- an artistic style in European art of the 17th-early 19th century, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. Classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, developed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying classicism determined the view of theorists and practitioners of the classical style on a work of art as a fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life.
The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying classicism determined the view of theorists and practitioners of classicism on a work of art as a fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - to reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671). In classicism painting, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling, local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, separates the spatial plans of the picture (marked by the sublimity of the philosophical and ethical content, the overall harmony of the work of N. Poussin, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of classicism of the 17th century ; "ideal landscapes" by K. Lorrain). Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an exquisite mansion, a front public building, an open city square (J.A. Gabriel, J.J. Souflot), the search for new, unordered forms of architecture were determined. striving for severe simplicity in the work of K.N. Ledoux anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire. Civic pathos and lyricism combined in the plasticity of J.B. Pigalya and J.A. Houdon, decorative landscapes by J. Robert. The courageous drama of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter J.L. David.
Painting from David to Delacroix represents the period of dominance of classicism. The first paintings of David did not yet contribute anything essentially revolutionary to his contemporary art, but his “Oath of the Horatii”, which appeared in 1784, made an unheard-of impression not only on the artistic world, but on the whole society, the mood of which this work fully corresponded to. The strict correctness of the design, the heroic content, which was so far different from everyday petty interest, and, finally, the archaeological fidelity of the costumes, architecture and all the surroundings, transported viewers to the ancient world, which had already become attractive to them. This picture was followed by "Brutus and the lictors, who brought the corpses of his sons, who were executed by his own order"; after that, David wrote (1787) "The Death of Socrates" (a slave gives him a bowl of poison, turning away and crying). All this was so new and contrary to the Rococo style, it seemed so sublime that it served as an occasion for society to speak with enthusiasm about David as an artist and citizen; due to civic virtues, the artistic flaws of his works were not even noticed. Such a fascination with his paintings is understandable even for our time, if we take into account what the artist had in mind, who so decisively assimilated, as he thought, the ancient views on art. David set himself the task of portraying a person driven by strong motives corresponding to the most exalted moments of life, extremely remote in character from the ordinary moments of everyday life, which was considered base. A person with such an uplift of spirit could be depicted, according to David, only with the corresponding plastic perfection of forms, also far from the forms encountered daily. Only ancient art left us samples of perfect forms, and therefore David considered it necessary to give his heroes the ancient form, which he studied in statues, on vases, and bas-reliefs. Such was the artistic understanding of David, expressed by him in the paintings already mentioned, as well as in The Sabines (1799) and his other works. Society found civic ideas in David's works in his "Horaces" and "Brutus", ideal citizens who put kinship and family ties below a sense of duty towards their fatherland. In "Socrates" they saw a preacher of high truths, dying from the injustice of tyrants. David himself was imbued with such convictions, and when during the time of terror one of the artists, a person close to David, asked Robespierre to intercede for him to save the petitioner's sister from the guillotine, David coldly replied: “I wrote Brutus, I find that the government is fair, and I will not ask Robespierre." Consequently, David's paintings, to some extent tendentious, could only be successful at the time and in the society in which they appeared. In that era, the younger generation responded to him, and the social significance of his paintings was enormous: the republican spirit blew from the paintings. To the same extent, their artistic significance for that era was great: the effeminacy, playfulness and sensuality of modern painting could not resist the depiction of sublime and noble feelings, the exclusivity of which no one could then condemn. Moreover, David returned art to the correct design, not only in harmony with ancient beauty, but also with nature, since he taught to conform to nature without fail. The artistic teaching of David is actually a continuation of the teachings of Vienne, but David acted more decisively, breaking all connection with the Rococo style; possessing a strong will and taking advantage of the spirit of the times, he arbitrarily forced others to follow the path indicated by him. David proclaimed that "hitherto art had served only the pleasure of the ambition and whim of the Sybarites, who sat up to their necks in gold." “The despotism of certain sections of society,” he said, “kept out of favor anyone who would want to express pure ideas of morality and philosophy. Meanwhile, it is necessary that the depiction of examples of heroism and civic virtues electrify the people and arouse in them a love for glorifying and increasing the welfare of their fatherland. This is how the citizen and artist David, a republican, spoke approximately, not only in words, but, as you know, in deeds. The painter Bouquier condemned the art of the 18th century even more vigorously, saying approximately the following: “it is time to place in the galleries instead of these shameful works (preceding artists) others that could rivet the eyes of the republican people, honoring good morals and virtue. In the national galleries, instead of the erotic and mannered paintings of Boucher and his followers, or the paintings of Vanloo, with his feminine brush, there should be placed works of a masculine style that would characterize the heroic deeds of the sons of liberty. To express the energy of such a people, a strong style, a bold brush and a fiery genius are needed. David became the head of a new direction, and the old was already condemned by the revolutionary current of society, which destroyed everything that had hitherto existed, replacing it with a new one. Artists of the former direction tried to join the new trend, and since, due to the nature of their talent and habits, they did not succeed, they either completely stopped their activities, or changed beyond recognition. Dreams and Fragonard suddenly lost their