Classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism examples. Literary trends (theoretical material)

Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Painting

Nicholas Poussin. "Dance to the Music of Time" (1636).

Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784).

Poussin's coldly rational normativism evoked the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private clients favored variations of the Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor (“Turkish baths”); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

Sculpture

Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche(1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated toward the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zebes' Eagle" (1817).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

Architecture

An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).

Charles Cameron. The project of decoration in the Adam's style of the green dining room of the Catherine Palace.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

A fragment of the ideal city of Arc-et-Senan (architect Ledoux).

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

Valhalla - a repetition of the Athenian Parthenon by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze.

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

Artists:

Romanticism

Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century.

Origin. Axiology

Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological ground was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism, "storming"), the Great French Revolution, German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that instead of science and reason (the highest cultural instance for the Enlightenment) puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a "paradigm" for all types of cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to oppose the burgher, "philistine" world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, the atomization of society, naive faith in linear progress - a new system of values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions , a call for the emancipation of the personal forces of a person, following nature, a myth, a symbol, the desire for synthesis and the discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, rather quickly, the axiology of romanticism goes beyond art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.

Paradoxes of Romanticism

Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with the attraction to the impersonal, elemental, collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into “serious” life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This original duality of romanticism is reflected in his theory of irony, which elevates to the principle the non-coincidence of conditional aspirations and values ​​with the unconditional absolute as the goal. The main features of the romantic style include the playful element, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything peculiar and non-standard (moreover, the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was turned over); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as an ideal of romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; striving for the ultimate expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for an image over a concept, aspirations for possession, dynamics for statics; experiments in synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of everyday life, morality, politics.

Poetry as a Philosopher's Stone

In a polemic with the Enlightenment, romanticism formulates a program of rethinking and reforming philosophy in favor of artistic intuition, in which at first it is very close to the early stage of German classical philosophy (cf. the theses of the "First Program of the System of German Idealism" - a sketch belonging to Schelling or Hegel: "The highest act of reason is an aesthetic act Poetry becomes the mentor of humanity; there will be no more philosophy We must create a new mythology, this mythology must be the mythology of the mind. Philosophy for Novalis and F. Schlegel - the main theorists of German romanticism - is a kind of intellectual magic, with the help of which a genius, mediating nature and spirit, creates an organic whole from disparate phenomena. However, the absolute of romance restored in this way is interpreted not as an unambiguous unitary system, but as a constantly self-reproducing process of creativity, in which the unity of chaos and cosmos is each time achieved by an unpredictably new formula. The emphasis on the playful unity of opposites in the absolute and the inalienability of the subject from the picture of the universe built by him makes the Romantics co-authors of the dialectical method created by German transcendentalism. Romantic “irony” with its method of “turning inside out” any positivity and the principle of denying the claims of any finite phenomenon to universal significance can also be considered a variety of dialectics. Romanticism’s preference for fragmentation and “shortness” as ways of philosophizing follows from the same attitude, which ultimately (along with criticism of the autonomy of reason) led to the demarcation of romanticism from German classical philosophy and allowed Hegel to define romanticism as the self-affirmation of subjectivity: “the true content of the romantic is the absolute inner life, and in the corresponding form - spiritual subjectivity, comprehending its independence and freedom.

A new look at the inner world

The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, which was obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with the person’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of the personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by the symbols of romantic literature (the double, the shadow, the automaton, the doll, and, finally, the famous Frankenstein, created by M. Shelley's fantasy).

Understanding past eras

In search of cultural allies, romantic thought turns to antiquity and gives its anti-classical interpretation as an era of tragic beauty, sacrificial heroism and magical comprehension of nature, the era of Orpheus and Dionysus. In this respect, romanticism immediately preceded the revolution in the understanding of the Hellenic spirit carried out by Nietzsche. The Middle Ages could also be seen as a congenial, "romantic" culture par excellence (Novalis), but in general the Christian era (including modernity) was understood as a tragic split between the ideal and reality. , the inability to harmoniously reconcile with the finite world of this world. The romantic experience of evil as an inescapable universal force is closely connected with this intuition: on the one hand, romanticism saw here the depth of the problem, from which the Enlightenment, as a rule, simply turned away, on the other hand, romanticism, with its poetization of everything that exists, partially loses the ethical immunity of the Enlightenment against evil. The latter explains the ambiguous role of romanticism in the birth of the totalitarian mythology of the 20th century.

Impact on science

Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a microcosm and introduced into it the idea of ​​similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the development of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). The humanities also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.

Romanticism and religion

In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speech on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of "dependence on the infinite." It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general trend of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis "Christianity, or Europe", 1799, programmatic for this trend).

Stages

The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tiek, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in the bosom of which the main philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; the emergence after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools of literary romanticism; publication of the book by J. de Stael "On Germany" (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism begins; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in the 1820s-30s; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their merging with both conservative and radical currents of "anti-burgher" European thought.

