over the world.

In China there was no concept of God. The world is not created by God, it is revealed from its own hidden basis, as from a flower bud.

In Chinese culture there was no concept of spirit and body, the idea of ​​matter. The world was perceived as undivided into spirit and matter. Man is equal to the cosmic forces of Heaven and occupies a central place in the universe. The approach to any phenomenon of life begins, first of all, with the concepts of morality (Confucianism).

Among the categories of Chinese culture, the most important CI . It is not translated into Russian. It is understood like this: just as ice turns into water when heated, and water into steam, so Qi, condensing, becomes matter, thinning into spirit. Everything in the world is Qi, there is nothing but Qi. Qi is the original spirit in primordial nature. The stone also contains the beginnings of spirituality. Qi is mobile, like everything else in the world. Here is the mountain. It is a mountain when it arose, but over time it will grow old, crumble with the wind, become sand, and sooner or later a new mountain will arise from the sand. So, Qi is the life energy that fills the world.

Chinese thinking was different from the cause-and-effect characteristic of Europeans. For example, what is common between metal, the West, white, light and justice. The European will not see the connection here. Everything is clear to the Chinese: the primary element in all this is metal.

This type of thinking is based on sympathy theory. Positive sphere of being - Jan , negative - yin . Like interacts with like. “You cannot pick a flower without disturbing the stars,” said a Chinese poet.

Chinese culture optimistic. The cosmos is harmonious, orderly, full of life and energy. The sky is the masculine principle, full of Yang charge. The earth, as opposed to the sky, is the feminine principle of Yin. The soil marks the harmony of Yang and Yin.

Space : in the east, a young positive force (tree) dominates, which has gained maturity in the south. South is fire, West is metal, North is water. The north was perceived by the Chinese as a kingdom of cold and darkness, from where wild nomads raided. The south is the source of light and hot Yang power. This was reflected in the planning of Chinese cities: they were built strictly in a square with the main gate in the south. The emperor sat on the throne facing south. At first, the Chinese considered the sky to be round and the earth to be square. Then they realized that the sky is a void in which the vital force Qi is poured.

The concept of life and death: "Life is but a drift, death is but a rest on the way." This is how the Chinese imagined the world. There were no teachings about the immortality of the soul in Chinese philosophy. Life and death are two indispensable phases of a single process of time. Life is good, death is evil and must be overcome. One of the religions, Taoism, developed ways to prolong life: a special sexual practice, breathing exercises, meditation, gymnastics.

Arts and Literature: The Chinese universe is built on beauty. Cosmos is “patterned”, the pattern later turned into the meaning of “written sign”, writing, “culture expressed in a written sign”. One of the main concepts of Chinese culture is the concept WEN . WEN is the cosmic beginning, expressing patterning, decoration in the Universe. The shaman necessarily had this patterned tattoo as a sign of sacredness. WEN is a manifestation of the cosmos in a person. Raising his head up, the sage studies the constellations. Lowering his head down - comprehends the hidden meaning of animal and bird tracks. The result of this peering was the emergence of hieroglyphic writing and culture. Writing, according to the Chinese, carries the great Tao - the way. Hence the truly reverent attitude of the people to the written text. Literature is a noble and worthy business. But real literature was understood not as a novel, but as philosophical prose.

Chinese art - this is an image not of things, but of ideas, meanings. One-color paintings occupy a special place in it. The image is applied with black ink on white paper or lightly tinted silk. Artists sought to convey the idea of ​​emptiness, the airy “groundlessness” of everything that exists. The setting in Chinese painting was to search for harmony and unity with the cosmos.

Religion: Confucianism can hardly be considered a religion. This is an ethical-political doctrine. There were many mixed beliefs and cults. It is a syncretic belief, like Taoism. The religions of China allowed the existence of different beliefs. There was no monotheism. Buddhism came to China from India and was transformed. The Chinese could confess three religions at the same time: at work to be a Confucian, with friends and in the bosom of nature - a Taoist, alone with yourself a Buddhist (reflections on life and death).

Public values:

Belief in the possibility of creating a moral society, which required ideal, highly developed leaders;

The family is a special clan, a prototype of the state. A man who properly supports his family can govern the state;

The ideal of a noble husband, official, monarch.

played an important role in ancient Chinese culture nobility of origin and the presence of high-ranking ancestors.

The ruling stratum was recruited through examinations. Any resident had the right to pass an examination on knowledge of Confucian texts and a commentary on literature and could receive one or another academic degree.

A commoner who successfully passed even the lowest county examination for a degree right now(a burgeoning talent), my whole life changed dramatically. He was exempt from taxes, military and labor service, wore a dressing gown and headdress of a scientist. This is how it was formed layer of managers(tangerine - tangerines - from the word to order). The terms "official" and "intellectual" in Chinese culture coincided. All this explains the exceptional value of education.

Chinese education was clearly of a humanitarian nature. Philology, philosophy, history were considered honorable sciences. The natural sciences were applied in nature. Trade, business, crafts were not quoted very highly. Officials looked at the merchants with contempt. Peasants are "good" people, merchants are "bad".

Family: The model of "five generations under one roof" served as an ideal. A family is a clan of people who are related. The main thing is that from childhood to death, the Chinese should feel part of the clan. Outside the family, he is nothing.

ancestor cult - part of the national religion.

Read the continuation of the topic "Culture of the Ancient East":

For many centuries, China remained an incomprehensible and mysterious country for Westerners. For a long time, local residents jealously guarded their culture from the encroachments of the "white barbarians". In the 19th century, European colonizers destroyed China's self-isolation. Invaluable knowledge accumulated over thousands of years, amazing products of Chinese masters and literature have become the property of the whole world. However, the Celestial Empire still keeps many secrets and spiritual treasures.