significance, lost moral and material support from society and died forgotten by everyone. Fragonard was even compelled to take part in David's efforts to consolidate art's proper place in the new social system, and it was required that art ennoble the mores of society and teach it. Sculptors, engravers and even artisans, artists, goldsmiths, carvers - all obeyed David. It is remarkable that the republican themes of David's paintings ("Horaces", "Brutus") were approved or appointed, and the paintings were bought by Louis XVI himself, who, by such a concession to public opinion, seemed to participate in the general movement of ideas, since the social significance of these works was for everyone clear. After the deposition of the king and after condemning him to death, in which David also participated by his vote, and during the entire time of terror until the fall and execution of Robespierre, David's artistic activity was expressed in two paintings - "The Assassination of Pelletier" and later - "The Assassination of Marat", which were written for patriotic purposes. However, in them the artist treated his theme without any thought of K., and the second picture came out such that even now it has not lost its artistic significance. After the execution of Robespierre, David, as one of his accomplices, barely escaped the mortal danger, after which he wrote The Sabine Woman. During the time of Napoleon, he painted several official paintings to glorify him, had the least success in this kind, and during the restoration, expelled from France as a regicide, he again gave himself up in Brussels to ancient subjects and did not change his direction until his death. The artistic and partly civic aspirations of David, since the latter are expressible in painting, first appeared in his Belisarius (1781) - a theme that then became a favorite because it reminded of the ingratitude of the rulers. Now, when it is possible to judge his paintings only from the artistic side, they appear to be theatrical and declamatory in composition. Even in the Horaces, the artist's original intention was to present the event as it was portrayed on the stage in 1782, in the last act of Corneille's tragedy; only on the advice of friends did David depict a moment more suitable for painting, in spirit directly corresponding to Corneille's play, only not being in it. David's drawing was strict, the lines were deliberate, noble. In his school, not only antiques were studied, but also nature, which, however, he advised to change, as far as possible, in order to approach the ancient sculptural art. In general, in his instructions, as in his paintings, he confused the tasks of sculpting with the tasks of painting. With regard to his "Horaces", a correct critical remark was made that the figures painted in the picture could serve without change for a bas-relief, and, however, the theatrical pathos of the forms would still remain a drawback. With regard to color, his paintings seem completely unsatisfactory, since his heroes do not look like living people, but like palely painted statues. The technique of painting is too smooth and continuous, and extremely far from that courage and confidence, a certain degree of which is needed for the optical characterization of objects; in addition, furniture, architectural and other minor things are written out with the same diligence as the body of the characters. It should be noted that the portraits of David or portrait figures in his paintings are much more vital than his ancient heroes, although in portraits he sometimes pursued ancient poses, as, for example, in the portrait of Madame Recamier. Love for the antique did not teach David to look at nature correctly, as Diderot demanded. David, a free-thinking republican, did not allow the same freedom either in his political opponents or in artists; by persecuting the academicians of the old school, he made many enemies. At that time, events followed one after another so quickly that David did not have time to express them with a brush. So, the huge picture he started, depicting the conspirators in Jedepaume (the event of 1789), remained unfinished. In July 1794, an accusatory speech was delivered at the national convention against David himself, in which, among other things, he was exposed as a tyrant of art. Indeed, he suppressed one academic system in order to create another, also exceptional. In his time, the shortcomings of his system were not obvious, and its merits attracted to the school of David not only French, but also foreign painters, engravers, sculptors, who later spread the teachings of David throughout Europe. In a relatively short time he had more than 400 disciples, and his influence survived many decades, but with constant modification; Initially, however, it was academic in the narrow sense of the word and pseudo-classical, because it represented ancient life as if cold and impassive, and also because it transferred ancient K. to modern soil unusual for it (into pictures of modern life), trying to depersonalize the characteristic individuality of postures, movements, forms and expressions and give them types that satisfy the canonical rules that could be learned, like the rules of building art. David was not highly talented; he probably would not have been able to give the expression of passions their true form, he brought much more reflection than imagination and feelings into his pictures, but his success was due to the reasons explained above. Society was captivated by such a faithful representation of the antique; the powdering of the hair and the fancy accessories of the rococo costume were abandoned, women's costumes, similar to Greek tunics, came into fashion. Some of David's disciples (les Primitives) began to dress like Paris and Agamemnon. At the time of the Directory, the representatives of the people were even prescribed a cut of clothing, which, if possible, approached the ancient one. When David painted his painting “The Sabine Women”, the fascination with the antique was such that three ladies of the best society posed for the artist for models. At the end of the picture, David exhibited it separately, a detailed description explaining to the public the reason why the heroes of the picture were depicted naked; the author was sure that the Greeks and Romans would have found his picture consistent with their customs. The exhibition was visited for 5 years, delivered to the artist more than 65,000 francs and general praise. However, Napoleon, who did not understand painting, but knew the war and the soldier, noticed quite rightly that the Romans of David fought too impassively. At the end of the reign of Napoleon, David completed (1814) the long-conceived and begun painting "Leonidas at Thermopylae" - an academic work, without life and truth; what David wanted and what had to be expressed in the figure and face of Leonidas far exceeded the means of the artist, who was always superficial in expressing feelings. However, he himself was pleased with the expression of Leonid's head and was sure that no one else could express in it what he expressed.