Romantic philosophers

The philosophical influence of romanticism is noticeable primarily in such an intellectual trend as the "philosophy of life." The works of Schopenhauer, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard, Carlyle, Wagner the theorist, Nietzsche can be considered a peculiar offshoot of romanticism. The historiosophy of Baader, the constructions of the “wise men” and Slavophiles in Russia, the philosophical and political conservatism of J. de Maistre and Bonald in France were also fed by the sentiments and intuitions of romanticism. Neo-romantic in nature was the philosophizing of the symbolists con. 19- beg. 20th century Close to romanticism is the interpretation of freedom and creativity in existentialism. The most important representatives of romanticism in art In the visual arts, romanticism was most clearly manifested in painting and drawing, less clearly in sculpture and architecture (for example, false Gothic). Most of the national schools of romanticism in the visual arts developed in the struggle against official academic classicism. Romanticism in music developed in the 1920s. 19th century influenced by the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (turning to synthetic genres, primarily to opera and song, to instrumental miniatures and musical programming). The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffman, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mitskevich, E. Poe, G. Melville, M. Yu. Lermontov, V. F. Odoevsky; in music - F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin; in the fine arts - the painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner, in Russia - O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky. I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. S. Shchepkin, K. S. Stanislavsky

Literary direction- this is an ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which received a program justification. The belonging of writers to one direction is determined by the unity of cultural tradition, the relative similarity of the worldview and ways of reproducing reality. In the history of Russian literature, the most significant trends were classicism, romanticism and realism.

The literary direction is different from the current. Writers can belong to one direction,

Different in ideological views and aesthetic features of creativity, that is, in one literary direction there can be different currents. The trend presupposes a commonality of ethical and social ideals, artistic principles and techniques.

So, in Russian classicism, the “Sumarokovsky” and “Lomonosov” currents stand out.

Classicism- a literary movement that originated in the 17th century. but France in the conditions of the formation of an absolutist state. Classical writers chose ancient art as a role model, but interpreted it in their own way. Classicism is based on

The principle of rationalism (racio). Everything must obey reason both in the state and in private life, and egoistic feelings, passions, it is by reason that they must be introduced into the framework of civic and moral duty.

The theoretician of classicism was the French poet Nicolas Boileau, who outlined the program of the direction in the book “Poetic Art”. In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established:

– The main conflict of the works is the struggle between selfish feeling and civic duty, or between passion and reason. At the same time, duty and reason always win.

- In accordance with their attitude to public duty, the actors were divided into positive and negative. Only one quality was imprinted in the characters, one dominant feature (cowardice or courage, deceit or nobility, etc.), that is, the characters were one-linear.

– A strict hierarchy of genres was established in literature. All of them were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy). Outstanding events were depicted in high genres, the heroes were monarchs, statesmen, generals.

They glorified deeds for the benefit of the state and the monarchy. The language in the works of high genres had to be solemn, majestic.

In the low genres, the life of people of the middle classes was depicted, everyday phenomena and individual traits of a person were ridiculed. The language of fables, comedies was close to colloquial.

Dramatic works in the aesthetics of classicism were subject to the requirement of three unities: time, place and action. The unity of time and place meant that the action in the play should take no more than a day and take place in one place. The unity of action prescribed a plot line, not complicated by side episodes.

In France, the leading writers of classicism were the playwrights P. Corneille and J. Racine (in the genre of tragedy), Moliere (comedy), J. Lafontaine (fable).

In Russia, classicism developed from the 18th century. Although Russian classicism had much in common with Western European, in particular with French, national specificity was clearly manifested in literature. If Western European classicism turned to ancient subjects, then Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism, a critical note sounded distinctly, the denunciation of vices was sharper, the interest in the folk language and in general in folk art was more pronounced.

Representatives of classicism in Russian literature are A. D. Kantemir, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin.

Romanticism is an ambiguous phenomenon. It develops in the literatures of Europe and Russia from the end of the 18th century to the first third of the 19th century. Romanticism had its own peculiarities in every country. High landmarks of romanticism were in England - J.

G. Byron, in France - V. Hugo, in Germany - E. T. A. Hoffmann and G. Heine, in Poland and Belarus - A. Mickiewicz.

In romanticism, the subjective position of the writer in relation to reality, which is expressed not so much in recreating as in recreating it, is of dominant importance. Writers of romanticism were united by some common features:

– Dissatisfaction with reality, discord with it, disappointment led to the creation of a picture of the world that corresponded to the ideals of the writer. All romantic writers depart from reality. Some go to the world of vague dreams, the mystical past, the other world (the so-called passive romanticism, or, more precisely, religious-mystical).

Others dreamed of the future, called for the struggle for the reorganization of society, for personal freedom (active or civic romanticism).

– The heroes of romantic poetry are unusual, exceptional personalities. These are either lonely rebels disappointed in life, leaving society, or strong and courageous natures performing heroic deeds, ready for self-sacrifice for the sake of others.

- Exceptional characters act in exceptional circumstances, in which they show all their extraordinary qualities, and the heroes act outside of social and living conditions. The action can take place in exotic countries, in the other world.

- In romantic works, the lyrical beginning prevails. Their tone is emotional, upbeat, pretentious.

In Russia, religious and moralistic romanticism is represented by the works of V. A. Zhukovsky, civil - by K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbeker. A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, early M. Gorky paid tribute to romanticism.

Realism- a literary direction in which the surrounding reality is depicted specifically historically, in the variety of its contradictions, and "typical characters act in typical circumstances."

Literature is understood by realist writers as a textbook of life. Therefore, they strive to comprehend life in all its contradictions, and a person - in the psychological, social and other aspects of his personality.

