Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the seventeenth - early nineteenth century, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying it determined the view of theorists and practitioners of the classical style on a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life.
Classicism, which developed in polemical interaction with the Baroque, developed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - to reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of the classical style was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671). In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by the logic of planning and the clarity of volumetric form, the order plays the main role, subtly and restrainedly shading the overall structure of the building (architects: Mansart Francois, Perro Claude, Levo Louis, Blondel Francois); from the second half of the 17th century, French classicism absorbs the spatial scope of baroque architecture (Hardouin-Mansart Jules and Le Nôtre Andre, the work of architects in Versailles).
In the 17th - early 18th centuries, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland, England, where it organically combined with Palladianism (Ainigo Jones, Christopher Wren), Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger). In classical style painting, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling, local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, separates the spatial plans of the picture; marked by the loftiness of philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the works of Poussin Nicolas, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of the 17th century; "ideal landscapes" (painter Lorrain Claude).
Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an exquisite mansion, a grand public building, an open city square (Gabrielle Jacques Ange and Souflot Jacques Germain) were determined, the search for new, orderless forms of architecture, the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of Ledoux Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of the classical style - Empire. Civic pathos and lyricism combined in plastic (Pigalle Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous drama of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David.
In the 19th century, the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerates into an official apologetic or pretentiously erotic salon art. Rome became the international center of the European classical style of the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the traditions of academism dominated, with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization (German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Dane Thorvaldsen Bertel). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the severe monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, for the contemplative-elegiac mood of painting and plastic art - portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, sculpture by Johann Gottfried Schadow.
In English classicism, the antiquities of Robert Adam, the Palladian park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of the classical style developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, the USA; an outstanding place in the history of world art is occupied by Russian classicism of the 1760s-1840s. By the end of the first third of the 19th century, the leading role of this stylistic trend in art was almost universally fading away, it was being replaced by various forms of architectural eclecticism. The artistic tradition of the classical style comes to life in neoclassicism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Reference and biographical data of the Small Bay Planet Art Gallery are prepared on the basis of materials from the History of Foreign Art (edited by M.T. Kuzmina, N.L. Maltseva), the Artistic Encyclopedia of Foreign Classical Art, and the Great Russian Encyclopedia.
Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries, the most important feature of which was a deep appeal to ancient art as an ideal, standard - classicism. In painting, as well as in sculpture, architecture and other types of creativity, the traditions of the Renaissance continued - faith in the power of the human mind, admiration for the ideals of measure and harmony
Classicism trends appeared in Italy at the end of the 16th century. The pan-European style began to take shape in the bosom of France. The aesthetic value of this era has only timeless, enduring. Great importance was attached to the educational and social function of art. Therefore, classicism in painting puts forward the latest ethical standards, which forms the images of its heroes: submission to the common personal, passions - to reason, duty, the supreme interests of the public, the laws of the universe, resistance to the vicissitudes of life and the cruelty of fate. Orientation to enduring images, to a reasonable beginning determined the regulation of artistic laws, the normative requirements of classical aesthetics, a strict hierarchy of existing genres - from “low” (portrait, landscape, still life) to “high” (mythological, historical, religious). Each genre put forward meaningful strict boundaries and formal clear signs.
The first to introduce classicism into painting was the Frenchman N. Poussin, and he is its founder. The artist's paintings - "Death of Germanicus", "Rinaldo and Armida", "Arcadian shepherds", "Finding of Moses", etc. All of them are marked by harmonious rhythmic color and structure, sublimity of ethical and philosophical content.
Classicism in Russian painting was expressed by the assertion of the beauty of the individual, unique, unusual. The highest achievement of this era in painting is not a historical theme, but a portrait (A. Antropov, A. Agrunov, F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky, O. Kiprensky). in takes pride of place, because it has its own discoveries and features. O. Kiprensky, for example, discovered not only new but also the latest possibilities of painting. All his portraits are different: each has its own original pictorial structure. Some are built on the picturesque contrast of shadow and light. In others, a subtle gradation of similar, close colors appears.