Vienne, whose merits have been mentioned above, was not the only one who understood that the art of the 18th century itself strove for its fall in its extremes. Almost simultaneously with Vienne and Pierre Perron (1744-1815) tried to return art to the study of antiques and nature. In the same year with David, he also exhibited The Death of Socrates, but remained in this work with much of the old, both in terms of composition and in the interpretation of forms and draperies. Jean Joseph Tagliason, a student of Vienne, understood and portrayed the ancient world, like Racine and Corneille in their tragedies. Guillaume Guillon Lethierre (1760-1832), ten years director of the French Academy in Rome, wrote Brutus (1801) like David, but at a different moment; naked bodies and draperies are made after Roman sculptures in the spirit of the Davidic reform. Another picture - "The Death of Virginia", conceived in 1795, was completed only in 1831, when the trends of K. were already becoming obsolete. Guillaume Menajo (1744-1816), also a long time director of the academy in Rome, hesitantly stopped between the old and the new. The only artists who did not disappear into the shadows under David were Jean Baptiste Regnault (1754-1829) and François-André Vincent (1746-1816). The first of them, although he retained all his life a penchant for the graces and nymphs of the 18th century, however, having got to Rome from an early age, he took part in the general trend towards the antique. His The Education of Achilles (1783) gave him a name. In general, he promised to compete with David, whom at first he even surpassed in terms of color. Of his other paintings of the ancient world, we will name "The Death of Cleopatra", "Alcibiades and Socrates", "Pygmalion", "Toilet of Venus", "Hercules and Alceste"; Regnault also painted modern historical paintings, adhering to the views of David. Vincent, a disciple of Vienne, like David, made a name for himself before David appeared with his main works. Vincent, under the guidance of Vienne, also contributed to the improvement of the drawing and the study of forms, but shared the shortcomings of the new direction in relation to the theatricality of the poses and the lifelessness of color. His favorite subjects are taken from national history, he was the forerunner and head of subsequent artists of this kind and, among other things, Horace Vernet. From the paintings of Vincent we will name: “Belisarius begging”, “Zevskis choosing his model between the Croton girls”, “Henry IV and Sully”, “Battle under the pyramids”. An even more resolute champion of the classical direction was Pierre Guerin (1774-1833), who came out of the Regnault school. His painting "Mark Sextus Returning from Exile" (1799) made almost the same strong impression on society as "Horaces" a few years ago, because its appearance coincided with the era of the return of French emigrants to the fatherland. It is remarkable that this picture first depicted the blind Belisarius, returning to his family, then the eyes of the main figure were opened and she was remade into Sextus. In 1802, the painting Hippolytus, Phaedra and Theseus was exhibited, then Andromache (1808), Aeneas and Dido (1817). The main character of Guerin's works is the combination of the theatrical stiltedness of that time with sculpture, and in this kind the artist was very inventive; his painting was cold. Of these paintings, in which for the main characters he took as samples the then theatrical celebrities, the actor Talma and the actress Duchenois, the latter is still better than the others.