Features of the formation of Chinese culture

Chinese culture was formed under the influence of a number of factors that made it unique and different from the cultural forms and traditions familiar to Europeans. These factors include:

• Long self-isolation of China and protection of culture from external influence;
• The conservatism of the Chinese and their deep respect for the traditions of their ancestors;
• Influence on the culture of such religions as Buddhism and Taoism;
• Confucian ideals;
• A mixture of cultural traditions of many nationalities living in China;
• Relations with neighboring states and geographical location.

Philosophical and Religious Attitudes Dominating Chinese Culture

Chinese culture is based on a number of mythological, religious and philosophical concepts, which are reflected in the artistic creativity and spiritual life of the Chinese. The most pronounced in Chinese culture are:

• Cosmological ideas, according to which China is the center of the world, an exclusive Celestial country among the barbarism of peoples.
• Developed numerical symbolism, expressed in architectural, pictorial and even literary traditions.
• A clear social hierarchy, the veneration of the emperor as the son of Heaven and mediator between people and gods. The ideas of statehood and the cult of the emperor permeate not only the social thought and political philosophy of ancient China, but are also expressed in the features of palace and temple architecture, as well as painting.
• The cult of the sun, solar motifs in painting and architecture.
• Imitation of nature as the main source of harmony in the world.

The science

Ancient China quickly became one of the world's major centers of science and philosophy. The high development of science in China was facilitated by its close connection with practice. Scientific treatises were of an applied nature and were guides for agronomists, sailors, officials, doctors, etc.

The main emphasis was placed on the exact and natural sciences. In addition to practical necessity, this was facilitated by the religious and philosophical views of the Chinese, who were inspired by nature and paid great attention to numerical symbolism.

In China, astronomy was highly developed, formed on the basis of simple observations of celestial bodies. The results of observations made it possible to create a calendar and develop rules for maritime navigation. Chinese thinkers created one of the first geocentric systems in the world. They believed that the universe is like an egg, where the earth is the yolk and the sky is the shell. Chinese astronomers identified 28 constellations, and also in the 1st century BC. BC e. began to study spots on the sun.

To study the surrounding world, construction and navigation, ancient Chinese explorers needed some devices. So the compass, the first celestial globe and the first seismograph were created.

The design features of ancient palaces, aqueducts and temples testify to the highest level of engineering in China. Local builders were well acquainted with the basics of physics, geometry and algebra. Metallurgy was also well developed in China. Iron and bronze were obtained here very early. In addition, Chinese craftsmen were among the first in the world to produce cast iron and steel.

Also in China, such a science as soil science was born. Chinese agronomists introduced the classification of soils and determined the optimal timing of the main agricultural activities. In order to achieve the highest yields, complex irrigation canals and irrigation systems have been created in China since ancient times.

The Chinese were also considered among the best doctors of the ancient world. Many treatises have survived to this day describing various diseases, methods for their treatment, the properties of some herbs and the rules for creating medicines. Local healers often advised patients to follow a diet, therapeutic exercises and could use acupuncture. The most talented doctors already in the 3rd century could successfully perform abdominal operations.

Literature

Like most other peoples, one of the first literary genres in China were epic poems, odes, cult songs, as well as folk songs that underwent processing. For a long time, the authors of these works did not follow any rules of versification. But by the 7th century, classical Chinese poetry had formed, requiring certain poetic forms and rhymes to be observed. At the same time, the themes of the works also changed, the authors increasingly turned to their own emotions and experiences.

The poetic heritage of ancient and medieval China is very great. For convenience, researchers have divided Chinese poetry into several groups:

• Panegyrics - official poetry, glorifying the state and the emperor;
• Poetry, which outlined the basic foundations of Confucianism. The authors who worked in this vein often talked about the socio-political situation in the country, wars and history. Often such poetry expressed oppositional ideas;
• Love lyrics;
• Poetry on philosophical and religious themes;
• landscape lyrics;
• Poems-allegories that tell any parables.

Chinese artistic prose was represented mainly by the works of philosophers of the Confucian school. Literature, which is an analogue of modern fiction, did not enjoy respect among the representatives of the upper strata of society. In their opinion, she had to satisfy the needs of the most undemanding readers or play the role of simple leisure. Fiction of that era included folk tales, parables, adventurous or comic stories, historical stories.

Painting

The most popular genre in Chinese painting is the landscape. Nature was revered in many ancient Chinese philosophical and religious teachings. The running of the waves, the majestic mountains, the plants that die in the autumn and are reborn in the spring, were for the Chinese the embodiments of the endless cycle of life and eternity. In addition, nature has become a kind of aesthetic ideal and role model. The key artistic images in Chinese art are water, mountain and tree. These objects, one way or another, are found on almost all samples of ancient Chinese painting. The water symbolized the cosmic flow of the Tao; mountain - inviolability; and the tree personified the mythical Tree of Life and the constant renewal of nature.

Nature is the main character in many ancient Chinese paintings. Images of people, animals, buildings or any objects, as a rule, are somewhat lost against the backdrop of majestic landscapes and play a supporting role.

Other common subjects in Chinese painting were everyday sketches (the life of a Buddhist monastery, peasants at work, court ladies, city streets and their inhabitants), as well as images of deities and demons.

Around the 7th century, a new pictorial genre developed in China - the ceremonial portrait. Such portraits were rather conditional and did not convey any individual or psychological traits of the depicted person. The faces of the characters were drawn deliberately impartial, and the main emphasis was placed on symbols that convey information about the position and position of the hero of the picture - clothes, headgear, stationery, etc.

The very style of drawing in China differed sharply from European artistic traditions. Images were applied to silk or finely dressed leather. Most of the images were made with thin, neat lines, which gave the finished drawing some airiness and fragility.

The finished paintings were not framed, but kept in the form of scrolls or hung on the walls without a frame.

Artistic painting was often used to decorate porcelain items. Usually plants, birds and animals were depicted on the dishes. Paints for painting porcelain were prepared from minerals, and in order for the pattern not to wear off over time, it was applied until the product was covered with glaze.