Russian classicism in painting is necessarily associated with Bryullov's priceless canvases. They are distinguished by a fusion of academic classicism and romanticism, novelty of plots, theatrical effect of plasticity and lighting, and complexity of composition. A. Ivanov managed to overcome many patterns inherent in academic technique and gave his works the character of sacrificial judgments to ideas.
Classicism in Russian painting was also promoted by such famous artists: I. Repin, I. Surikov, V. Serov, I. Shishkin, A. Savrasov, I. Levitan. All of them individually did a lot for the art of their country, and taken together - for the culture of the whole world.
The formation of classicism in Russia The emergence and formation of classicism in Russia is closely connected with the development of social thought and educational ideas of the second half of the eighteenth century. The ideas of citizenship and duty, as well as the moral education of a citizen, were widely developed. Classicism as a new artistic direction was defined in the 1760s. He chose to emulate the ancient classics and valued her for the clarity of form and the logic of thought, but most of all - for the ideal of a citizen she created. The basis of the aesthetics of classicism was the assertion that art in one ideal image of beauty unites what in reality exists in separate and disparate parts. Art must make up for the beauty and harmony that is missing in nature as a whole. In Russia, the style of classicism captured a fairly large time period, so there is a division into chronological stages. The first period - 1760-1780s - early classicism, mature classicism "fits" in the last twenty years of the eighteenth century. The beginning of the 19th century gave rise to a new name for the late phase of classicism. In Napoleonic France, the so-called "empire style" was born - the Empire style, which also spread to Russia.
A. P. Losenko - the founder of Russian classicism A. P. Losenko (1737 -1773) is rightly considered the founder of the academic school of painting of Russian classicism. One of the best paintings of the painter is Hector's Farewell to Andromache. The plot of the work is taken from the VI book of Homer's Iliad. Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam, says goodbye to his wife and young son. He goes to defend the city of Troy besieged by the Achaeans.
LOSENKO DOESN'T EXACTLY ILLUSTRATE THE CONTENT OF THE THIS SCENE. USING INDIVIDUAL MOTIFS OF THE ANTIQUE EPOS, THE ARTIST INVESTED INTO THE WORK A DIFFERENT CONTENT, COMPLETELY BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICISM. LOSENKO'S PLAN IS BASED ON THE IDEA OF DUTY TO THE HOMELAND AND HEROIC SELF-SACRIFICE IN THE NAME OF THE HOMELAND. THIS HIGH IDEA IS SUBJECTED TO THE ALL DECISION OF THE WOOD. EVERYTHING PERSONAL, DEEPLY HUMAN, FALLS BACK. COMPARED WITH THE HOMERIC HEROES, THE IMAGES CREATED BY THE CLASSICIST ARTIST APPEAR MORE DISCHARGED, BUT HIGH. THEY LOSE THEIR VITALITY AND VARIETY, BUT BECOME EXPRESSIONS OF ONE IDEA, ONE FEELING. THE COMPOSITION OF THE PICTURE IS CLEARLY DESIGNED AND LOGICALLY BUILT. THE TWO MAIN FIGURES, HECTOR AND ANDROMACHE, ARE PUSHED FORWARD AND POSITIONED IN THE CENTER. THEY ARE INCLUDED IN A CLASSICAL TRIANGLE AND HIGH LOOKING WITH LIGHT. ON THE LEFT IS A GROUP OF GUARDS AND WARRIORS WITH A BANNER. RIGHT - SERVANTS HOLDING HECTOR'S HELMET, SPEAR AND SHIELD. THEY SURROUND THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN A SEMI-CIRCLE. SECONDARY FIGURES PERFORM THE FUNCTION OF MUTE EXTRAS, THEY DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN THE ACTION. WARRIORS AND SERVANTS COMPOSE A PASSIVE "CROWD", WHICH IS OPPOSED TO ACTIVE "HEROES". HERE THE OFFICIAL VIEW OF HISTORY IS CLEARLY SHOWN AS ABOUT THE ACTS OF KINGS AND HEROES, THE PEOPLE CANNOT AND SHOULD NOT TAKE ANY PART IN THEM.