Features common to realism:

- Historic thinking.

– The focus is on the regularities that operate in life, due to cause-and-effect relationships.

- Loyalty to reality becomes the leading criterion of artistry in realism.

- A person is depicted in interaction with the environment in authentic life circumstances. Realism shows the influence of the social environment on the spiritual world of a person, the formation of his character.

- Characters and circumstances interact with each other: the character is not only conditioned (determined) by circumstances, but also acts on them (changes, opposes).

– Deep conflicts are presented in the works of realism, life is given in dramatic clashes. Reality is given in development. Realism depicts not only the already established forms of social relations and types of characters, but also reveals emerging, forming a trend.

- The nature and type of realism depends on the socio-historical situation - in different eras it manifests itself in different ways.

In the second third of the XIX century. the critical attitude of writers to the surrounding reality has intensified - both to the environment, society, and to man. Critical understanding of life, aimed at denying its individual aspects, gave reason to call the realism of the XIX century. critical.

The greatest Russian realists were L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, and A. P. Chekhov.

The depiction of the surrounding reality, human characters from the point of view of the progressiveness of the socialist ideal created the basis of socialist realism. M. Gorky's novel "Mother" is considered the first work of socialist realism in Russian literature. A. Fadeev, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, A. Tvardovsky worked in the spirit of socialist realism.