From the school of David came Drouet (1763-1788), on whom the teacher had high hopes; his painting "Mary at Manturn" was a success, but now it seems soulless and also with conditional theatrical figures. In execution - a painting like that of David. Another student of David - Girodet de Triozon (1767-1824) at first loved Greek mythology more than Roman history. His "Sleeping Endymion", in which moonlight gave rise to some color, was well received by the public, but the lack of school is visible in the figure. In his Hippocrates, theatricality of movements is visible. In 1806 he exhibited a scene from the Flood, depicting the dying calamities of a group of people seeking salvation; for this work, the artist received in 1810 the Napoleonic Prize, appointed for the best work of the past decade. Modern criticism saw in the artist a combination of Michelangelo and Raphael, and now his picture seems to be an academic and artificial composition, but with a touch of passion; now I like his "Atala and Shaktas" more. Gerard (1770-1830) - also a student of David - received his first fame with the painting "Belisarius (a favorite plot of that time), carrying his companion" (1791) - one of the best works of the classical direction; it was a great success, but his Psyche was less well received. Gerard became famous as a portrait painter and, indeed, a comparison of the portraits of his work with portraits of the 18th century, for example, Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743), shows a huge step towards simplicity and naturalness, since Rigaud models his portraits, sometimes artificial and cutesy, sometimes solemn , often attached even the attributes of mythological gods. Even the portraits of Greuze and Louise Vigée-Lebrun, due to the lack of characteristic individuality in the depicted face and some generalization of heterogeneous types, put forward portraits of Gerard. Robert Lefebvre and Keansom, Gerard's contemporaries, fashionable portrait painters who tried to please their models more than they pursued the truth, are now forgotten, Gerard still matters, although the vitality of his portraits is far from being as deep as in the works of the great masters. . The portrait painter Isaba, of the school of David, owes her a good drawing, but his paintings do not have great merit. The most significant artist to come out of David's workshop is Gros (1771-1835), but his fame is based on works in which he did not follow the advice of his teacher. His classical motifs: "Sappho throwing himself into the sea", "Ariadne and Bacchus", "Hercules throwing his horse to Diomedes" (1835) show his inability to this genus, while "The Battle of Abukir", "Plague in Jaffa" represented at one time a great movement towards understanding reality, they show great talent, observation and the power of representing what is seen in nature. It is amazing how Gro did not understand the nature of his talent and, completely obeying the views of his teacher, considered, together with him, the content of the pictures of modern life as something accidental and their interest was transient for art. “Read Plutarch,” David repeatedly said and wrote to him, “there you will find samples worthy of your brush.” Gro was highly respected by his compatriots, some critics exaggeratedly saw in him a combination of Rubens and Veronese, his school formed up to 400 artists. But when Gro renounced his best works and taught to follow David in everything, and himself returned at the first opportunity to the classical subjects, with which, however, he coped so unsuccessfully, he lost all significance for his contemporaries. Another of David's talented students, Francois-Xavier Fabre (1766-1837), who wrote in the classical genre: "Oedipus in the Column", "Death of Narcissus", "Neoptolem and Ulysses", etc., did not justify the hopes of his teachers. In historical paintings, painted constantly under the recollection of school lessons, he also did not rise, and in the last years of his activity he limited himself to landscapes and portraits. Jean-Baptiste Vicard (1762-1834), who wrote, among other things, "Orestes and Pylades" and "Electra", "Virgil reads the Aeneid to Augustus", spent most of his life in Italy, did not have a direct influence on French art with his works , but his activity is noted in another respect (see Vikar). Of the other followers of K. - Louis Duci (1773-1847) wrote on motifs from mythology; Philippe-August Hennequin (1763-1833), Claude Gauthereau (1765-1825), Charles Thévenin (1760-1838), Jean-Baptiste Debray (1763-1845), Charles Meunier (1768-1832) and some others wrote antique and allegorical, partly historical paintings, partly portraits. Almost all of these artists, who adhered to the world of ideal, from the point of view of academic K., forms, did not have enough talent to breathe real life into them. Some of them were official painters of churches and monasteries and of the Louvre plafonds. Some of them and another group depicted in monumental proportions battles, military scenes and parades, reigning persons in various eras of their lives and activities. The same can be said about the students of Regno and Vincent, but all of them for the most part had models of David and Gros, who, after the expulsion of David from France in 1815, became the official representative of French painting; no one had a special talent and no one dared to be original, with rare and weak exceptions.
When David was at the height of his influence, both artistic and social, few artists retained their isolation. Pierre-Paul Prudhon (1758-1823), although he took subjects from mythology (“Graces”, “Aphrodite”, “Psyche”, “Zephyrs”, “Adonis”), he animated this material with his feeling and owned the color of life. His attitude to the school of David is evident from his review of Drouet, one of David's most capable students. “In pictures and in the theater one can see people depicting passions, who, however, without expressing the character inherent in the object they represent, look as if they are playing a comedy and only parodying what they should be.” David, recognizing Prudhon's talent, unfairly called him a modern Boucher; Prudhon possessed an understanding of natural forms and movements unknown to Boucher, who often painted complex paintings without nature, but who prided himself on the fact that he could gracefully bend an arm or leg. Of Prudhon's paintings, one ("Crime Pursued by Justice and Vengeance"), in terms of passion and power of expression and color, is considered the harbinger of a new direction, which, however, was discovered only fifteen years later. It is remarkable that in the same year (1808) the public got acquainted with the painting by Girodet "Atala and Shaktas", the plot of which was taken from Chateaubriand, and not from history or the ancient world, as everyone did in that era, - a painting that differed in color from ordinary works of the school of David. But all the long, exceptionally original for that time activity of Prudhon did not in the least shake the school of David.