The main idea of the work is embodied only by the central characters. The influence of classicism is felt in the solution of the main images no less clearly than in the solution of the composition. Hector in a pathetic pose, with outstretched hand, raising his eyes to the sky, vows to give his life for the freedom of Troy. Tragic pathos marked not only the pose and gesture of the hero, but also his whole appearance, courageous and noble. Hector embodies the classic ideal of male beauty.
A classic example of the style of classicism in the portrait genre is the famous "Portrait of Catherine II - the Legislator in the Temple of the Goddess of Justice" (1783) by D. G. Levitsky. The conditionally rhetorical pathos of the image is embodied with the help of the plastic expressiveness of the posture and gesture characteristic of this style. The figure of Catherine is brought to the fore and highlighted with light. With an outstretched hand, she points to an altar on which poppy flowers are burned (poppy is a symbol of sleep).
In the portrait description of Catherine the Great, the universally significant, official and high, so valued in classicism, comes to the fore, obscuring the personal and emotional side of the soul. The “God-like” empress is presented in an antique outfit – the dress is likened to a tunic, on her head is not an imperial crown, but a laurel Nenets.
An example of mature classicism in Russian historical painting is the painting “The Election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the Tsardom on March 14, 1613” by G. I. Ugryumov (17641823), a follower of A. P. Losenko.
The artist chose one of the important moments in Russian history - the election of the young boyar M.F. Romanov to the kingdom, who became the founder of a new dynasty that ruled in Russia until 1917. In the transfer of the plot, the painter proceeded from the official interpretation of this event by historians: Mikhail, realizing the difficult situation in which Russia was, only yields to the requests of the people. The embarrassed young man, putting his right hand to his heart, the other, as it were, moves away from the embassy that has come to him. A group of main characters - Michael, his mother, and Archbishop Theodoret - are represented in the center of the composition, on the pulpit in front of the iconostasis. The heroes are highlighted compositionally, as well as with the help of light and bright colorful combinations. On the right are famous historical figures. Their gestures are full of gravity and solemnity. In contrast, they depict common people on the left, ardently and invitingly striving for the newly-appeared king. Ugryumov paints with great skill a rich interior, a carved iconostasis, and magnificent clothes of the depicted people.
The Colosseum, like no other monument, is closely connected with ancient mythology and history. As a true classicist artist, Matveev strove to express the idea of beauty and heroic sublimity, to convey the majestic breath of the past. "Protagonist" Colosseum is located strictly in the center of the composition The painter divides the space Following the rules of classicism, Matveev on plans parallel to the canvas. conveys exactly the outlines of the object with a contour. In the foreground, stones, bushes and lines and chiaroscuro characterize its structure, and the granite parapet color reflects the color of the object; The length of neighboring objects. Classicism elevates everything of the second plan revealed not only observed in nature into a certain absolute, thicker than the Colosseum, but also from a perspective, so the local color turns into the soil and buildings and gardens of Rome into an ideal race of objects. The whole depth on both sides of the vegetation is green, the ruins are the Colosseum. The third plan is brown, yellow - for architectural details, the background for the main object. gray - for the walls of houses.
Portraits of mature classicism (Empire) in the work of V. L. Borovikovsky An example of an Empire portrait can be the work of V. L. Borovikovsky (17571825) “Portrait of M. I. Dolgoruky”, which was created by the artist in 1811
The perfect figure of a beautiful woman stands out in a clear silhouette against the smooth background of the wall. Borovikovsky combined here the fullness of plastic forms with the beauty of the silhouette and the nobility of color. The lines are elastic, the volumes are expressive. The artist builds the space in such a way that the dark red velvet of the dress perfectly sets off the whiteness of the bare shoulders and arms. The artist is extremely concise and expressive. Over time, the lofty ideas of classicism began to become obsolete. Society was "tired" of the repeated repetition of ready-made samples, and the apologists of the style continued to insist that perfection had already been achieved by ancient art and there was nothing more to invent, invent, discover. Gradually, classicism turned into academism.