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10. A literary trend is an ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which has received a program justification. The belonging of writers to one direction is determined by the unity of cultural tradition, the relative similarity of the worldview and ways of reproducing reality. In the history of Russian literature, the most significant trends were classicism, romanticism and realism. The literary direction is different from the current. Writers may belong to the same direction, different [...] ...
11. CLASSICISM is an artistic method and trend in European and Russian literature of the 17th-18th centuries. In Russia, it can be attributed to the work of such writers as Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Krylov. In Russia, classicism was mainly of an educational nature and was based on the cult of Reason; the classicists advocated education and enlightenment, the development of science and culture. The classicism method was reduced to a fairly [...] ...
12. In life there is always a place for exploits. M. Gorky The formation and development of realism in Russian literature was undoubtedly influenced by currents emerging in the general mainstream of European literature. However, Russian realism differs significantly from French, English, German, both in the time of its emergence, and in the pace of development, and in structure, and in its significance in national public life. […]...
13. All the early work of M. Gorky is aimed at finding a positive hero, on the one hand, and at a merciless denunciation of the existing reality, on the other. Therefore, in the work of the young writer, two artistic methods are peculiarly intertwined - romanticism and realism. This is confirmed by M. Gorky himself in the article “On how I learned to write”: “So, to the question: why did I become [...] ...
14. Classicism (from Latin Classicus - “exemplary”) - intensely dramatic and at the same time harmoniously majestic style - finally established itself in the second half of the 17th century. Classicism, with its striving for civil themes, retains a love for orderliness, clarity of language, and is faithful to tragedy, epic poem, and ode. The tragedies of Racine, the comedies of Moliere, the fables of La Fontaine, Boileau's reflections on verbal art can be compared with [...] ...
15. The description of events in novels and other works of Lermontov became the subject of in-depth research during the lifetime of the poet. Confirmation of this is two large articles by V. G. Belinsky (1840-1841), dedicated to the novel “A Hero of Our Time” and Lermontov’s lyrics. Many scientists have studied Lermontov's work, hundreds of articles and books are devoted to him. Interestingly, since Belinsky noted that […]
16. This is a sad thought about our time. VG Belinsky "A Hero of Our Time" is connected by many threads with romanticism, which has not yet lost its significance for the author of "The Demon" and "Mtsyri". Primary attention to the inner world of a person, an analytical way of revealing it, psychological introspection of the hero, some mystery of his past, contrast of characters, sharpness of the plot, violation of the chronological sequence in the composition, […]
17. Literary trends and currents Classicism Artistic style and trend in European literature and art XVII - early. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, advancing on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature”, which implies strict adherence to the unshakable rules learned […]...
18. Realism is a literary and artistic direction, which was finally formed around the middle of the nineteenth century. and developed the principles of analytical comprehension of reality and its vitally reliable depiction in a work of art. Realism revealed the essence of life phenomena through the depiction of characters, situations and circumstances “taken from reality itself”. The writers of this trend studied the external (concrete socio-historical) and internal (psychological) factors of the events they describe, [...] ...
19. AI Kuprin is considered to be a realist writer. Indeed, in his works he always depicted life as it can be seen every day, one has only to walk along the streets, carefully looking at everything. Although people like Kuprin's heroes are becoming less and less common now, they used to be quite common. Moreover, Kuprin could write only when [...] ...
20. Realism (French realisme - material, objective) is a literary direction, which is characterized by a truthful and comprehensive reflection of reality based on the typification of life phenomena. The history of the term "realism" is long and original. For the first time, “realists” were talked about back in the 11th-12th centuries. This was the name given to representatives of the scholastic philosophical trend, who, unlike their opponents, the “nominalists”, believed that there actually existed [...] ...
21. General patterns of change of one literary direction by another. Literary trends of realistic and non-realistic type. Content features of romanticism. Romanticism as a worldview. Disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in bourgeois society. opposition to the ideas of the Enlightenment. The cult of emotionality, irrationalism. The principle of uncertainty, the flickering of meaning. Idealism, mysticism. Dvoemirie. The cult of the unusual, the exceptional. romantic hero. The main values ​​of romantics: Love, Nature, Art. Basic principles of realism: [...] ...
22. Classicism, first of all, should be considered as an artistic movement that united in its philosophical, political and aesthetic positions artists who expressed the idea of ​​​​supporting a strong centralized state headed by an absolute monarch, strengthening the unity of the country. In France of the 17th century, and then in Russia of the 18th century, classicism becomes a single national style in literature and other types of artistic creativity. […]...
23. In European art of the nineteenth century. there were quite a few artists who came from the upper strata of society and processed the theme of the common people in the manner of O. Venetsianov, whose “Peysan” style was not perceived by Shevchenko. Such were the Dresden draftsman Ludwig Richter, who charmingly depicted German folk life, above all, a kindred idyll. The graphic artist Léon Petit recreated scenes of rural life with great sympathy - […]...
24. Despite the great difference between the two parties of radical intellectuals (the old populists and the new Marxists), they also had some common unshakable principles: first of all, agnosticism and the desire to subordinate all human values ​​to the idea of ​​social progress and political revolution. Educated conservatives and Slavophiles also made it a rule to put the political and social above all other values, and Orthodoxy […]...
25. Classicism as a trend in art arose in Russia and in other countries on a political basis. It arose during the strengthening of absolutism and was supposed to serve to strengthen and glorify it. Mature enlightenment classicism was established in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. At this time, one of the leading places is occupied by historical painting and ceremonial portrait, the Large Series [...] ...
26. Classicism as a trend takes shape at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries. Its origins lie in the activities of the Italian and partly Spanish academic schools, as well as the Pleiades association of French writers, who in the late Renaissance turned to ancient art, seeking to find in its harmonious images a new support for the ideas of humanism that experienced a deep crisis. The emergence of classicism in full [...] ...
27. Back in the 40s. 19th century poetry clearly gave way to prose. Relatively little time has passed, and the situation has changed. Already in the next decade, poetry again occupies a worthy place in the literary movement, in some cases it even outstrips and stimulates artistic searches in the field of prose. In Russian poetry of the middle of the XIX century. It is generally accepted that there are two directions. WITH […]...
28. Never before in the history of Russian literature has there been such a variety of literary trends, fighting among themselves and influencing each other, as in the first quarter of the 19th century. Russian classicism lives and attracts with its civic theme, sublime style. It is reflected, for example, in the early poetry of Ryleev, Pushkin and other poets. Classicism is also promoted by conservative writers, [...] ...
29. Why does A. N. Radishchev call the “eighteenth century” both crazy and wise? The eighteenth century Radishchev assessed as a century of contradictions. On the one hand, Russia has made great progress in the political sphere, in strengthening statehood and authority in the international arena. The borders of Russia have expanded and strengthened. Radishchev, undoubtedly, highly appreciated the spread and development of the ideas of enlightenment and their influence on the social and […] ...
30. Classicism is an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European literature and art of the 17th - early 18th centuries. The most important feature of it was the appeal to the samples of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Writers focused on the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Roman poet Horace. The aesthetics of classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres and styles. High genres - […]...
31. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the XVII century 1.5. Literary process: classicism Classicism - from lat. classic is exemplary. The main feature of European classicism is a deep appeal to the ancient heritage. The classicists were guided in artistic creativity by ancient art, by the works of Aristotle and Horace. Hence the strict regulation of literary genres and styles, the orderliness of thought, reinforced by the nature of rationalistic philosophy. […]...
32. Historical and literary process. Literary trends and currents The historical and literary process is a set of generally significant changes in literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries. The study of the laws of development of literature is the concept of "historical and literary process". The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents. The continuous change of literature is […]...
33. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries in Russian literature, as in most European literatures, the leading role is played by modernist trends, which are most clearly manifested in poetry. The era of modernism in Russian literature is called the “Silver Age”. The specificity of the “Silver Age” lies in the fact that, carrying out creative searches on the general principles of modernism at the end of the 19th century, writers at the beginning of the 20th century should [...] ...
34. Romanticism, as a literary movement, is characterized by dissatisfaction with the present, contemporary reality. This dissatisfaction gives rise to dreams about what should be, about what is desired. But this desired, what I would like to see in life, was presented to romantic writers in different ways. Therefore, two main currents stood out in romanticism - conservative and revolutionary. Representatives of revolutionary romanticism are directed to the future, full of liberating ideas, connected with [...] ...
35. The authors of the underground (or “underground”) set the requirements for themselves. In choosing topics and looking for a new aesthetic, they did not have to adapt to the requirements of the editors. The writers are “in common” with one very significant circumstance. They are sharply polemical in relation to Soviet reality and to all, without exception, the recommendations of socialist realism on how to depict this reality, first of all [...] ...
36. Literature of the Petrine era: panegyric and “private”. Feofan Prokopovich's sermons. Formation of secular literature. The formation and evolution of classicism: the origins of world classicism: the main features (the cult of reason, citizenship, idealization of heroes, a clear division of heroes into absolutely positive and negative, schematism in the plot and compositional organization of the text). The basic principles of aesthetics: imitation of models (the standard is the art and culture of antiquity), imitation of nature. The principle of three unities […]
37. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the XVII century 1.2. Literary process: Renaissance realism The 17th century continues to implement the Renaissance traditions in literature in the context of a changing historical picture of the world. Renaissance realism did not form into an independent trend in the 17th century, but it had a significant impact on the artistic worldview of Baroque and Classicist writers. In contrast to the humanism of the Renaissance, Renaissance realism [...] ...
38. REALISM AND REALITY In the teaching environment, the student's answer to the question about realism is widely known: "realism depicts reality truthfully." The simple-hearted student is unaware that, using such a simple criterion, we will classify both Fonvizin's "Undergrowth", and Derzhavin's "Felitsa", and Karamzin's "Poor Liza", and even more so "Journey from Petersburg to Moscow" by the frantic Radishchev - That's why […]...
39. The works of A. I. Kuprin amaze the reader with a variety of subjects. This remarkable Russian writer makes actors, manufacturers, engineers, officers, the noble aristocracy and other contemporaries the heroes of his books. He took knowledge about them from life, because he moved in different social environments, communicated with a variety of people. Kuprin traveled all over Russia, changing one profession […]...
40. ROMANTICISM is a creative method and literary trend that arose initially in Europe, and then in Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries (Byron, Shelley, A. Chenier, V. Hugo, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, early Pushkin, Ryleev, etc.) . Subsequently, romanticism turned out to be a completely viable method and repeatedly appeared in literature up to the present (Lermontov, Fet, Tyutchev, Blok, Gorky [...] ...