Calligraphy is considered a special pictorial genre in China. A person who wants to master this art must learn not only to distinguish and reproduce hieroglyphs, but also to control the strength and speed of brush movements. Calligraphy is a form of meditation. It was believed that the artist who applied hieroglyphs to paper should arrive in a special state of consciousness, having cleansed his thoughts of fuss and bad thoughts.

Architecture

According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, construction is one of the ways to resist chaos and evil spirits that want to harm a person. The erection of any building, be it a palace, a temple or an outbuilding, recreates in miniature the process of the creation of the world.

The construction of the imperial palaces was supposed to reflect the idea of ​​the headship of the emperor and his connection with the heavenly deity. In addition, palaces showed the power and authority of their inhabitant. Therefore, each new dynasty tried to create as many luxurious buildings as possible. In this regard, even the Great Wall of China had not only a practical function (protection from nomads), but also a representative function, showing the wealth and greatness of its customer.

Despite the fact that there is not much land suitable for buildings in China, for a long time almost no multi-storey buildings were built here. The only exceptions were watch or gate towers, as well as pagodas. This is due to seismic activity in the region: the more floors, the less stable and unsafe the building.

The vast majority of Chinese architectural complexes have a square or rectangular shape and are oriented to the cardinal points. The ancient Chinese architect was guided by numerical symbolism during the design. Therefore, in Chinese temples and palaces there is always a clearly defined number of columns, windows, doorways, etc.

The main traditions of Chinese architecture were laid down in the 15th-10th centuries. BC e. The buildings were built on a small clay elevation, on which a frame of columns was installed. Roofs were predominantly gable with curved corners. Such a roof provided good ventilation and allowed rainwater to drain. A little later, they began to give the corners a curved shape not for practical, but for magical reasons. According to local residents, evil spirits move only in a straight line and therefore will not be able to get into a house with such a fancy roof. As a building material, the Chinese, as a rule, used wood.

The most common type of temple building in China is the pagoda - a multi-tiered, elongated building. The shape of these buildings was borrowed by the Chinese from neighboring India. Pagodas were erected by representatives of various faiths - Buddhists, Taoists, Hindus. The architecture of the pagoda symbolizes the endless repetition of the "death-rebirth" cycle, as well as the cosmological triad - Earth, Sky, World Axis.

Chinese architects, as a rule, decorated their buildings with zoomorphic figures - mainly dragons and birds. In addition, each image took its place depending on the direction of the world.

The most famous examples of Chinese architecture, in addition to the Great Wall of China, include:

• The Forbidden City is a palace complex in the center of Beijing;
• Mountain refuge from the summer heat - the summer residence of the Chinese emperors;
• the Potala Palace in the Tibet Autonomous Region;
• Temple of Heaven in Beijing;
• Pagoda Baochu.

Music

The musical culture of China began to take shape in the Yin era (1600-1027 BC). Then "music-yue" was especially popular - a complex that combines singing, playing music and dancing. Dancers, singers and musicians were invariably present at religious ceremonies and at social events in the imperial palace. The music of Ancient China was based on five basic notes, each of which corresponded to a certain element, heavenly body, number, etc.

Traditional Chinese musical instruments include:

• stone drums;
• Metal bells, which, unlike European bells, do not have a reed. The musician extracts sounds from such bells by striking them with a stick.
• Various wind instruments: for example, pipes and flutes. Also here is the sheng - a mouth organ, vaguely resembling a bagpipe.
• String instruments: harp and lute.

In the ancient Chinese tradition, the art of combining sounds introduces a person to heavenly harmony and allows him to communicate with deities and spirits.

Theater

The Chinese theater grew out of religious mysteries-carnivals. Carnival traditions existed not only in China, but throughout the world. During religious holidays, people put on costumes and masks, turning into animals, gods or demons. At carnivals, scenes depicting some kind of mythological scenes were often played out. Over time, small theatrical performances began to take place in palaces.

The first secular theaters in China began to appear during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). In special arenas, performances were played out with the participation of jesters, acrobats and magicians. However, full-fledged dramaturgy, which made it possible to play real theatrical performances, arose only in the 13th century. Researchers distinguish two varieties in traditional Chinese theatrical art:

• "Southern drama", including native Chinese cultural elements. It could have a very different structure, and the vocal parts during the production could be performed by all the characters in the play.
• "Northern drama", elements of which were borrowed from India and Persia. The plays created within the framework of this tradition always had a clear structure, and only the main characters could perform vocal parts during the performance.

Traditional Chinese theater is a synthetic art form that combines music, singing, dance and poetry.

Chinese culture is one of the oldest. The earliest cultural monuments found in China date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. On Chinese soil, one of the oldest ancestors of modern man, Sinanthropus, was formed, which existed about 400 thousand years ago. However, the civilization of Ancient China developed somewhat later than in. and India - only in 11 thousand BC. For a long time, it was of a non-irrigated type: only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese began to create irrigation systems. In addition, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Chinese civilization existed in isolation, in isolation from other ancient civilizations.

Like other cultures, chinese culture original and unique. Unlike the Indian one, it is more rational, pragmatic, addressed to the values ​​of real earthly life. Its second characteristic feature is its exceptional, huge and defining the role of traditions, customs in rituals and ceremonies. Hence the existing expression - "Chinese ceremonies."

Another feature of Chinese culture is related to religion and attitude to nature. As in other religions, in Chinese beliefs, primarily the forces of nature are deified. The supreme deity for the Chinese is Heaven, the main temple is the temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. They have a cult of the Sun and other luminaries. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped mountains and waters as holy places.

However, along with the deification of nature, Chinese culture, like no other, is characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. That is why landscape painting, lyrics and architecture appear in it first of all. One might even say that landscape view extends in China to all phenomena of life. In terms of the depth of aesthetic and poetic penetration into the life of nature, Chinese culture knows no equal.