CLASSICISM
PUSSIN Nikola
INGR Jean Auguste Dominique
CANALETTO Giovanni Antonio
TIEPOLO Giovanni Batista
BRYULLOV Karl
DAVID Jacques Louis
CLASSICISM
-
artistic style in European art of the 17th – early 19th centuries,
one of the most important features of which was
appeal to the forms of ancient art,
as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard.
Classicism,
developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the baroque,
into a coherent stylistic system developed in the French
artistic culture of the 17th century.
The underlying principles of rationalist philosophy
determined the view of theorists and practitioners of classicism
on a work of art as a fruit of reason and logic,
triumphant over chaos and fluidity
sensible life.
Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns
determined the firm standardization of ethical requirements
(submission of the personal to the general, passions -
reason, duty, laws of the universe)
and aesthetic demands of classicism,
regulation of artistic rules;
consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism,
contributed to the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris
- painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by logic
layout and clarity of volumetric form, the main role is played by the order,
subtly and restrained shading the overall structure of the structure
(buildings by F. Mansart, K. Perrault, L. Levo, F. Blondel);
from the 2nd half of the 17th century, French classicism incorporates
spatial scope of baroque architecture
(works by J. Hardouin-Mansart and A. Le Nôtre in Versailles).
In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in architecture
Holland, England, where he organically combined with Palladianism
(I. Jones, K. Wren), Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger).
In the painting of classicism, the main elements of the modeling of the form
steel line and chiaroscuro, the local color clearly reveals the plasticity of the figures
and objects, separates the spatial plans of the picture
(marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content,
the general harmony of the work of N. Poussin,
the founder of classicism and the greatest master
classicism of the 17th century; "ideal landscapes" by C. Lorrain).
Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries.
(in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism),
which became a common European style, was also formed mainly
in the bosom of French culture, under the strongest influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
In architecture, new types of exquisite mansion were defined,
front public building, open city square
(J.A. Gabriel, J.J. Souflot), the search for new, orderless forms of architecture.
The desire for severe simplicity in the work of K.N. Ledoux
anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire.
Civic pathos and lyricism combined in plastic
J.B. Pigalya and Zh.A. Houdon, decorative landscapes by J. Robert.
Courageous drama of historical and portrait images
inherent in the works of the head of French classicism,
painter J.L. David.
In the 19th century painting of classicism, despite the activity
individual major masters, such as J.O.D. Ingres,
degenerates into an official apologetic or
pretentious erotic salon art.
The international center of European classicism of the 17th – early 19th centuries.
became Rome, where the traditions of academism mainly dominated
with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization
(German painter A.R. Mengs, plastic art by Italian A. Canova
and Dane B. Thorvaldsen).
The architecture of German classicism is characterized by
severe monumentality of K.F. Shinkel,
for contemplative and elegiac in mood painting and plastic arts -
portraits of A. and V. Tishbeinov, sculpture by I.G. Shadov.
In English classicism, antiquities stand out
buildings of R. Adam, Palladian in spirit park estates
W. Chambers, exquisitely rigorous drawings by J. Flaxman
and pottery by J. Wedgwood.
Own variants of classicism developed
in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium,
Scandinavian countries, USA;
occupies an outstanding place in the history of world art
Russian classicism 1760–1840s By the end of the 1st third of the XIX century.
the leading role of classicism is almost universally fading away,
it is supplanted by various forms of architectural eclecticism.
The artistic tradition of classicism comes to life
in neoclassicism of the late XIX - early XX centuries.
PUSSIN Nikola
-
(Poussin) Nicolas (1594-1665), French painter and draftsman.