Literary direction is an artistic method that forms general ideological and aesthetic principles
set of writers in a certain historical era.

The main features of the literary direction:
⦁ association of writers of a specific historical era
⦁ expression of a certain worldview and life values
⦁ the use of characteristic artistic techniques, themes and plots, a special type of hero
⦁ characteristic genres
⦁ special art style

The most significant literary trends in Russian literature:

classicism
sentimentalism
romanticism
realism
symbolism
acmeism
futurism

Writers may relate differently to the events they depict. Their aesthetic preferences may also be different. And even working within the same literary movement, each author solves the problem posed in the work in his own way.

CLASSICISM
Classicism is a trend in literature and art of the 17th-18th centuries, the basis of which was the imitation of ancient art.

The main features of classicism:

⦁ national-patriotic themes, the significance of the chosen topics
⦁ appeal to lofty moral ideals
⦁ strict differentiation of genres into high (ode, tragedy, heroic poem) and low (fable, comedy)
⦁ inadmissibility of mixing genres (the leading genre is tragedy)
⦁ edifying works
⦁ clear division of heroes into positive and negative
⦁ observance of the rule of three unities: place, time and action

Typical works of Russian classicism:

⦁ G. Derzhavin - ode to "Felitsa"
⦁ M. Lomonosov - poem "Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty the Empress Empress Elisaveta Petrovna", "Conversation with Anacreon"
⦁ D. Fonvizin - comedies "Foreman", "Undergrowth"

Example of a work: D. Fonvizin "Undergrowth"

The work "Undergrowth" is an example of the low genre of comedy.

The tasks of the author: to ridicule the vices of the nobility, to ridicule ignorance, to bring up the topic of education for discussion, to point out the main evil of the time - serfdom and the arbitrariness of the landowners. In order to truly portray life, the author was forced to expand the scope of the classic work.

Features of classicism in comedy. The rules of the three unities are observed.

Unity of place (the action takes place in the Prostakovs' estate), unity of time (events take place during the day), unity of action (one storyline).
Separation of characters into positive and negative. Positive: Starodum, Pravdin, Milon, Sophia. Negative: Prostakov, Prostakova, Mitrofan, teachers.
Classic ending: vice punished. Innovative features of the comedy Talking Surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin, Vralman, Kuteikin, etc.

Language characteristic. Positive characters speak in a “high calm”, negative ones are characterized by poor vocabulary

SENTIMENTALISM

Sentimentalism is an artistic trend in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, which proclaimed the highest value of a person's feelings, and not reason.

The main features of sentimentalism:
⦁ appeal of writers to the common man, interest in the world of his feelings
⦁ the desire to explore the soul of a person, to reveal his psychology
⦁ subjective display of the world
⦁ works are usually written in the first person (the narrator is the author)
⦁ the main theme of the works is love suffering
⦁ convergence of the literary language with the colloquial
⦁ genres: diary, letter, story, sentimental novel, elegy

Typical works of Russian sentimentalism:
⦁ V. Zhukovsky - elegy "Rural cemetery"
⦁ N. Karamzin - the stories "Poor Liza", "Frol Silin, a beneficent person"
⦁ A. Radishchev - the story "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow"

Example of a work: N. Karamzin "Poor Liza"
Subject. The social problem of relations between the nobility and the peasants is touched upon. Contrasting the images of Lisa and Erast, the writer for the first time raises the topic of a little man.

Scene. Moscow and its environs (Simonov and Danilov monasteries) — an illusion of authenticity has been created.

Image of feelings. For the first time in Russian literature, the main thing was not the glorification of the hero, but the description of feelings.

And the role of the moral heroine is given to the peasant girl. Unlike the works of classicism, the story is devoid of edification.