The culture of Ancient China existed from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. and until 220 AD, when the Han empire collapsed. Its immediate predecessor was culture Yangshao (III millennium BC) - a culture of the late Neolithic. Already at this stage, the Chinese tamed animals, cultivated fields, built dwellings buried in the ground, mastered many crafts, and mastered pictographic writing. They revered the cults of the Sun, the Moon, mountains and other natural phenomena; they had a cult of ancestors. Pottery reached a high level during this period. Ceramic vessels - dishes, bowls, amphorae, jugs - are decorated with complex geometric (zigzags, rhombuses, triangles, circles) and zoomorphic patterns.

In the II millennium BC, along with the emergence of civilization, Chinese culture is undergoing profound changes. During this period, the disintegration of primitive society and the formation of the first early class states took place. One of them was the city-state of Shan, which was at the head of a large association. The remains of this city, discovered near Anyang, indicate that the cities were distinguished by a clear layout, surrounded by an adobe wall up to 6 m thick. columns, the bases of which were bronze disks. Stone sculptures of people and animals (bull, tiger), wall paintings in bright red, black and white colors were also found in this palace.

IN Shang era The Chinese invented the technique of bronze casting, created a system of hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the oldest written monuments - inscriptions on stones, bones of sacrificial animals, turtle shields. Religious and mythological ideas about the world become much more complicated. In particular, belief in the afterlife and the significance of the cult of ancestors are growing. Burials become more complex. The tomb of the Shan ruler consists of two underground chambers located one above the other, guarded by totem guards in the form of half-animals, half-humans. The cells contained utensils made of bronze, ceramics and jade, there were swords and axes, chariots and many other items necessary in the afterlife, so that it would not differ from earthly life.

Widespread in the Shang Dynasty bronze products also testify to the complication of the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Chinese. In particular, massive and heavy bronze vessels intended for sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of nature are decorated with a geometric ornament, which is only a background, against which patterns close to a bas-relief stand out, depicting a bull, a ram, a snake, a bird, a dragon and a mask of a fantastic beast taote . Handles, lids and corners of such vessels are made in the form of bull heads and torsos of dragons, and on the vessels themselves barbed teeth, fins and scales were depicted, which multiplied their magical meaning. Of all the totem animals, the main patrons of man are the tiger, the ram and the dragon.

In the 1st millennium BC in all areas of life in ancient China, the most significant shifts and changes take place. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Shang kingdom was conquered by the Western Zhou, as a result of which a large but fragile state formation arose Western Zhou, whose rulers adopted the title "van" from the Shants.

At this time, the development of the religious doctrine of the divine origin of "royalty" and the sacred right to power of the Chou vans, which was based on mythological ideas and proceeded from the Chou cult of the sky as the supreme deity, was being completed. Thus, for the first time, a single and harmonious mythological history of China was created, which included the cult of the first ancestors and tells about the golden age of the wise rulers of antiquity. The Zhou van was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was endowed with the magical power of de, which made him an intermediary between heaven and people, as well as the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, in the 8th century BC, Western Zhou is under the rule of Eastern Zhou, however, this new formation and many other states recognized the sacred priority of the Zhou ruler as the Son of Heaven over themselves. By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. on the territory of the Middle Kingdoms, the Huasya ethnic group is formed and an idea arises of its superiority over the peoples of the rest of the periphery - the "barbarians of the four countries of the world." The emerging cultural ethnocentrism further intensifies even more.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. China is experiencing rapid socio-economic growth. New centers of trade are emerging, the population of many cities is approaching half a million. The smelting of iron and the use of iron tools reach a high level. Crafts are successfully developing, hydraulic structures are being built. Irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture.

The so-called era deserves special mention. "Wrestling Realms"- "Zhanguo" (V-III century BC), when there was a struggle for hegemony between several strong states. In this struggle, a special role was played by kingdom of qin: after the name of this kingdom, all the ancient Chinese are called "qin". It also served as the basis for the name of China in European languages: Latin Sin, French Shin, German Chin, English China.

The era of the "Warring States" is considered a classic in the history of the culture of ancient China. It is also called the era of "the rivalry of a hundred schools." The country is really experiencing an unprecedented spiritual and intellectual upsurge. is accelerating development of scientific knowledge. In astronomy, the duration of the solar year is specified, a lunisolar calendar is created, a star catalog is compiled, lunar eclipses are calculated, and the concept of the movement of celestial bodies - "tao" - is formed.

Mathematics and other sciences are developing successfully. In particular, the Treatise on Mountains and Seas is published. The growth of scientific knowledge leads to a weakening of religious and mythological thinking, and even causes some religious skepticism. This is evidenced by the treatise "Questions to Heaven", where criticism of mythological ideas sounds.

The era of Zhangguo , during this period, all the main philosophical currents are formed - Confucianism, Taoism and legalism.

The founder - Kung Tzu (551-479 BC) - chose the topic of his reflections not the problem of being or knowledge, but the relationship between people. Observing around him the endless struggle of all against all, he saw the way to establish peace, order, social harmony in the revival of centuries-old traditions, customs and rituals. He believed that the main task of educating a person is to master the strict norms and rules of relations between equal and unequal, older and younger, higher and lower, father and children.

He was a resolute opponent of any innovations and reforms. In his opinion, it is the past, the forgotten ancient wisdom that holds the keys to solving the problems of the present. Mastering the experience of the past and traditions should help a person to correctly understand his place in life and understand the simple truth: "The ruler must be the ruler, the father must be the father, the son must be the son." Confucius considered the society-state as a large family, where the main bearer of the norms and rules of behavior is a humane ruler.