1. "Shepherds in Arcadia"
1638-1640
2. "Apollo and Daphne"
1625
3. "Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice" 1648 
4. "Triumph of Flora"
1631
5. "Echo and Narcissus"
ca.1630 
6. "Death of Germanicus"
1627
7. "Education of Bacchus"
1630-1635
8. "Bacchanalia"
1622
9. "Mars and Venus"
1627-1629
10. "The Funeral of Phokias"
1648
11. "The exploits of Rinaldo"
1628
12. "Kingdom of Flora"
ca.1632 
13. "The Rape of the Sabines" (fragment)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 
14. "Tancred and Erminia"
1630s, Hermitage, St. Petersburg 
15. "Midas and Bacchus"
1625, St. Pinakothek, Munich 
16. "Triumph of Neptune"
1634, Museum of Art, Philadelphia 
17. "Adoration of the golden calf"
About 1634, Nat. gallery, London 
18. "Inspiration of the poet"
1636-1638, Louvre, Paris 
INGR Jean Auguste Dominique
-
(1780-1867), French painter and draftsman.
1. "Portrait of Madame Riviere"
1805
2. "Portrait of Madame Senonne"
1814
3."Portrait of Francois
Mario Granier" 1807 
4. "Portrait of Bonaparte"
1804
5. "Bather Volpenson" 1808 
6. "Portrait of M. Philibert Riviera" 1805 
7. "Portrait of Madame Devose"
1807
8. "Romulus - the winner of Akron"
1812
9."Large odalisque"
1814
10."Venus Anadyomene"
1808-1848
11. "Antiochus and Stratonika"
1840, Condé Museum, Chantilly 
12. "The ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles"
1801, Louvre, Paris 
13."Joan of Arc at the coronation
Charles VII"
1854
14. "Rafael and Fornarina"
1814, Harvard University Museum 
15. "Oedipus and the Sphinx"
1827, Louvre, Paris 
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CANALETTO Giovanni Antonio
-
(Canaletto; actually Canal, Canal)
Giovanni Antonio (1697-1768),
Italian painter and etcher.
1. "Promenade of San Marco"
ca.1740 
2. "San Marco Square"
1730
3. "London. Westminster Bridge"
1746
4. "Rialto Bridge from the south"
1735
5." Return of Buccintoro
on the feast of the ascension" 1732 
6. "Square in Pirna"
1754
7. "London. The Thames and the houses of the suburbs of Richmond"
1747, Private collection 
8. "Grand Canal and Cathedral of Santa Maria della Salute"
1730,
9."Piazzetta"
1733-1735
National Gallery of Ancient Art,
Rome 
10. "London. Westminster Abbey and the procession of knights"
1749, Westminster Abbey 
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TIEPOLO Giovanni Battista
-
(Tiepolo) Giovanni Battista
(1696-1770),
Italian painter, draftsman, engraver.
1. "Marriage Agreement"
1734
2. "Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra"
1747
3. "Mercury and Aeneas"
1757
4. "Angel saving Hagar"
1732
5. "Virtue crowning honor"
1734
6. "Enlightenment of the Virgin Mary"
1732
7. "Generosity, distributing gifts"
1734
8. "The Appearance of Three Angels to Abraham"
1726-1729
9. "Sailor and girl with amphora"
1755
10. "Hagar in the desert"
1726 - 1729
11. "Apollo and Diana" (fresco)
1757, Villa Valmarana 
12. "Immaculate Conception"
1767-1769, Prado, Madrid 
13. "Feast of Cleopatra" 1743-1744,
National Gallery of Victoria,
Melbourne, Australia 
14. "Rinaldo and Armida in the garden"
1752, Louvre, Paris 
15. "Apollo and Daphne"
1744-1745, Louvre, Paris 
16. "Saint who saves the city from the plague" (fragment)
1759,
Duomo, Ueste, Italy 
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BRYULLOV Karl
-
Bryullov Karl Pavlovich
(Karl Briullov, 1799–1852), Russian painter.