Classicism is a style of painting that began to develop during the Renaissance. Translated from Latin "classicus" means - "exemplary". In simple words, classicism at the very dawn of its formation was considered ideal in terms of painting. The artistic style developed in the 17th century and began to gradually disappear in the 19th century, giving way to such trends as romanticism, academicism and realism. Renaissance The style of painting and sculpture of classicism appeared at a time when artists and sculptors turned to the art of antiquity and began to copy many of its features. Classicism expresses the exact image, but the figures in the paintings of artists look quite sculptural, one might even say exaggerated - unnatural. People on such canvases may seem like frozen sculptures in "talking" poses. The poses of people in classicism speak for themselves what is happening at the moment and what emotions this or that character is experiencing - heroism, defeat, grief, and so on. All this is presented in an exaggerated - ostentatious manner.
Classicism Classicism, which was built on the foundations of the ancient depiction of men and women of idealized athletic or exaggeratedly feminine physique, required Renaissance and subsequent artists to depict people and animals in their paintings in this form. Therefore, in classicism it is impossible to find a man or even an old man with flabby skin or a woman with a shapeless figure. Classicism is an idealized image of everything that is present in the picture. Since in the ancient world it was accepted to portray a person as an ideal creation of the gods, which has no flaws, the artists and sculptors who began to copy this style fully began to correspond to this idea. Also, classicism often resorted to ancient mythology. With the help of ancient Greek and Roman mythology, both the plots from myths themselves and the plots modern for artists with elements of ancient mythology could be depicted. Mythological motifs in the paintings of classical artists subsequently took the form of symbolism, that is, through ancient symbols, artists expressed this or that message, meaning, emotion, mood.
Nicolas Poussin Born in Normandy in 1594. He is considered the most significant French painter of the 17th century After an initial training in Rouen in 1612, he came to Paris, then wandered around Italy and in 1624 settled in Rome, where he lived for the rest of his life. he and the works that have come down to us date back to the Roman period. He carried out large orders and became the recognized head of classicism. The work of this master became the pinnacle of French classicism and influenced many artists of subsequent centuries
"Healing of the Blind" The painting "Healing of the Blind" is written on the gospel story. Against the backdrop of a rather rigidly executed landscape with picturesque architecture among the clumps of trees, a group of people is shown, consisting, as it were, of two parts: Christ with the disciples and a group of townspeople with a kneeling blind man, whom Christ touches hand
“Jerusalem Liberated” Most of the plots of Poussin’s paintings have a literary basis. Some of them are written based on the work of the Italian Renaissance poet Torquato Tasso “Jerusalem Liberated”, which tells about the campaigns of the crusader knights in Palestine
"Landscape with Polyphemus" An important place in the work of Poussin was occupied by the landscape. It is always inhabited by mythological heroes. This is reflected in the titles of the works: "Landscape with Polyphemus", "Landscape with Hercules" But their figures are small and almost invisible among the huge mountains, clouds and trees. Characters of ancient mythologies act here as a symbol of the spirituality of the world. The same idea is expressed by the composition of the landscape, simple, logical, orderly
Claude Lorrain () Claude Lorrain was a contemporary of Poussin The real name of the artist is Claude Gellet, and he received the nickname Lorrain by the name of his place of birth in the province of Lorraine As a child, he came to Italy, where he began to study painting. The artist spent most of his life in Rome
Morning in the harbor of Lorrain devoted his work to the landscape, which in France of the 17th century. was a rarity. His canvases embody the same ideas and compositional principles as the landscapes of Poussin, but are distinguished by a greater subtlety of color and a masterly built perspective. Lorrain was interested in the play of tones, the image of air and light on canvas
Noon The artist gravitated toward soft chiaroscuro and even diffused lighting, which allows him to convey the effect of “dissolving” the outlines of objects in the distance. The figures of the characters in the foreground seem almost invisible compared to the epic majestic trees, mountain slopes, and the sea surface, on which light plays with gentle glare. It is Lorrain who follows considered the founder of the traditions of the French landscape
Charles Lebrun () The extensive legacy of Charles Lebrun perfectly traces the changes that French classicism underwent. Having received the title of the first painter of the king, Lebrun participated in all official projects, primarily in the design of the Grand Palace in Versailles. His paintings glorified the power of the French monarchy and the greatness of Louis XIV the Sun King Lebrun also painted many portraits. His customers were mainly royal ministers and the court aristocracy. The painter indulged their tastes in everything, turning his paintings into a ceremonial theatrical performance. This is how French Chancellor Pierre Seguier is shown: this politician received the nickname “a dog in a big collar” during his lifetime, but Lebrun did not even hint at his cruelty, a nobleman with a noble posture and a face full of wise dignity, sits on a horse surrounded by retinue
Entry of Alexander the Great into Babylon Thanks to Lebrun, the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture was founded in 1648, he led the Royal Manufactory of Tapestries and Furniture for many years. In his long teaching career at the academy, Lebrun proved himself a real dictator, insisting, above all, on thorough training drawing and neglecting color, while referring to the authority of Poussin, he imperceptibly turned his principles into a dead dogma
Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the seventeenth - early nineteenth century, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying it determined the view of theorists and practitioners of the classical style on a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life.
Classicism, which developed in polemical interaction with the Baroque, developed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - to reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of the classical style was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671). In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by the logic of planning and the clarity of volumetric form, the order plays the main role, subtly and restrainedly shading the overall structure of the building (architects: Mansart Francois, Perro Claude, Levo Louis, Blondel Francois); from the second half of the 17th century, French classicism absorbs the spatial scope of baroque architecture (Hardouin-Mansart Jules and Le Nôtre Andre, the work of architects in Versailles).
In the 17th - early 18th centuries, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland, England, where it organically combined with Palladianism (Ainigo Jones, Christopher Wren), Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger). In classical style painting, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling, local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, separates the spatial plans of the picture; marked by the loftiness of philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the works of Poussin Nicolas, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of the 17th century; "ideal landscapes" (painter Lorrain Claude).
Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an exquisite mansion, a grand public building, an open city square (Gabrielle Jacques Ange and Souflot Jacques Germain) were determined, the search for new, orderless forms of architecture, the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of Ledoux Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of the classical style - Empire. Civic pathos and lyricism combined in plastic (Pigalle Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous drama of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David.
In the 19th century, the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerates into an official apologetic or pretentiously erotic salon art. Rome became the international center of the European classical style of the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the traditions of academism dominated, with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization (German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Dane Thorvaldsen Bertel). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the severe monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, for the contemplative-elegiac mood of painting and plastic art - portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, sculpture by Johann Gottfried Schadow.
In English classicism, the antiquities of Robert Adam, the Palladian park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of the classical style developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, the USA; an outstanding place in the history of world art is occupied by Russian classicism of the 1760s-1840s. By the end of the first third of the 19th century, the leading role of this stylistic trend in art was almost universally fading away, it was being replaced by various forms of architectural eclecticism. The artistic tradition of the classical style comes to life in neoclassicism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Reference and biographical data of the Small Bay Planet Art Gallery are prepared on the basis of materials from the History of Foreign Art (edited by M.T. Kuzmina, N.L. Maltseva), the Artistic Encyclopedia of Foreign Classical Art, and the Great Russian Encyclopedia.
Classicism (from the Latin “classicus”, i.e. “exemplary”) is a direction in painting, one of the characteristic features of which was the strict observance of a number of rules and canons. The rules were developed as a means to achieve the main goal - to educate the population, showing them sublime examples and examples.
Classicism focused on works of ancient art, but this did not mean ordinary copying. The direction also assumed the continuity of the aesthetic traditions of the Renaissance, whose artists very often turned to the theme of antiquity.
Classicism originates in the painting of artists of Western European countries at the end of the 16th century. The Carracci brothers made a great contribution to the systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great masters of the Renaissance, especially Michelangelo and Raphael. In the 1580s they opened the Academy of Arts in Bologna, the training in which was based on a detailed study of the principles of the work of great painters (from the basics of building a composition to drawing) and imitating their skills.
At the beginning of the XVII century. novice painters from different countries come to Rome to study painting on the basis of acquaintance with the masterpieces of antiquity and the Renaissance. The Frenchman Nicolas Poussin (1594-1664) achieved great success. Subsequently, he created many artistically worthy works on the themes of antiquity and mythology. His works were distinguished by unsurpassed accuracy of composition and thoughtfulness of color schemes (“Midas and Bacchus”, 1625; “Triumph of Neptune”, 1634).
Another French artist Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) painted a series of landscapes around Rome. He became the first of the painters who became seriously interested in the issue of depicting morning and evening lighting, light saturation. Filigree work with light and images of silhouettes, creating the effect of depth of space - all this creates the style of Lorrain's works ("Landscape with Merchants", 1628; "The Abduction of Europe", 1655, etc.).
Classicism reached its peak in the 17th century. together with the flourishing of absolute monarchy in France and a pronounced rise in theatrical art. At the head of the direction is the Academy of Arts, opened in 1648 in Paris, which created a set of unshakable rules and laws for painting.
Only the beautiful and sublime could become the subject of art; antiquity remained the aesthetic ideal (therefore, one cannot find a person with a shapeless figure or flabby skin in the works of the classicists). The Academy also established principles for depicting "passions"; she also divided the genres of art into “high” (historical, religious, mythological) and “low” (portrait, landscape, still life, everyday genre), and the combination of genres in the paintings was not allowed.
In the works of classicism, the main importance was given to: the logical meaning of the plot, a clear and competent composition, and the correct transmission of volume. Line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of building the form; the division in the plans of the landscape was carried out using color (the foreground was made brown, the middle one - greenish, the far one - blue).