The teachings created by Confucius and his followers go beyond philosophy and religion and form the basis of the entire way of life. In it you can find the answer to the question about the meaning of life, and how to behave in a particular situation. Confucianism will play a decisive role in the creation of the ancient Chinese education system, where a clear preference was given to the humanities. Thanks to this system, a fairly wide class of educated officials was formed in Chinese society, which constituted a privileged elite and resembled the priestly caste in India in their social role. Confucianism contributed to the strengthening of Chinese cultural ethnocentrism.

Approximately simultaneously with Confucianism, another influential religious and philosophical trend arose in China - Taoism, the founder of which is considered the legendary Lao Tzu. In teaching, the main attention is paid to the laws that operate in nature. Taoism is based on the idea of ​​the Tao way, or the doctrine of "the way of nature”, about the eternal variability of the world. Jlao-Tzu formulates his credo as follows: “Man follows the laws of Heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao. and the Tao follows itself.”

Like Confucianism, Taoism is not limited to philosophy and religion, but constitutes a special way of life. He borrowed a lot from Buddhism and yoga, in particular the system of physical and breathing exercises. In this regard, the ultimate goal for its adherents is to achieve immortality. Taoism develops the theory of passivity and non-action, encourages to refuse active participation in life, to escape from the hustle and bustle of everyday life, to contemplation. The principle of non-action also applies to the ruler: "The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists."

The circle of interests of Taoism included not only natural science, but also the so-called occult sciences, in particular alchemy. The experiments of Chinese alchemists eventually led to the invention of gunpowder. Also occupied a special place geomancy - the science of the connection between space and the earth's relief. Here, the knowledge and recommendations of Chinese magicians were not only of great importance for farmers and architects, but also led to the invention of the compass. Astrology also played an important role, especially in compiling horoscopes for all occasions.

Many of the principles of Taoism formed the philosophical basis of the well-known Chinese martial arts. including u-shu. It was Taoism that played a key role in the aestheticization and poeticization of nature, which became one of the main principles of man's relationship to nature in Chinese culture.

Another influential philosophical trend was legalism, which initially opposed Confucianism, but subsequently almost completely disappeared into it. Unlike Confucianism legalism in building a strong state, he relied not on morality and tradition, but on strict and harsh laws, believing that politics is incompatible with morality.

For legalists, the main ways of managing a person, society and the state were coercion, the strictest discipline, diligence and obedience, cruel punishments, personal responsibility and merit. The Legists developed the concept of a despotic state, which, with Confucian amendments, was implemented in ancient China and, with minor changes, lasted until the beginning of the 20th century.

Artistic culture of ancient China

The Warring States era is also characterized by significant events in the field of artistic culture. IN During this period, the range of topics covered by art expanded significantly. The first treatise on architecture"Jouli". which establishes strict principles for a clear layout of the city, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of the main streets and roads.

Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - the "Book of Songs" - "Shijing" (X1-VI centuries BC), which included more than 300 neses and verses, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius, is being completed.

During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC) created, who was both a lyricist and a tragic poet. The sources of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by exquisite form and deep content. Once in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode "Sorrow of the Exile", which became a poetic confession of an old man. The second great poet was Sup Yu (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer of female beauty and love.

The culture of ancient China reaches its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC. up to 111 c. AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.

The Minister of the Qin Kingdom, Shang Yang, based on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which uniform legislation and legal proceedings were established; abolished hereditary titles and privileges; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out by methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the Qin kingdom, relying on the strongest army, was able to subjugate all the other "fighting kingdoms", becoming a powerful and centralized power. In 221 BC The Qin ruler adopted the new title "Huangdi" - "Emperor of Qin". In 206 BC Qin dynasty gives way to the new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.

During the Han era The Chinese empire is becoming one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which accounted for 1/5 of the world's population. The modern Chinese call themselves Han Chinese.

During this period, China is experiencing a real socio-economic boom. The country is covered with a network of roads that connected the centers of the provinces with the capital. Numerous channels are being built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchange.

Agriculture uses the most advanced cultivation technologies using fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighbors from the country tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century BC. silk production volumes reach enormous proportions. It becomes the main commodity of Chinese export.

Much the same can be said about lacquer production. The lacquer created by the Chinese knew no equal. It was used to cover weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a beautiful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both within the country and abroad.

The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper(II-I centuries BC), which caused a real upheaval in the whole culture. Of no less importance was also the hieroglyphic writing brought to perfection, which was adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.

In the artistic crafts of this period, features of mature and high perfection are affirmed, which become the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels have more streamlined and simple forms, they lose their magical meaning. The ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.

In the Qin-Han era, China establishes broad and intensive ties with other states. played a special role in this Great Silk Road 7 thousand km long, along which trade caravans went to Central Asia, India, Iran and the Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramics and other products to the international market.

During the Han period favorable conditions for development of science. Chinese scientists, as it were, sum up, systematize the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly move on. IN mathematics the treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” is created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science, negative numbers are spoken of and rules for operations on them are given.

IN astrology the map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made of the observation of sunspots, the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicine a catalog of medical books is compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology is being written. Added to this is the invention of the world's first seismograph.

No less successfully developed humanitarian sciences. In particular, philology and poetics arose, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the "father" of Chinese history - creates the fundamental work "Historical Notes" (130 volumes), which not only outlines almost the entire ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples.

Artistic culture is experiencing an unprecedented upsurge. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecture that persist to this day. Urban planning reaches a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chang-an - are distinguished by a clear layout and the beauty of the streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors or more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. The most famous architectural monument of ancient China was The great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located near Beijing, where it has a width of 5-8 m and a height of up to 10 m. The entire length of the wall with all branches is more than 6 thousand km.

No less amazing monument is the burial complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a giant underground palace. The rooms of this palace are filled with rows of life-size figures of ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. All this clay army has three thousand foot soldiers and horsemen.

reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong, discovered in the funerary temple of the noble Wu family, as well as the stone reliefs of their tombs in Sichuan. The first ones depict plots on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. On the second, there are scenes from folk life - harvesting, hunting, hard work in salt mines.