1. "Vespers"
1825
2. "Bathsheba"
1832
3. "Riders"
1833
4. "Girl picking grapes"
1827
5. "Portrait of Countess Yulia Samoilova
with adopted daughter 
6."Empress Alexandra Feodorovna"
1832
7. "Portrait of Count A.K. Tolstoy"
1836
8. "Italian morning"
1827
9. "The death of Inessa de Castro"
1834
10. "Walk"
1849
11. "Italian afternoon"
1827, Russian Museum 
12. "Horsewoman"
1832, Tretyakov Gallery 
13. "The Last Day of Pompeii"
1833, Russian Museum 
14. "Narcissus looking into the water"
1819, Russian Museum 
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DAVID Jacques Louis
LOOK HERE:
http://www.site/users/2338549/post78028301/
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Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.
Painting
Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private clients favored variations of the Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winkelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor (“Turkish baths”); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (as, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
Architecture
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).
38. Artistic culture of Europe during the Enlightenment.
Age of Enlightenment- one of the key eras in the history of European culture, associated with the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking. Starting in England, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and other European countries. Especially influential were the French Enlightenment, who became the "rulers of thoughts." The principles of the Enlightenment were the basis of the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The intellectual and philosophical movement of this era had a great influence on subsequent changes in the ethics and social life of Europe and America, the struggle for the national independence of the American colonies of European countries, the abolition of slavery, and the formation of human rights. In addition, it shook the authority of the aristocracy and the influence of the church on social, intellectual and cultural life.
Actually term education came to Russian, as well as to English ( The Enlightenment) and German ( Zeitalter der Aufklärung) from French ( siècle des lumières) and mainly refers to the philosophical current of the XVIII century. At the same time, it is not the name of a certain philosophical school, since the views of the philosophers of the Enlightenment often differed significantly from each other and contradicted each other. Therefore, enlightenment is considered not so much a complex of ideas as a certain direction of philosophical thought. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was based on criticism of the traditional institutions, customs and morals that existed at that time.
Enlightenment is a social, aesthetic, ideological and cultural movement in the countries of America and Europe, associated with changes in living conditions that have developed under the influence of the collapse of feudal and the formation of capitalist relations in the economy. Historical framework - 1689-1789.
The prerequisites and root causes of aesthetic evolution in society were changes in science, politics, ideology, culture, and art. Culture in the Age of Enlightenment fought for the triumph of the "kingdom of reason", primarily due to the development of science. Its basis was to be the principle of "natural equality", with the principles of political freedom and civil equality arising from it.
Enlighteners were staunch materialists and idealists who recognized the mind as the basis of knowledge and human behavior. The philosophical currents of social thought in the culture of the Enlightenment represented a kind of unity, which was expressed in goals and ideals - freedom, religious tolerance, prosperity and happiness, renunciation of violence, freethinking, as well as a critical look at any authorities.
Scientific knowledge, previously available only to a narrow circle of scientists, is spreading far beyond the confines of laboratories and universities. Science is gradually becoming a subject of discussion among cultural figures, who popularly expound the latest achievements of philosophy and science.
Famous people of the Enlightenment came from different estates and classes: from the aristocracy and nobles, ending with employees of commercial and industrial complexes. In each of the countries, the culture of the Enlightenment era bore the imprint of national identity.
After revolutions and civil wars in the 17th and 18th centuries, contradictions in society smoothed out, parliamentarism developed, which led to the strengthening of political struggle in the legal field. The Church did not oppose itself to the Enlightenment and to a certain extent even corresponded to its ideal of religious tolerance. All this contributed to the rapid development of culture. A balance was maintained between the traditional values, which the church was the guardian of, and the special innovative ones, which were carried by the culture of the Enlightenment.
The artistic culture of the 18th century is a period of breaking up the artistic system that has been erected for centuries: a skeptical and ironic attitude towards everything that was considered chosen and sublime earlier. For the first time, the possibilities of freedom of observation and creativity opened up before the artists. The culture of the Enlightenment used the stylistic forms of the classics, reflecting with their help a completely new content.
The art of Europe in the 18th century combined two opposite principles: classicism, meaning the subordination of a person to a system, and romanticism. In the culture of different peoples, classics and romanticism either formed a kind of synthesis, or existed in all sorts of mixtures and combinations.