Characters. Liza lives in harmony with nature, she is natural and naive. Erast is not an insidious seducer, a man who could not pass the test and save love. This type of hero was developed in the works of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov and was called "an extra person."

Scenery. Reflects the emotional experiences of the heroine.

Language. Easy to understand. The speech of the peasant woman Lisa does not differ from the speech of the nobleman Erast.

REALISM

Realism is an artistic trend in literature and art of the 19th-20th centuries, which is based on a complete, truthful and reliable depiction of life.

The main features of realism:
⦁ the artist’s appeal to a specific historical era and to real events
⦁ image of life, people and events in accordance with objective reality
⦁ depiction of typical representatives of their time
⦁ use of typical techniques in depicting reality (portrait, landscape, interior)
⦁ depiction of events and heroes in development

Typical works of Russian realism:

⦁ A. Griboyedov - comedy in verse "Woe from Wit"
⦁ A. Pushkin - a novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", "Tales of Belkin"
⦁ M. Lermontov - novel "A Hero of Our Time"
⦁ L. Tolstoy - the novel "War and Peace", etc.
⦁ F. Dostoevsky - the novel "Crime and Punishment", etc.

Example of a work: A. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"

"Encyclopedia of Russian life". The work covers events from 1819 to 1825. The reader learns about the era of the reign of Alexander I, about the high society of St. Petersburg and the mores of society; about patriarchal Moscow, about the life of provincial landlords, about raising children in a noble family, about fashion, about education, about the culture and repertoire of theaters, about the details of everyday life (a description of Onegin's office), etc.

The problem of the novel. The main character (Onegin), having a rich spiritual and intellectual potential, cannot find any application in society. The author raises the question: why is this happening? To answer it, he examines the personality of the hero and the environment that shaped the personality.

features of realism. Critics argued that the novel could be continued indefinitely and ended at any chapter because it describes reality. The ending of the novel is open: the author proposes to think out its continuation. Direct authorial characteristics, irony, lyrical digressions are used, which turned the novel into a free journey of the author through life.

ROMANTICISM

Romanticism is an artistic movement in literature and art
late 18th - early 19th century, characterized by an interest in the individual and the opposition of the real world to the idealistic one.

The main features of romanticism:

⦁ subjective position of the author
⦁ rejection of the prosaic nature of real life and the creation of your own ideal world
⦁ handsome romantic hero
⦁ depiction of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances
⦁ exotic landscape
⦁ use of fantasy, grotesque

Typical works of Russian romanticism:

⦁ V. Zhukovsky - ballads "Forest King", "Lyudmila", "Svetlana"
⦁ A. Pushkin - poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies"
⦁ M. Lermontov - poem "Mtsyri"
⦁ M. Gorky - the story "Old Woman Izergil", poems in prose "Song of the Falcon", "Song of the Petrel"

Example of a work: M. Gorky "Song of the Falcon"

Idea. Sublime, selfless feat. The madness of the brave is the wisdom of life!

Characters. The falcon is the personification of a fighter for the people's happiness. His main features are courage, contempt for death, hatred of the enemy. For the Falcon, happiness is in the struggle, his element is the sky, height, space. The lot of Uzh is a dark gorge, in which it is warm and damp.

Scenery. The landscape is given at the beginning and at the end of the work, creating a compositional frame. It shows how beautiful life is and how insignificant against this background the miserable world of people like Uzh looks. Only people like the Falcon deserve to be sung about.

Means of artistic expression. The rhythm and poetic vocabulary, characteristic of the solemn song, has an unusual effect: fell to the ground; flashed his eyes; jumped into the air; thundered the song of the proud bird; and many brave hearts will be kindled with an insane thirst for freedom, light; in their lion's roar the song thundered, etc.

The main part of the work is the dialogue between the Uzh and the Falcon, the expression of two opposite points of view. Many questions, exclamations, phrases that have become winged (Born to crawl - cannot fly!).

FUTURISM
Futurism is an avant-garde trend in painting and literature, which became widespread in the 1910-1920s of the 20th century. Futurist poets tried to create the art of the future, completely denying the art of the past.

The main features of futurism:
⦁ demonstrative break with traditional culture
⦁ rejection of the classical heritage, new principles of vision of the world
⦁ search for new means of poetic expression
⦁ outrageous public, literary hooliganism
⦁ using the language of posters and posters, word creation

Representatives of futurism:

⦁ "Gypeia" (D. Burliuk, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, V. Kamensky)
⦁ Egofuturists (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev, K. Olimpov)
⦁ "Mezzanine of poetry" (V. Shershenevich, B. Lavrenyov, R. Ivnev)
⦁ "Centrifuge" (N. Aseev, B. Pasternak, S. Bobrov)
Futurism gave rise to various trends in literature (Imagism of S. Yesenin, constructivism of I. Selvinsky, etc.).
Example of a work: “Night” by V. Mayakovsky
Poetic charade. The author invites the reader to unravel unusual images. He uses colors as hints: purple indicates sunset, white indicates a day that is discarded and crumpled, green indicates the cloth of the gaming table. The illuminated windows of the city at night cause the poet to associate with a fan of playing cards. The official buildings are already closed - blue togas (clothes of priests) are thrown over them.