In the Han period appears easel painting, as evidenced by the found part of the painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. The invention of the hair brush and ink was of great importance for the development of painting and fine arts.

The Han era was the heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. who created at his court a large library and a music chamber, where folk songs were collected and processed, new musical works were created.

The most prominent poet of the Han era was Sima Xiangru (179-118 BC). He sang of the boundless expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the “great man” himself - Emperor Wudi. The most famous works are the ode "Beauty" and the song "Fishing Rod", created in imitation of folk lyric songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry, the first major works of fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fantasy were created in the Han period.

Chinese culture will reach its highest rise and flourishing later, in the middle of the century, however, all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were already laid in the ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Zhangguo-Qin-Han era had about the same significance for China and all of East Asia as the Greco-Roman culture for Western Europe.

The culture of China is one of the most ancient and original in the world.

culture

The culture of China influenced the development of the cultures of neighboring peoples who inhabited the territories of present-day Mongolia, Tibet, Indochina, Korea and Japan. China is home to one of the most ancient civilizations in the world, and perhaps the only one where the physical type of the population has not changed for thousands of years. The artistic culture of China has 5,000 years.

Chinese philosophy

Within the framework of this culture, such significant phenomena on a global scale as Confucianism and Taoism were created.

Confucius statue in Beijing
Confucianism- the ethical and philosophical doctrine developed by Confucius (551-479 BC) and included in the religious complex of China, Korea, Japan and some other countries. Confucianism is sometimes seen as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion. The central problems of Confucianism are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should have, etc.
Taoism- the doctrine of the Tao or "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching, including elements of religion and philosophy. Its founder was Lao Zi (real name Li Er (Li Boyang, Lao Dan), an ancient Chinese philosopher.

According to legend, he was born in 604 BC. At the center of the doctrine of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is ambiguous, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created it, but everything comes from it, in order to then, having completed the circuit, return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. In Taoism, two opposite principles interact: yin and yang, which flow into one another and cannot exist without each other. Yin - negative, passive, feminine; yang - positive, active, masculine.

Taoist temple in Wuhan
Each person, in order to become happy, must embark on this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the human microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe-macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit separates from the person and dissolves into the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of the Tao.

Moism - d ancient Chinese philosophical school, the program direction of which was the improvement of society through knowledge. The school of philosophy was founded by the ancient Chinese thinker Mo Tzu. After his death, Mohism split into three currents.

In the V-III centuries. BC e. Moism was a serious competitor to Confucianism as the dominant ideology of China. Mo Tzu considered Confucian rites and ceremonies a senseless waste of public funds and called for personal submission to the will of heaven. Confucius made a distinction between love for the family and parents and love for other neighbors, and Mo Tzu called for loving everyone equally without distinction.

Energy "chi"

Chinese philosophical concept of cosmic qi, or energy (force) that pervades the universe. The Chinese believe that qi gave rise to the cosmos and the Earth and two principles: the “negative” and “positive” principles of yin and yang, which in turn gave rise to everything else (“the darkness of things”). Every physical change that occurs in the world is considered by the Chinese to be the result of qi.

Feng Shui

Feng Shui(literally "wind and water"), or geomancy - the Taoist practice of the symbolic exploration of space. It is believed that with the help of Feng Shui, you can choose the "best" place for building a house or burial, the "correct" breakdown of the site; a feng shui specialist can predict events.

The purpose of feng shui is to find favorable flows of qi energy and use them for the benefit of a person.

Building in Hong Kong with feng shui applied in architecture

Calligraphy

Traditional and simplified hieroglyphs
Calligraphy is considered an art form in China and is equated with painting and poetry as a method of self-expression.

Chinese porcelain

The history of the development of porcelain in China has a millennium. The exact date of occurrence is unknown. Some attribute the origin of porcelain in China to the Han Dynasty (206-221 AD).
Ceramics has been known in China since ancient times, but only in the Bronze Age (1500-400 BC) did the Chinese learn how to obtain especially strong adhesives and make furnaces for high-temperature firing. This allowed them to make more durable, glazed earthenware. Real porcelain appeared only in the Sui era. It is smooth and polished, it sounds when struck on a porcelain product. Thin porcelain appears transparent.

the great Wall of China

It stretches for 8851.8 km across the whole of Northern China. 6260 km of the walls are made of brickwork, 2232.5 km of natural rock mass. About 360 km are moats filled with water.
The construction of the wall began in the IV-III centuries. BC e., when individual Chinese states created defensive structures from the raids of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
After the unification of China under the rule of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. e. Emperor Shi Huangdi ordered to connect a number of defensive lines into a single wall. At present, in the western part, the Great Wall retains its original form, in the eastern part it is badly destroyed and in some places is only an earthen rampart.
The wall has a width at the base of about 9 m and at the top about 6 m, the height of the wall is 10 m. Approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers on it, and on the outside there are high defensive battlements with loopholes. The upper plane of the wall is paved with slabs and used to be a wide protected road along which military units and carts could move. Currently, some sections of this plane are asphalted and used as roads. The wall passes through mountainous places, repeating the curves of the relief and organically blending into the surrounding landscape.

Stone carving crafts of China

This is a kind of jewelry in China, associated with the processing of ornamental stones of various origins and colors. As raw materials, Chinese artisans used corals, marble, jadeite, soapstone (soapstone), pink quartzite (transparent varieties), and jade.

Chinese jade product depicting domestic scenes and landscape

Music

Chinese music has a specific sound. This is explained by the fact that the instruments do not have 7 usual notes, but 5 or 13. Chinese instruments are divided into 4 types: percussion, wind, string and bow. The most common tool is banhu. It is a five-stringed instrument played with a bow the length of a human hand. The sound of a banhu can be compared to a violin.

Among plucked-hammer instruments, guzheng and yangqin (the zither family) are popular. They are played with special hammers. There is a second way: with the help of tweezers with your fingers.

Architecture

The traditional architecture of China has a number of unique features, and the architectural decoration contributes to the recognition of Chinese buildings around the world.

Small Wild Goose Pagoda
Most buildings in ancient China were built of wood. First of all, wooden poles were driven into the ground, which were connected at the top with beams. Then the roof was erected, then covered with tiles. The openings between the pillars were filled with bricks, clay, bamboo or other material, i.e. the walls did not carry the function of the supporting structure. The tree has a certain flexibility and elasticity, therefore, compared to stone, wooden structures are more resistant to earthquakes.

Peking Opera ("Opera of the East")

It originated at the end of the 18th century and combines music, vocal performances, pantomime, dance and acrobatics. Peking Opera embodied the specifics of the ancient Chinese theater.

Kung Fu

Chinese martial arts.

Chinese inventions

It is difficult even to simply list everything that was invented in China. The four great inventions of ancient China: paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. It was these discoveries that contributed to the fact that many areas of culture and arts became the property of the masses. The inventions of ancient China made long-distance travel possible, which made it possible to discover new lands.

Printed books, porcelain, silk, mirrors, umbrellas and kites, scissors, bell, watermill, saddle, cannon, paper money, drum, oar, fork, dagger-axe (ge), varnish, noodles, steamer, fermented drink, hand crossbow, cast iron bomb, borehole, cupola, fan, vertical stern rudder, wind generator, winnower, business card, suspension bridge on steel chains, high-alcohol beer, gas cylinder, board game go, two-jet flamethrower ...

Chinese flamethrower
... a junk, a blast furnace, dominoes, a toothbrush, playing cards, coke as fuel, a stone arched bridge with open bridges, a fishing reel, a gimbals...

gimbal suspension
... ink, puppet theater, sea and land mines, multi-stage rocket, fire lance, plow blade, chopsticks...

Food sticks
... relief map, belt drive, restaurant menu, horse harness, whistle, seismometer...
Reconstruction of Zhang Heng's seismometer using a pendulum sensitive to earth shocks. Placed in 133 in Luoyang, it recorded earthquakes 400-500 km away
... a seed drill, a steelmaking process, a stirrup, a wheelbarrow, toilet paper, fireworks, chemical weapons, a yoke, a chain drive, cast iron, a sluice... And that's not all! For the first time, it was in China that they began to use salt for food, cultivate soybeans, tea, diagnose and treat diabetes, and apply therapeutic fasting. The Chinese developed porcelain manufacturing technology a thousand years before the Europeans. The country invented acupuncture, the traditional Chinese medical practice of inserting needles into specific points on the body for healing and pain relief.
Let's talk about the history of one invention - paper.

the invention of paper

Fragments of hemp wrapping paper dated to the reign of Wu-di (141-87 BC)
The earliest known piece of paper with an inscription on it was discovered in the ruins of the Chinese tower Tsakhartai in Alashani, where the Han Dynasty army left their positions in 110 AD. e. after the Xiongnu attack. In the III century. paper became widely used for writing, replacing the more expensive strips of bamboo rolled into scrolls, scrolls and strips of silk, and wooden tablets. In the papermaking process developed in 105 by Cai Lun, a boiling mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, old fabrics, and old fishing nets is pulped, pounded to a paste, and then mixed with water. A reed sieve in a wooden frame is lowered into the mixture, pulled out and shaken. The resulting sheets of paper are dried and then bleached under the influence of sunlight.
Literary heritage of China huge, but unfortunately its difficult-to-translate content makes much of it inaccessible to Western readers.

Modern culture of China

When people talk about the culture of China, they mean mainly ancient China. Little is written about the modern culture of this country, more often the story comes down to the peculiarities of life, customs and cuisine.

The modern architecture of China strictly adheres to the traditions that have developed throughout the entire historical development. This also applies to the architectural appearance of a modern Chinese city. However, gradually, from the middle of the 19th century, Chinese architecture began to acquire other features, European ones.
The economic development of China has also changed the face of the country: foreign banks and commercial organizations, entertainment and service facilities, embassies and hotels appeared on the streets of cities. Such buildings required clarity of forms and the use of modern materials, so the traditions of Chinese architecture were not always acceptable for new buildings. Gradually, the unique buildings of ancient Chinese architecture fade into the background.

But Chinese architects are trying to skillfully combine European style with Chinese culture, creating unique buildings.
The Chinese carefully preserve their unique culture. For example, the government did not allow the opera house to be taller than the buildings built in the Forbidden City. But the Chinese do not discard innovations, for example, they build a subway. And in general, the culture of modern China is constantly enriched with new trends in all areas of culture.

contemporary painting

In the field of genre painting, among the many artists, I would like to single out creativity Li Zijian (b. 1954).

The artist graduated from the Painting Department of the Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts in 1982 and moved to Los Angeles in 1988. Despite the fact that he has been living in the United States for about 22 years, the main theme of his paintings is the life of his native China, local customs, people and life.

“The culture of my native Hunan has had a profound effect on me. Simple and dilapidated buildings, nature, rivers and people in my hometown are all an endless source of inspiration for my work,” says Li Zijian. Looking at the paintings of the artist, it is impossible to resist a kind smile. He is touched by his ability to see the important in the most ordinary, love for people and the world around him.

And here is a modern Chinese watercolor - artist Zhao Kailin.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in China

There are 41 items on the UNESCO World Heritage List in China.
29 objects are included in the list according to cultural criteria, 8 objects - according to natural, 4 - according to mixed criteria.
16 objects (Mount Taishan, the Great Wall of China, the palaces of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang, the Mogao caves, the tomb of the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, the complex of ancient buildings in the Wudangshan mountains, the temple and tomb of Confucius and the estate of the Kong family in the city of Qufu, historical the Potala Palace Ensemble in Lhasa, the Classical Gardens in Suzhou, the Summer Palace and the Imperial Park in Beijing, the Temple of Heaven: the imperial sacrificial altar in Beijing, the rock carvings in Dazu, the metropolitan cities and Longmen cave temples, the tombs of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, cave Yungang temples, the tombs of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo) are recognized as masterpieces of human creative genius.
10 sites (Taishan and Huangshan Mountains, Jiuzhaigou, Huanglong and Wulingyuan Landscape Landmark Areas, Wuyishan Mountains, Three Parallel Rivers National Park (Yunnan Province), South China Karst deposits, Sanqingshan Mountain National Park, Danxia) are recognized as natural phenomena or spaces of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance.
Naturally, it is impossible to talk about all the objects within the framework of one article. Interested readers may refer to other sources. We will only talk about some of them.

Mount Taishan

A mountain with a height of 1545 m in the Chinese province of Shandong. Mount Taishan has great cultural and historical significance and is one of the five sacred mountains of Taoism. It was considered the dwelling place of Taoist saints and immortals. In China, Mount Taishan is associated with sunrise, birth, renewal. The temple on top of the mountain has been the goal of numerous pilgrims for 3000 years. Now you can climb the mountain by lift.

Jiuzhaigou National Park ("Valley of the Nine Villages")

A nature reserve in northern Sichuan province in central China. It is known for its multi-level waterfalls and colored lakes.

Wudangshan

Small mountain range in Hubei province. The Wudangshan Mountains are famous for their Taoist monasteries and temples, there was a Taoist university that studied medicine, pharmacology, nutrition systems, meditation and martial arts. Even during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), the mountain began to receive special attention from the emperor. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the first temple was opened here - the Temple of the Five Dragons.
In the XV century. Emperor Yongle summoned 300,000 soldiers and equipped the mountain, building numerous temple complexes. At that time, 9 temples, 9 monasteries, 36 sketes and 72 shrines, many gazebos, bridges and multi-tiered towers were built, forming 33 architectural ensembles. Construction in the mountains lasted 12 years from 1412.

Pingyao ancient city

Central street of the city

This is the only medieval city in China that has completely preserved its historical architectural appearance.

Sky Temple

Temple and monastery complex in central Beijing, including the only round-shaped temple in the city - the Harvest Temple (this is the main temple of the complex, often called the Temple of Heaven). The area of ​​the complex is 267 hectares.
The complex was built in 1420 during the reign of the Ming Dynasty. It was originally called the Temple of Heaven and Earth, but after the construction of a separate Temple of the Earth in 1530, it began to perform the function of worshiping Heaven.

Three parallel rivers

A national park located in the Sino-Tibetan Mountains in the northwest of Yunnan Province.
On the territory of the park there are the upper reaches of the three largest rivers in Asia: the Yangtze, the Mekong and the Salween, which flow in gorges up to 3,000 m deep. In this section, the rivers flow almost parallel from north to south. After turning the Yangtze to the north, it flows through the famous Leaping Tiger Gorge.
The Three Parallel Rivers are the richest region in terms of biodiversity in China and the entire temperate zone of the Earth. Due to the complex and diverse climate, many species of plants and animals live in the “Three Rivers” region: over 6,000 species (about 20%) of all rare and valuable plants of China grow in it. Also, more than 25% of all species of the PRC fauna live here.

Tulou

In Chinese architecture, a residential complex of a fortress type, common in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, is square or round in shape. The first tulou were built by representatives of the Hakka people, who, during internecine wars, migrated from the north to the southern regions of China during the Tang dynasty. Faced with a hostile attitude towards them from the local population, the migrants were forced to build closed residential buildings of the fortress type.
Round tulou have a diameter of 50-90 m, the thickness of the outer walls is from 1 to 2.5 m, they have narrow loopholes on the upper tiers and a minimum number of powerful entrance gates. Inside the fortress there were living quarters, a well, and large food supplies were kept.

Other sights of China

Victoria Peak (Hong Kong)

The highest point of Hong Kong Island. The mountain got its name in honor of Queen Victoria. Another name is Mount Austin. Victoria Peak is a hill with several peaks (the highest height is 554 m above sea level). On the mountain there are buildings, parks, cafes, observation platforms, popular among tourists, as they offer a picturesque view of Hong Kong.
You can get to the top on foot, by road, by funicular.

Beijing National Stadium

It is also called "Bird's Nest". This is a multifunctional sports complex, created for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing. In this stadium, in addition to holding sports, the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games took place. The construction of the stadium began in December 2003 and was completed in March 2008. Its capacity is 91,000 people.

Hong Kong Disneyland

Opened in 2005. During the construction of the park, Disney Corporation tried to take into account the peculiarities of Chinese culture, customs and traditions, including the observance of Feng Shui rules.
The territory of Disneyland is divided into four thematic parts: Main Street USA, Adventure World, Fantastic World and Future World.
Main Street USA is made in the architectural style of the Wild West. Here you can see vintage cars, openwork signs and villas, inside of which there are shops and restaurants.

In the World of Adventures, a river flows around the huge tree where Tarzan lives, along which you can take a short cruise. During the trip there are hippos, geysers, labyrinth caves.
Favorite cartoon characters live in the Fantastic World. There is also a 3D cinema where you can watch 3D movies.
Future World has rollercoasters and go-karts.

shanghai museum

Museum of Ancient Chinese Art. Founded in 1952. The museum has collected about 120 thousand items. The most valuable are the collections of bronzes, ceramics, calligraphy, furniture, jade figurines, ancient coins, paintings, prints and sculptures. 11 galleries and 3 special exhibition halls are constantly operating.

Statuette of a camel from the collections of the museum
The museum houses items of national importance, including one of three existing examples of "transparent" bronze mirrors from the Han Dynasty.