A new beginning in the culture of the Enlightenment was also the emergence of currents that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to generate it. One of the largest currents was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the enlightenment ideas about the kindness and purity of human nature, which were lost along with the “natural state” of society, during its gradual separation from nature. Sentimentalism, first of all, turned to the inner, intimate, personal world of human thoughts and feelings, and therefore did not require any special stylistic frills. Sentimentalism was close to romanticism. The “natural” person, sung by him, constantly experiences the tragedy of a collision with the forces of nature and society, with life itself, which prepares great shocks for him. Their presentiment permeates the entire culture of the Enlightenment.
The process of displacement of religion in art by secular ones is a characteristic feature of the culture of the Enlightenment. Secular architecture in the 18th century, for the first time in a long history, takes precedence over religious throughout Europe. Genre painting, which reflected the everyday observations of artists of the lives of real people in the real world, is widely spread throughout European countries, and sometimes even tends to take a dominant place. The place of the Ceremonial portrait, so popular in the past, is occupied by an intimate portrait, and in landscape painting a “mood landscape” appears, represented by such artists as Gainsborough, Guardi, Watteau.
A characteristic feature of the culture of the Enlightenment is the growing attention to the sketch, not only among the artists themselves, but even among critics and art historians. Individual perception, moods, reflected in the sketches, sometimes have an emotional and aesthetic effect than a fully finished work. Engraving and drawing are valued above paintings because they establish a more pronounced connection between the viewer and the artist. The tastes and preferences of the era changed the very requirements for the color of paintings. The artists of the 18th century intensify the decorative perception of color in their works, the paintings begin to decorate the place in which they are located.
The culture of the Enlightenment, embodied in the architecture and painting of the Rococo, was primarily set to create comfort for the person who would enjoy these works. Small rooms do not look crowded thanks to the illusions of “playing space”, which is achieved by architects and artists through the use of various artistic means: ornaments, mirrors, panels, special colors, etc. This style has become popular in poor homes, in which he brought the spirit of comfort and coziness without excessive pomposity and luxury.
Another distinctive feature of the culture of the Enlightenment was the display of human sensations and pleasures - spiritual and physical - using artistic means. Starting from the 18th century. both the public and the critics demand from the new painting, music and theater more "pleasant" or "sensual".
In endless disputes between them, modern theories of human rights were born, as an independent citizen and part of civil society, democracy in the rule of law, ethics of individualism and a market economy.
The time of economists, philosophers, sociologists and writers of the Enlightenment came to replace the old ideology, feudalism.
Culture of the Age of Enlightenment.
Con. 17 –beginning 18th century Received the name "Age of Enlightenment" or "Age of Reason"
This period begins in England in 1689. Then it is distributed in France and Germany. And this era ends with the Great French Revolution in 1789.
Signs of the Age of Enlightenment:
· The idea of equality of all people before the law, before other people, society.
The victory of reason. Enlighteners saw getting rid of all social troubles in the dissemination of knowledge. They considered their task to spread knowledge, to teach ordinary people.
· Historical optimism. Representatives of this era believed in the possibility of changing a person for the better, creating a just society.
In political, economic and cultural life, there was a process of abandoning feudal relations and the formation of capitalism.
The Age of Enlightenment was a period of rapid development of philosophy and spirit. to-ry Prominent English philosopher 2nd floor. 17th century was John Locke. In his writings, the English program was formulated. Enlightenment. He believed that a person has three basic rights: to life, to freedom, to property.
The French Enlightenment is represented by:
Ball Louis Montere. He sharply criticized absolutism and despotism and opposed them with the ideals of political freedom.
· Voltaire worked in different genres: tragedy, history. essays, philosopher. novels, political treatises and articles. He opposed the church and clericalism, ridiculed the morality of feudal society, absolutism.
· Jean-Jacques Rousseau - the teaching was reduced to the requirement to bring society out of a state of general corruption of morals. He saw a way out in moral education, material and political equality. He believed that morality depends on politics and social order.