Prominent representatives of European "late classicism" or "neoclassicism" were the French artists Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Extremely dry and full of drama, the pictorial language of Jacques-Louis David sang with equal success the ideals of the Great French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”, 1793) and glorified the First Empire in France (“Dedication of the Emperor Napoleon I”, 1805-07).
The paintings of Ingres, who often turned to romantic subjects, delight with a sense of style, grace of lines, and a magnificent play of color and light (Great Odalisque, 1814; Seated Bather, 1808).
Gradually, the painting of European neoclassicism, despite the activities of individual major painters (Jacques-Louis David and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental salon art.
Russian classicism appeared in the process of Europeanization of Russia under Catherine II and was widespread at the end of the 18th and in the first half of the 19th centuries. On the canvases of artists, the ideas of citizenship, lofty moral ideals, patriotism, and the value of the human person become dominant. Antique culture, as well as in European classicism, is taken as an absolute classic and an invaluable historical heritage. Art is seen as a means that should tame coarse passions and engage in moral education through the romantic affirmation of beauty.
The representatives of Russian classicism primarily include portrait painters D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822), F. Rokotov (1736-1808), V. A. Tropinin (1776-1857), O. Kiprensky (1782 -1836), V. Borovikovsky (1757-1825). The painters created a whole gallery of wonderful portraits of their contemporaries - works that glorify the inner beauty and nobility of human aspirations.
Portraits conveyed to us the images of famous people and showed the maturity and artistic skill of the artists. Among the most famous works are “Coronation portrait of Catherine II” by F. Rokotov, 1763; "Portrait of E. I. Nelidova" by D. Levitsky, 1773; “Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina” by V. Borovikovsky, 1797; "Portrait of Pushkin" by V. Tropinin, 1827
The famous Russian classicist is K. A. Bryullov (1799-1852). In his paintings, academic classicism was combined with romanticism. The artist's most famous canvas, The Last Day of Pompeii (1830-33), is notable for its dramatic plot, theatrical effect of plasticity, complexity of lighting, and virtuoso performance.
These and other artists - representatives of classicism - in their works in many respects anticipated the achievements of Russian realism in subsequent decades.
The formation of classicism in Russia The emergence and formation of classicism in Russia is closely connected with the development of social thought and educational ideas of the second half of the eighteenth century. The ideas of citizenship and duty, as well as the moral education of a citizen, were widely developed. Classicism as a new artistic direction was defined in the 1760s. He chose to emulate the ancient classics and valued her for the clarity of form and the logic of thought, but most of all - for the ideal of a citizen she created. The basis of the aesthetics of classicism was the assertion that art in one ideal image of beauty unites what in reality exists in separate and disparate parts. Art must make up for the beauty and harmony that is missing in nature as a whole. In Russia, the style of classicism captured a fairly large time period, so there is a division into chronological stages. The first period - 1760-1780s - early classicism, mature classicism "fits" in the last twenty years of the eighteenth century. The beginning of the 19th century gave rise to a new name for the late phase of classicism. In Napoleonic France, the so-called "imperial style" was born - the Empire style, which also spread to Russia.
A. P. Losenko - the founder of Russian classicism A. P. Losenko (1737 -1773) is rightly considered the founder of the academic school of painting of Russian classicism. One of the best paintings of the painter is Hector's Farewell to Andromache. The plot of the work is taken from the VI book of Homer's Iliad. Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam, says goodbye to his wife and young son. He goes to defend the city of Troy besieged by the Achaeans.
LOSENKO DOESN'T EXACTLY ILLUSTRATE THE CONTENT OF THE THIS SCENE. USING INDIVIDUAL MOTIFS OF THE ANTIQUE EPOS, THE ARTIST INVESTED IN THE WORK A DIFFERENT CONTENT, COMPLETELY BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICISM. LOSENKO'S PLAN IS BASED ON THE IDEA OF DUTY TO THE HOMELAND AND HEROIC SELF-SACRIFICE IN THE NAME OF THE HOMELAND. THIS HIGH IDEA IS SUBJECTED TO THE ALL DECISION OF THE WOOD. EVERYTHING PERSONAL, DEEPLY HUMAN, FALLS BACK. COMPARED WITH THE HOMERIC HEROES, THE IMAGES CREATED BY THE CLASSICIST ARTIST APPEAR MORE DISCHARGED, BUT HIGH. THEY LOSE THEIR VITALITY AND VARIETY, BUT BECOME EXPRESSIONS OF ONE IDEA, ONE FEELING. THE COMPOSITION OF THE PICTURE IS CLEARLY DESIGNED AND LOGICALLY BUILT. THE TWO MAIN FIGURES, HECTOR AND ANDROMACHE, ARE PUSHED FORWARD AND POSITIONED IN THE CENTER. THEY ARE INCLUDED IN A CLASSICAL TRIANGLE AND HIGH LOOKING WITH LIGHT. ON THE LEFT IS A GROUP OF GUARDS AND WARRIORS WITH A BANNER. RIGHT - SERVANTS HOLDING HECTOR'S HELMET, SPEAR AND SHIELD. THEY SURROUND THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN A SEMI-CIRCLE. SECONDARY FIGURES PERFORM THE FUNCTION OF MUTE EXTRAS, THEY DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN THE ACTION. WARRIORS AND SERVANTS COMPOSE A PASSIVE "CROWD", WHICH IS OPPOSED TO ACTIVE "HEROES". HERE THE OFFICIAL VIEW OF HISTORY IS CLEARLY SHOWN AS ABOUT THE ACTS OF KINGS AND HEROES, THE PEOPLE CANNOT AND SHOULD NOT TAKE ANY PART IN THEM.
The main idea of the work is embodied only by the central characters. The influence of classicism is felt in the solution of the main images no less clearly than in the solution of the composition. Hector in a pathetic pose, with outstretched hand, raising his eyes to the sky, vows to give his life for the freedom of Troy. Tragic pathos marked not only the pose and gesture of the hero, but also his whole appearance, courageous and noble. Hector embodies the classic ideal of male beauty.
A classic example of the style of classicism in the portrait genre is the famous "Portrait of Catherine II - the Legislator in the Temple of the Goddess of Justice" (1783) by D. G. Levitsky. The conditionally rhetorical pathos of the image is embodied with the help of the plastic expressiveness of the posture and gesture characteristic of this style. The figure of Catherine is brought to the fore and highlighted with light. With an outstretched hand, she points to an altar on which poppy flowers are burned (poppy is a symbol of sleep).
In the portrait description of Catherine the Great, the universally significant, official and high, so valued in classicism, comes to the fore, obscuring the personal and emotional side of the soul. The “God-like” empress is presented in an antique outfit – the dress is likened to a tunic, on her head is not an imperial crown, but a laurel Nenets.
An example of mature classicism in Russian historical painting is the painting “The Election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the Tsardom on March 14, 1613” by G. I. Ugryumov (17641823), a follower of A. P. Losenko.
The artist chose one of the important moments in Russian history - the election of the young boyar M.F. Romanov to the kingdom, who became the founder of a new dynasty that ruled in Russia until 1917. In the transfer of the plot, the painter proceeded from the official interpretation of this event by historians: Mikhail, realizing the difficult situation in which Russia was, only yields to the requests of the people. The embarrassed young man, putting his right hand to his heart, the other, as it were, moves away from the embassy that has come to him. A group of main characters - Michael, his mother, and Archbishop Theodoret - are represented in the center of the composition, on the pulpit in front of the iconostasis. The heroes are highlighted compositionally, as well as with the help of light and bright colorful combinations. On the right are famous historical figures. Their gestures are full of gravity and solemnity. In contrast, they depict common people on the left, ardently and invitingly striving for the newly-appeared king. Ugryumov paints with great skill a rich interior, a carved iconostasis, and magnificent clothes of the depicted people.
The Colosseum, like no other monument, is closely connected with ancient mythology and history. As a true classicist artist, Matveev strove to express the idea of beauty and heroic sublimity, to convey the majestic breath of the past. "Protagonist" Colosseum is located strictly in the center of the composition The painter divides the space Following the rules of classicism, Matveev on plans parallel to the canvas. conveys exactly the outlines of the object with a contour. In the foreground, stones, bushes and lines and chiaroscuro characterize its structure, and the granite parapet color reflects the color of the object; The length of neighboring objects. Classicism elevates everything of the second plan revealed not only observed in nature into a certain absolute, thicker than the Colosseum, but also from a perspective, so the local color turns into the soil and buildings and gardens of Rome into an ideal race of objects. The whole depth on both sides of the vegetation is green, the ruins are the Colosseum. The third plan is brown, yellow - for architectural details, the background for the main object. gray - for the walls of houses.
Portraits of mature classicism (Empire) in the work of V. L. Borovikovsky An example of an Empire portrait can be the work of V. L. Borovikovsky (17571825) “Portrait of M. I. Dolgoruky”, which was created by the artist in 1811
The perfect figure of a beautiful woman stands out in a clear silhouette against the smooth background of the wall. Borovikovsky combined here the fullness of plastic forms with the beauty of the silhouette and the nobility of color. The lines are elastic, the volumes are expressive. The artist builds the space in such a way that the dark red velvet of the dress perfectly sets off the whiteness of the bare shoulders and arms. The artist is extremely concise and expressive. Over time, the lofty ideas of classicism began to become obsolete. Society was "tired" of the repeated repetition of ready-made samples, and the apologists of the style continued to insist that perfection had already been achieved by ancient art and there was nothing more to invent, invent, discover. Gradually, classicism turned into academism.