The 1st and 2nd stanzas are a description of the night city, which is compared to a gambling house. In the 3rd stanza, the poet depicts people in search of entertainment: The crowd - a fast, bright-haired cat - swam, bending, drawn by the doors.

In the 4th stanza, he speaks of his loneliness. People who come to Mayakovsky's performance need entertainment. And the poet realizes that, exposing his soul, one should not count on understanding.

Means of artistic expression. A large number of metaphors (black palms of runaway windows, burning yellow cards, a mass of laughter from a cast coma), unusual comparisons (the crowd is a fast, bright-haired cat; like yellow wounds, lights), neologisms (non-hairy).

Poetic meter and rhyme. Dactyl with cross rhyme.

ACMEISM

Acmeism is a modernist trend in Russian poetry, which appeared in the 1910s of the twentieth century, adhered to the exact meaning of words as the main artistic principle, proclaimed a return to the material world, the subject.

The name comes from the Greek word akme - the highest degree of something, flourishing, top.

The main features of acmeism:
⦁ simplicity and clarity of poetic language (the original meaning is returned to the word)
⦁ nebula and hints of symbolism are opposed to the real world
⦁ the ability to find poetry in everyday details
⦁ exclusion of complex speech turns and piling up of metaphors

Representatives of acmeism:

The formation of acmeism is closely connected with the activities of the literary association "Workshop of Poets", which was formed by N. Gumilyov and S. Gorodetsky.

A narrower group of acmeists emerged from a wide range of poets: A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Kuzmin and others.

Example of a work: A. Akhmatova "Guest"

General information. The poem was written by A. Akhmatova in 1914 in the genre of an elegy.

Subject. Unrequited love.

Composition. The poem consists of five stanzas of four lines each.

Means of artistic expression. The aesthetics of acmeism implies conciseness, simplicity and attention to the smallest details.

The composition of the poem is clear, uncomplicated, there are no vague hints, riddles in it.
and symbols.

Epithets are used: fine blizzard snow, enlightened-evil face, tense and passionate knowledge, dry hand.

The poetess included dialogue in the text. This technique creates the effect of reality, a picture of ordinary communication, lively colloquial speech appears before the reader. An anaphora is used: Tell me how they kiss you! Tell me how you kiss.

Poetic meter and rhyme. The poem is written in an anapaest with a cross rhyme.

MODERNISM AND POSTMODERNISM

Modernism is an artistic trend in the literature and art of the 20th century, which is based on the denial and violation of the traditions of classical culture.

The main features of modernism:
⦁ simulation of a new reality
⦁ fusion of real and fantastic
⦁ innovation of form and content

Typical works of Russian modernism:

⦁ A. Akhmatova, V. Mayakovsky, N. Gumilyov and others - poetry.

Postmodernism is an artistic trend in literature and art of the second half of the 20th century, which is based on a mixture of styles - high and low.

The main features of postmodernism:

⦁ rejection of the norms and rules of the previous cultural tradition
⦁ complete freedom of choice of topics, genres, techniques

Typical works of Russian postmodernism:

⦁ V. Pelevin - novels "Chapaev and Emptiness", "Generation" P "", etc.

SYMBOLISM

Symbolism is a modernist trend in Russian poetry that appeared at the end of the 19th century. and put forward the symbol as the main artistic device.

A symbol is both a type of allegory and a conventional artistic image that has many meanings; the role of the symbol is to evoke in the reader his own associations, thoughts and feelings.

The main features of symbolism:

⦁ the poem is built on associations and conveys the subjective impressions of the author
⦁ the use of symbolic images with a specific meaning (for example, night is darkness, mystery; the sun is an unattainable ideal, etc.)
⦁ encouraging the reader to co-create (with the help of symbolic keys, anyone can make an individual discovery for themselves)
⦁ music is the second most important (after the symbol) category in the aesthetics of symbolism (the use of musical compositional techniques, verbal and musical consonances, musical rhythm)

Example of a work: A Blok “I enter dark temples ...”

General information. The poem was written in 1902. It absorbed all the main features of the cycle "Poems about the Beautiful Lady".

Subject. Waiting for the meeting of the lyrical hero with the Beautiful Lady.

Idea. High service to the Beautiful Lady, in whose image a certain Divine principle was embodied.

Symbols. The poet uses the symbolism of color: red is both the fire of earthly passions and a sign of Her appearance.

Means of artistic expression. The lexicon is solemn: many high-flown words are used, emphasizing the exclusivity of what is happening (the flickering of lamps, illuminated, robes, gratifying).

The image of the Beautiful Lady is so high and holy that all appeals and references to her are written with a capital letter, including pronouns (about Her, Yours, You). Epithets were used (dark temples, a poor rite, gentle candles), personifications (smiles, fairy tales and dreams run ...; the image looks), rhetorical exclamations (Oh Holy One, how gentle candles! How delightful are Your features!), assonances (I'm waiting there Beautiful Lady / In the flickering of red lamps).

Poetic meter and rhyme. The poem is written in three-strike dolnik with a cross rhyme.

REPRESENTATIVES OF RUSSIAN SYMBOLISM

⦁ The stage of the emergence of symbolism Russian symbolism arose in the 1890s. In the first decade, the leading role in it was played by “senior symbolists”: V. Bryusov, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, village Merezhkovsky and others. Their works reflected despondency, disbelief in human capabilities, fear of life. Symbol system more
was not created.