A prominent figure in the French Enlightenment was Denis Diderot. He headed the publication of the 35-volume encyclopedia "Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts". It was a complete body of knowledge about the world around. It was published from 1751 to 1772. The German Enlightenment was formed under the influence of the philosopher Christian Wulff. He combined the cult of reason with a deep respect for the Christian religion. The peculiarity of the German enlightenment is that the initiative to disseminate new ideas came from King Frederick the Great.
Emmanuel Kant, a professor at the University of Königsberg, was a prominent representative of the German Enlightenment. He formed the principles of the moral and intellectual liberation of man. He substantiated the legal forms and methods of struggle for changing the state. and a social order that presupposed a path of gradual reforms excluding violence.
The era of enlightenment was a turning point in the spiritual development of Europe. Enlighteners created a new system of values, addressed to a person and not dependent on his social affiliation. This system became the basis for Western European civilization. Enlighteners paid great attention to art. Because they saw it as an important means of education.
Western European art of the 18th century is represented by the following trends: classicism, sentimentalism, realism.
At the turn of the 17-18 centuries. there are also cultural changes. cultural center of the 18th century. France becomes.
In the 18th century changing attitudes towards various types of arts. Painting gives way to music.
For the 18th century The activity of the following famous violin makers is accounted for: Shati, Stradivali, Guarneri.
For the 18th century Account for the activities of the following musicians: Italian. (Vivaldi), the heyday of the Vienna School (Haydn, Mozart), the German School (Beethoven, Bach).
The opera was reformed by the composer Gluck.
The leading genre of enlightenment literature was the satirical and domestic roiana, the philosophical story and the drama.
The writers of the Enlightenment tried to bring literature closer to life and, through literature, to transform social mores.
German literature is represented by Friedrich Schiller (historical dramas): "The Arlian Maiden", "William Tell", "Mary Stuart".
At this time, the development of the realistic direction began: Jonathan Swift ("Gulliver's Travels"), Daniel Defoe ("Robinson Crusoe").
Many representatives of the Enlightenment, led by Denis Diderot, spoke out against the refined art of the Rococo. They demanded art that would truly reflect life and would have a beneficial effect on society.
The main direction was classicism, which on the eve of Vel. The French Revolution manifested itself in the form of so-called revolutionary classicism. The head of this direction was the French. artist Jean Louis David. His most famous paintings are: on an antique plot (“The Oath of Horace”), in a realistic manner (“The Murder of Marat”).
At this time, the realistic direction in painting by Jean-Baptiste Chardin was developing. He paints still lifes, genre paintings in which he depicts domestic life.
A prominent Spanish artist was 18-19 century. Francisco Goya. He was a court painter, but his paintings were distinguished by sharp characterization and gratesque. The most famous are the etchings (prints) of Goya, which were called Caprices.
Etienne Maurice Falcone was an outstanding French sculptor. He directed the Sèvres porcelain manufactory. He created small plastics from biscuit (not glazed porcelain). He is the author of The Bronze Horseman.
Sentimentalism arose within the framework of the Enlightenment. His followers believed that it was not possible to overcome social disasters and transform society through enlightenment and re-education, and sentimentalists turn their attention to people's feelings. They evaluate a person by his ability to sincerely and deeply experience.
The heroes of the works were unremarkable people. The main genre in literature is the novel in letters. The novels of Richardson and Fielding are very popular.
Sentimentalist writers paid much attention to the landscape.
A prominent French artist of this trend was Jean Baptiste Grezat, and in England - Thomas Gainsborough. They paint female portraits, genre paintings.
European k-ra 19th century.
Historical events in the beginning. 19th century They were associated with the military campaigns of Napoleon 1. After the overthrow of Napoleon, a constitutional monarchy was created in France. In 1848, as a result of the revolution, the Bourgeois King Louis Philippe Bourbon was overthrown. In 1871, an uprising took place in Paris, as a result of which the Paris Commune was created. After the defeat of the commune, a republican form of government is established, which gradually takes on a modern look.
In the 2nd floor. 19th century Austria lost its position as a great power. However, in 1868, by agreement with Hungary, a single state of Austria-Hungary was formed.