⦁ The heyday of symbolism The "Young Symbolists" were followers of the idealist philosopher and poet V. Solovyov - they introduced the concept of a symbol.

The main symbol is the image of the old world, which is on the verge of destruction. According to the poets, only Divine Beauty, Eternal Femininity, Soul of the World, Harmony could save him. A. Blok created a cycle of poems about the Beautiful Lady about this. Similar motifs were conveyed by poets: A. Bely, K. Balmont, Vyach. Ivanov, P. Annensky and others.

The level of your preparation for the exam is determined not only knowledge of literary trends, but also the ability to choose them among the many available. And if you still find it difficult to remember the direction when writing an essay or when doing a test, remember our tables- the features indicated in them exhaustively describe all the literary directions necessary for the exam.

Classicism

The first direction in our study list was classicism. And this is not accidental - in terms of the duration of existence, it surpasses many. Its "exemplary" features were formed under the influence of great writers in the then new era.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism brought to our literature more depicted emotionality and attention to the feelings of the characters. Such works as “Poor Lisa” by N. M. Karamzin and “Unfortunate Margarita” by G. P. Kamenev demonstrated to readers of the 18th century the possibility of such reverence for the fate of heroes.

Romanticism

Artworks romanticism almost always depict the tragic fate of the character. The craving of a romantic hero for the ideal is sometimes so strong that it leads to a conflict between the world of the present and the world of dreams.

Realism

Partly realism penetrated into Russia with an objective display of life phenomena. And, if we take into account only this feature, then it appeared in our literature a long time ago. It is even generally accepted that the later works of Pushkin, which depicted the life and life of the characters with the utmost sense of detachment, belong to realism in full.

Realism types

Modernism

TO modernism include many currents: avant-garde, symbolism, acmeism, futurism, impressionism, expressionism, cubism, imagism and surrealism. Some of them appeared not only in literature, but also in painting. And some, in particular Cubism, on the contrary, almost did not find their way into literature.

CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic direction that originated in the Renaissance and continued to develop until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). Classicism was seen as a direction oriented towards ancient art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of "three unities" ("unity of time", "unity of place", "unity of action") were obligatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, immutable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motifs, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although such prose genres as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance in it, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.

The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of "good taste", developed by the so-called "good society". The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.

The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.

SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; fr. - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism got its name after the publication of the novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" by the English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimentalist writers is on the life of the human heart; the outer world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in the emotional sphere and the experiences of an individual. The sublime beginning, fundamental in the works of theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of touching, sympathy for one's neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated as early as the 18th century and enjoyed great readership and had a significant influence on Russian writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its peak in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, Boyar's Daughter”, “Letters from a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravieva, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitriev.

ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant trends in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide distribution and discovered many gifted artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be called the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a lofty, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between the ideal and reality, the feeling of a gap between them and at the same time the thirst for their reunion is the defining beginning of romantic art.

Romantics have always been attracted by fantastic plots and images, folk tales, parables, fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, the heroic turning points in historical epochs, the fertile and bright world of wildlife, in which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed high and low, tragic and comic, real and fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - a historical novel, a lyrical epic poem, a fairy tale story. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change the prevailing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyrics. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.

In conditions other than Western European, Russian romanticism arose and developed, which became the main event in literary life in the 1820s. Its most important signs were the less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of the emergence of the romantic trend in Russia falls on 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a great influence on subsequent literature. The years of 1816-1825 became a time of enhanced development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity of Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delvig. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering the years 1826-1840, romanticism is most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this trend was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev, early works of N.V. Gogol. In the future, the impact of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and in the 20th century. Romantic traditions persist to this day.

REALISM(from late Latin - material, real) - the leading literary trend of the XIX-XX centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human person in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory have become a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the distinct manifestation of certain “non-realistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a full-fledged, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (albeit not necessarily) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged rather late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is undergoing constant changes and updates, while revealing a natural “survivability” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.

MODERNISM(from French - the latest) - an aesthetic concept that developed in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of the revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of the artistic culture of the 19th century, which took place during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and trends as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, all of them are united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible change, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, which make it possible to speak of a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, and in dramaturgy, and in prose.

POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - a term that has been used in recent decades, but still has not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is multi-valued and multi-level, influenced by national-historical , social and other circumstances, a complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, due to the specifics of the worldview, attitude and assessment of the cognitive capabilities of a person, his place and role in the world around him. The emergence of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of World War II, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its essence, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he tries to resist. In this regard, the concepts used by theorists of this direction are not accidental: "the world as chaos", "postmodern sensitivity", "the world as a text", "consciousness as a text", "intertextuality", "crisis of authorities", "author's mask", “parodic mode of narration”, fragmentary narration, meta-narrative, etc.

Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- vanguard) avant-garde- a generalizing name for trends in world art, primarily in European art, that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The prominent representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:

Futurism - Alexei Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;

· Expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.

Dramaturgy

The pioneer of the avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and attitude are fixed in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hoffmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama is enriched with the techniques of the literature of the absurd. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrovich, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received their final expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, absurdist motifs were developed in their dramas by F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel.