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Kodukhov. Introduction to linguistics

Kodukhov. Introduction to linguistics

20.09.2019

An ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in the word in comparison with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

In the noun pupil, in relation to the forms of indirect cases of pupil, pupil, etc., pupils, pupils, etc., a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the form of the nominative singular.

In combination pair of boots, the second word, but in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.), distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive plural.

In the short adjective new, in relation to the forms of other genders and the plural nova, new, new, the zero ending of the singular masculine is distinguished. The zero ending in the possessive pronoun ours has a similar meaning (in comparison with the forms ours, ours, ours). In the verb form read, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the masculine gender (in comparison with the forms read, read, read). Zero endings go back to endings that were once materially expressed, and appeared as a result of the phonetic loss of reduced vowels (ъ) and (ь) at the end of words ( cf. Old Russian table, read, pain - in the last word, ь was a graphic sign denoting a reduced vowel of the front-mid row of the middle rise).

"zero inflection" in books

Word isolation. Flexion and agglutination

From the book Selected Works on Linguistics author Humboldt Wilhelm von

Zero life

From the book Yesterday. Part two. In a black overcoat author Melnichenko Nikolay Trofimovich

Zero life Fate is a turkey, life is a penny. (Something folk) The main solution is already there. Whether it will be successful - no one knows, even the author, who just "hopes". But it’s still far from “actions”: you must first remove it from the “nulevik” - the zero reservoir

Zero energy

From the book What awaits us when oil runs out, the climate changes and other catastrophes of the 21st century erupt author Kunstler James Howard

Zero energy

From the book What awaits us when oil runs out, the climate changes, and other disasters break out author Kunstler James Howard

Zero energy This is some mysterious theoretical process described by scientists involved in quantum physics. It was called "a quantum gift, for which, in the end, you will have to pay." The theory of zero energy involves the use of energy

196 Zero point

From the book Inner Light. Osho Meditation Calendar for 365 days author Rajneesh Bhagwan Shri

196 Zero point We are used to ups and downs: when we are on the rise, we are good, when the recession comes, we are bad. But exactly in the middle there is a point that is neither above nor below - a neutral point. Sometimes the neutral point can be very scary - because when

Zero chakra

From the book Yoga author Abramovich Mark

Zero chakra Location: The zero chakra has no padma, as it does not contact not only Sushumna, but the whole human body. It is located under the crotch, at the level of the knees. All contacts with other energy centers are carried out across the field due to

4. INFLECTION OF WORDS

From the book Words and Things [Archaeology of the Humanities] author Foucault Michel

4. INFLECTION OF WORDS An exact response to all these developments can be found in the study of language, but, undoubtedly, here they appear less clearly and more gradually. The reason for this is not difficult to discover: the fact is that throughout the classical age, language was affirmed and

ZERO DEGREE

From the book Postmodernism [Encyclopedia] author

ZERO DEGREE

From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary. Postmodernism. author Gritsanov Alexander Alekseevich

ZERO DEGREE - the concept of postmodern philosophy (see), meaning the imaginary referentiality of the mythological (R Barthes [see]), hyperreal or simulacrum (J. Baudrillard [see]), as well as the limited nature of hyperinterpretation (Eko [see] ); de-construct of radical reflection

internal flexion

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (VN) of the author TSB

Zero morpheme

TSB

Zero energy

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (NU) of the author TSB

Flexion

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (FL) of the author TSB

15.9.1 Null authentication

From the book TCP/IP Architecture, Protocols, Implementation (including IP version 6 and IP Security) the author Faith Sidney M

15.9.1 Null authentication Null authentication is true to its name. No authentication information is used - the credentials and verifier fields of the request and response messages contain the same

DOVECOTE: Flexion and anger

From the book Magazine `Computerra` N736 author Computerra magazine

DOVECOAT: Flexion and Anger Author: Sergei Golubitsky What saddens me the most is the misunderstanding of the totalitarian style of Dovecote. It seems that without further explanation, I will not be able to adequately perceive a column that a huge army of goblins hates and yet

There are many words with a zero ending, they have a zero ending in the nominative case, and change when declension.

Eg:

fear (zero ending) - fear (ending -a-), wolf - wolf, steppe - steppe,

pain - pain

brother - to brother, in order to understand that there is a zero ending, it is enough to change the word by number or cases.

Examples of null endings:

secretary;
help;
calculator;
magazine;
life;
groom;
batteries;
lazy person;
a curtain;
great-grandfather;
came;
Firefly;
implemented;
volt;
composer;
water pipes;
nightingale;
thistle;
ant.

Examples of words with a zero ending can be as follows: move, union, watermelon, year, city, fetus, bridge, mouse, wounded, order, husband, table, matchmaker, brother, nose, meadow, leaf, peanut, sock, slippers, elk , elephant, hero, night, beautiful and more.
Examples of nouns with a zero ending, as a rule, these are words of the 2nd or 3rd declension, for example:
lilac, execution, compote, chair, phone, engine, backpack, oven.
It is worth noting that the zero ending in other case forms becomes materially expressed. Compare:
lilac - zero ending,
lilacs - ending I;
compote - zero ending,

compote - ending OM.
Examples of verbs with a zero ending, a large layer of such words are masculine words of the past tense of the indicative mood, for example:
came in, finished, ran across, poured out, ran, looked in, jumped over, drank, finished, etc.
Examples - fox, tasks, walked, oven.
There are certain rules that govern the definition of null termination. This rule is already passed in the third grade and it sounds like this
We remember the declension gender, number, case, what effect they have on the formation of the ending.
Examples of words with a zero ending: table, cat, fur, sin, ax, pie, forest, demon, light, answer, husband, throne, magician, peace, shutter, sunset, answer, stack, barn, Cossack, warrior, blacksmith, armor, ocean, dinosaur, space. In other forms, all these words have endings. For example: blacksmith-a, blacksmith-om, blacksmith-s. Therefore, all the words given for example also have an ending, which is considered zero.
Null-terminated words are not to be confused with invariant words, since they have no endings in any form.
Zero inflections are called(endings in the school curriculum) that we do not pronounce and do not hear sounds They not expressed, and also do not write and do not see letters They not marked. Flexions are found only at significant inflected words inclined or conjugated.
Zero inflection is revealed by a simple comparison of the form given to us with other word forms of the same lexeme, where the inflections are pronounced.
Consider, as an example, a small sentence: Brother did his homework. There are two lexemes with zero inflections in nm: BRATIK, PERFORMED. The lexeme BRATIK is in the initial form, there is no EXPRESSED inflection behind the stem, but any word forms from the paradigm of its form change help to understand that it exists: BRATIK, BRATIKOM (inflections -A, -OM). The same is true in the verb PERFORMED: as soon as we put it in a different gender or a different number (PERFORMED, PERFORMED, PERFORMED) it will become clear: in the word form from the sentence given as an example, inflection is zero.
Zero inflections are:
IMN NOUNS
number one:
- 2nd sk. husband. kind in them. fall: ghost, interruption, internationalism, baboon, brother;
- inanimate 2nd cl. husband. kind in wines. fall: I recognize the locker, telephone, rise, alarm clock;
- 3rd sk. in the fall them. and wine: degree, mouse, target, falseness;
- various PATH in the same cases;
plural:
- 2nd sk. husband. and avg. genus (not all) and 1st cl. kind of women. and husband. in the fall genus: no towns, schools, lands, sisters, steeps, grandfathers;
- various on -MYA in the fall. genus. pl. numbers (except for the lexemes TEMA, FLAME, BURDEN, they do not have a plural number): imn, time, tribal, sign, vymn (unusually, but the lexeme VYYA is used in the plural), seeds, stirrups;
IMN ADJECTIVES:
- The possessives on -IY, -OV (-EB), -IN- (-YN-) are all suffixes, in the pad. them. and wine. husband. kind: whose? Mashin, papa, tsaritsyn, grandfathers, Dalev (about the dictionary), raven, wolf, bear;
- short qualitative ones including units. male gender: handsome, interesting, magnificent, attractive, powerful;
IN PRONOUNS
- demonstrative and possessive in number of units. sort of husband. (cases of them. And, if they spread an inanimate noun, wine.): this, that, your, mine, ours, yours, yours;
- demonstrative SUCH and interrogative-relative WHAT in the number of units. kind of husband;
- personal I, YOU and HE (in other inflections expressed in the words WE, YOU inflection -Y);
IMN NUMERALS:
- quantitative with the value of a) units (5 9), b) whole tens (10 80) and c) whole hundreds (200 900) per pad. them. and wine. and in complex numbers. in these cases there are two zero inflections: at the end of the word and in the middle, as well as two expressed in other cases, with the exception of the two indicated above;
- quantitative, denoting whole hundreds (200 900) in the genus. pad. at the end of words: two hundred, four hundred, eight hundred, five hundred;
- ONE (male) in the pad. them. and, when combined with noun. inanimate, in wine;
FOR VERBS:
- indicative mood in masculine. kind of past tense: translated, tested, illustrated, scattered;
- conditional inclinations in the gender masculine. unit numbers: would translate, test, illustrate, scatter;
- imperative moods in the number of units: review, laugh, add, mark;
AT PARTICIPONES passive short numbers units. kind of male: we carry (from carried), we decide (from solved), completed, built.
Besides, one should distinguish between words with zero inflections and words in which there are no inflections.
Zero ending is a fairly common case in the Russian language and there are quite a lot of words that have such an ending not expressed by sounds or letters. For example, many nouns have zero endings in the nominative case: Wolf, Hare, Elephant, Thrush, Mouse, Rabbit. When changing the form of a word, the ending in these words appears - Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf.
Another case of the presence of a zero ending may be the disappearance of the ending expressed by the sound during declension, for example, in the plural. So in the word Owl the ending is A, but in the plural and the genitive case we get the word (no one?) SOV, also with a zero ending.
Zero ending not materially expressed. That is, it is there, but we do not see it. There is no sound after the root, which expresses the grammatical meaning. For example, the word house. When changing, the ending appears - home, home, home, etc.
Son, Georgian, soldier, pomegranate, move, year, city, fruit, bridge, order, matchmaker, brother, husband, table, nose, meadow, leaf, union, watermelon, toddler, sock, slippers, elk, elephant, hero, night, mouse, wounded, beautiful, etc.

word functions. Therefore, many linguists raised the question of isolating a special section of linguistic science - the doctrine of parts of speech, which, however, did not receive a special terminological name. Despite the absence of a term, parts of speech are the focus of most grammatical concepts.

§ 33. MORPHEMS

Morpheme 1 is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. Unlike a word and a sentence, which are capable of independent use, a morpheme acts as an integral part of the word and the form of the word, for example: The word is nominative, the sentence is communicative, the morpheme is the structural unit of the language; it is a means of expressing grammatical meanings.

Morpheme as a two-sided unit Unlike phonemes,

morphemes are two-sided units of the language: they have two sides - semantic (content plan) and phonetic (expression plan). For example, the word coat is divided into the rootpalt- and the suffix -o; the suffix -o has a phoneme (o) in the plane of expression, and the meaning of the neuter gender in the plane of content. The word-village is divided into osnovsel- and inflection -o; inflection -o has a phoneme (o) by the plan of expression, the meaning of the neuter gender of the nominative-accusative case of the singular by the plan of content. Therefore, we have homonymous morphemes: the suffix -o (the noun coat in the literary language does not decline) and the inflection -o (the noun village declines).

The ratio of the semantic and phonetic aspects of the morpheme, their variance can take on various forms. To more accurately describe the structure of a morpheme, the concepts of morph and seme are introduced.

M o r f o y is a specific phonetic variant of a morpheme. So, inflection -o of neuter nouns has two phonetic morphs - [o] and [b], cf. village, nodelo [b]. Sem is called the smallest unit of the semantic side of the morpheme. Morphemes are monosemic and (single-valued) and polysemous and (multi-valued). So, the suffix of the noun coat has one seme - the meaning of the middle gender; the inflection of the noun village contains three semes, meaning: 1) gender (neuter), 2) case (nominative or accusative), 3) number (singular). Inflection is a polysemic ending, the formative suffix is a monosemic ending.

Since the connection between the semantic and phonetic sides can historically shift and collapse, insofar as the language

The terms “morpheme” and “morpha” are formed on the basis of the Greek noun \yudts>m\ - form.

There are no morphemes with broken two-sidedness, for example, null morphemes. A null morpheme is a morpheme without a morph, that is, a material (phonetic) expression. So, in the Old Russian language the word slave had an inflection -ъ; as a result of the fall of the reduced ones, this inflection has lost its phonetic expression: . However, this form remained in the composition of the forms of the noun, preserving this gender, number and case against the background of other case forms: slave, noraba, slaves; cf. wife. Consequently, the grammatical meaning is expressed paradigmatically in these cases, and we say that in the form of a dictionary, there is a stem and zero inflection.

The presence of inflection as an indicator of grammatical meanings leads to the fact that all changing words receive these grammatical meanings even when one or another form does not have inflection specially expressed by one or another sound. The absence of inflection, which indicates grammatical meaning in relation to other forms, is called zero inflection. Zero inflection in Russian occurs in the formation of a number of forms. It can express the meaning of grammatical gender, for example: table (cf. water, village), walked(cf.

walked, walked), good (cf. good, good); the value of a number, for example: table (cf. tables), bone (cf. bones), walked (cf. walked), good (cf.

kind); case meaning, for example: table (cf. water, ox), waves (cf.

tables, waves, waves).

Types of morphemes. According to their purpose in the language, morphemes are divided into three types: 1) roots, 2) stems, 3) affixes.

The root is the common part of all related words that form a derivational nest. The root can be used as a producing base and be part of the producing base.

into the composition of the generating base: the word splashdown is formed from the verb splashdown - to sit on the water; producing base

nest, but also in the center of expression and formation of lexical meaning. Therefore, there are no languages without roots; words can be equal to the root (for example, yes, no). Being an obligatory part of a word and being repeated in many words, the root undergoes all sorts of phonetic and semantic changes. So, in words sleep - fall asleep - fall asleep - sleep

the root dream appears in a free state, used as a noun, while in verbs it appears in a bound state - -syp-, -sn-, -sp-; finding the root requires etymological analysis.

The stem is a common part of words and word forms that are in direct connection. The basis expresses, on the one hand

on the one hand, the lexical meaning of the given word, and on the other hand, its general grammatical meaning. So, the stem audn- expresses the meaning of the attribute, while the water- expresses the meaning of the action. Being fundamentally compound morphemes, stems play an exceptional role in the formation of words and their forms.

Unlike roots and stems, affixes have only grammatical meaning and therefore cannot exist without stems and roots. A ff and k s s is the most important type of grammatical means of the language. By position relative to the root and stem, affixes are divided into postfixes1 and prefixes.

Post f and k with m and call affixes that are after the root or stem. They are divided into suffix and inflections (in Russian grammar, especially school grammar, inflections are called endings). Suffixes can be word-forming and formative. For example, in Russian the suffix -l- is found in words soap, musty, soaped; to limit ourselves to the statement that these words have the suffix -l- means not to notice the functional difference between these forms. In Russian, the given words indicate three homonym suffixes: two of them (in the words soap and musty) are unproductive word-forming suffixes, and the third (in the word wash: soap, soap, wash)- one of the very productive formative suffixes that form the form of the past

Grammar uses the term example. Like suffixes, prefixes in Russian, as in other Slavic and Indo-European languages, are used in word formation; the scope of their application is especially wide with the intraverbal word-

education, for example: walk - enter - proceed - find - walk - pass - go - leave, etc.

However, prefixes are also used as indicators of grammatical meanings, as formative affixes. In Indo-European languages, prefixation in form formation is very rare. For example, in Russian, prefixes express the meaning of the perfect form of the verb: do (and

do), write (and write), read (and read); however, the prefix often changes not only the aspectual meaning, but also the lexical one: cf. read - read - subtract. In German, the prefix ge- serves to form participles: gemacht - made (from machen - to do), geschrieben - written (from schreiben - write); however, in this case, weak verbs in the form gemacht there is not only a prefix ge-but also the suffix -t.

"In the grammar of the Russian language, the term "postfix" also means the particle -sya (-s): I studied, I study.

Morphemic structure of the word. The language has polymorphemic

And monomorphic words. Yes, nounteacher consists of 7 morphemes: pre-po-da-va-tel-nitz-a. In German, there are complex polybasic nouns, for example die Silberlederdamensandaletten"silver leather ladies' sandals". At the same time, one-morphemic, two-morphemic and three-morphemic words are also preserved in the Russian language: here,

there; wall, back; write, wall.

The morphemic structure of a word is the result of a long

And historical development of the language. Some words retain their morphemic composition from ancient times; other words had a historical change in its morphemic composition. According to its morphemic structure, the Indo-European word was two-morphemic and three-morphemic; it contained root + affix (inflection) or root + subject (suffix) + inflection. Such a morphemic structure can also be found in the words of modern languages. Yes, word form walk consists of the root-base move "- and the imperative suffix; acting as the basis, walk- can get the suffix of the infinitive or the past tense: walked, walk; the form of the word soap consists of the root we-, suffix-l- and inflection -o. In in the process of historical development, derivative stems and merged affixes arise.

§ 34. FUNCTIONAL WORDS AND OTHER GRAMMATICAL MEANS

Affixes form a special type of grammatical means. In addition to them, grammatical means are also auxiliary words, alternation of sounds, semantic convergence of words and stems in suppletivism and reduplication, word order and intonation. All these means are functionally close to affixes.

Service words. Unlike affixes, auxiliary words are not part of another word; however (as well as affixes) auxiliary words denote grammatical meanings and serve significant words: the particle would in combination would say would form the conditionally desirable mood of the verb say, create its form and thereby express the meaning.

If we compare the Russian sentence I would go and the German equivalent Jch ginge, we will notice that the Russian combination would go corresponds to the form of the word ginge in German. What is expressed in German with the suffix -e (ging-e), in Russian is expressed with a particle. Such a correlation between the form of the word and the combination with the function word is also observed within the same language, for example: I read and I will read, read would read. Consequently, the form of a word can be formed not only with the help of phonetic means and affixes, but also with the help of auxiliary words.

According to the role in the grammatical structure of the language, service words fall into two main groups - service words expressing grammatical the beginnings of individual words, and auxiliary words expressing syntaxical meanings en and I sentences and phrases.

The first "group includes articles, auxiliary verbs, some particles, words of degrees of comparison: they indicate the grammatical meanings of words that are characteristic of them outside of their use in the sentence. For example, from the word strong, the comparative degree is stronger and stronger; the auxiliary word is used to form comparative degree.The superlative degree from this adjective is formed using the word the most (most powerful) The suffix formation strongest is less commonly used.

Another group of service words are unions, allied words, many particles, connective verbs; they are used in the construction of sentences and express syntactic meanings. For example, in Russian, the union but indicates a coordinative connection between words or sentences and the meaning of opposition or inconsistency. If auxiliary verbs form word forms, then conjunctions form phrases and sentences.

Prepositions and postpositions. One of the most common types of grammatical means are prepositions and postpositions, which reveal nouns, expressing their grammatical meanings and facilitating their entry into a phrase and sentence.

Prepositions are functional words that precede a noun or a word that replaces it. Prepositions form prepositional or prepositional-case combinations; prepositions perform the same formal organizing role as inflections in the case form. For example, in the combination of the English language the book of the student, the preposition of establishes a connection between two nouns, subordinates the second to the first, connects them as a defined and a definition, thereby expressing attributive relations. The Russian correspondence of the student's book has a similar meaning, with the difference, however, that here the relationship between words is established not with the help of a preposition, but with the help of inflection. Like case forms, prepositions not only subordinate the name to another word, but also express typical, often repeated relationships between objects: spatial, temporal, causal, target, object, instrumental, and some others. Since the Russian language has case forms expressed by inflections, prepositions, even the most common ones, clarify these meanings.

Although prepositions and inflections can express the same grammatical meanings and prepositions without having an independent

stress, is phonetically combined with a noun, there is a significant grammatical difference between the preposition and inflection (or case suffix). Inflection is part of the word, it changes its form and morphological meanings; the preposition is not part of the word.

After the nouns are called auxiliary words that are used after the noun (i.e., postpositively) and express its relation to other words. Postpositions are rare in Indo-European languages. In Latin, for example, prepositions and conjunctions were occasionally used post-positively: Omnia mea porto mecum - I carry everything with me; senatus populusque Romanus - the Senate and the Roman people. In many other languages, on the contrary, postpositions are of great importance. Postpositions are one of the most important grammatical indicators in the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, in Mongolian, Japanese and a number of others. Like prepositions, postpositions indicate the subordination of the word and are combined with certain cases, more often with cases of spatial significance - dative, local, directional and original. So, in the Tatar language, post-logibelen (with, through), echen (because of), asha (through, through) are combined with the indefinite (nominative) case, cards (against), Karaganda (looking at, judging by) - with the dative, dream (after, through)

With original. Postpositions express typical relationships between objects - spatial and temporal, causal and target, objective, instrumental, and some others.

Articles. The article serves as a noun. It is found in a number of Indo-European languages (for example, in Germanic and Romance languages, Persian), Arabic, Hungarian and other languages. Of the Slavic languages, the article (postpositive member) is in Bulgarian and Macedonian.

The article is an indicator of a noun, it distinguishes a noun from a verb and other parts of speech. For example, in English, the article the (or) indicates a noun: the act is a deed, an act, to act is to act, the copy is a copy, an instance, to copy is to reproduce by copying, the defeat is a defeat, to defeat is to defeat , the plant - plant, to plant - plant, etc.

The article may precede the noun, i.e. be

English, German, French, postpositive article - in Swedish, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian (cf., for example, in Bulgarian: zemyata, ezikt, sky).

Particles. Particles are called a group of service words that are different in origin, semantics and grammatical functions. Particles, on the one hand, are used to form word forms. So, in the Russian language, the particle would form the form of the reference

negative mood, in Bulgarian the particle sche- is the form of the future tense of the verb. Particles, on the other hand, like conjunctions, serve as a means of constructing sentences. So, in Russian, particles can be used to build subordinate clauses of an indirect question,

for example: I asked him if he had read this book.

language for constructing analytical forms of the word. In Russian, this is the particle by, forming the form of the subjunctive mood. In English, the indicator of the infinitive of the verb is the particle to; in German, zu is used with the infinitive, and the particle am is used in the formation of the superlative degree of adverbs and adjectives (am schnell-sten

fastest, fastest) in French, the particle en forms a gerund (en traversant - passing, en voyant - seeing), particle and - impersonal verbs (// gele - freezes, il faut - need).

However, in languages, particles are more common, expressing various syntactic and modal meanings. So, in English and French, they are often used as substitute words that create the structural design of a sentence. The German pronouns es and man act as formal subjects, forming impersonal and indefinitely personal sentences; the same can be said about the English pronouns it and one and the French // and on, for example:

It is dark. - Dark; //faut. - Necessary.

Alternation of sounds and stress. Alternation of sounds and re-

stress shifting is used to distinguish between both words and word forms. For example, alternating r||z||zh in friend (friend)-friends

Friendship distinguishes different bases. Alternationz\\zh is found in the verb forms to carry - I drive - you carry, where the sound [g] shows (together with inflection -y) the 1st person of the present tense.

To express grammatical meanings, alternations of vowels and consonants can be used. The alternation of zero sound with vowels o, e is observed in the case forms of some nouns: sleep-sleep, day-day, sister-sisters, earth

Lands, etc. The alternation of consonants occurs in the formation of present tense forms: wear - wear, love

I love, let it go - let it go, etc.

IN in some languages, the alternation of sounds is used more often and more naturally; changing sounds within a root or stem when expressing grammatical meanings is called base inflection (or internal inflection). Internal inflection is used, for example, when forming forms of number and time in English: foot - foot

and feet - feet (legs), man - man and men_ - people, write - write (I write) and wrote -

wrote (wrote), think - think (think) and thought [θе: t] - thought (thought). Internal inflection plays a large role in Semitic languages (see § 45, p. 274).

Grammatical means can arise not only through the phonetic modification of roots and stems, the transition of significant words into auxiliary words, but also through the convergence of different stems and roots, as well as through their repetition.

and war is not about expressing different concepts about the action itself

And state, this is a grammatical difference. If we take such pairs as Russian. man - people, Bolg.chovek - chora, then we note that the difference between these words expresses the meaning of the singular and plural. Therefore, the convergence of two different roots expresses grammatical meanings, and these pairs of words can be called word forms: bin and war are tense forms of the verb sein, man and people are number forms of the same word.

Word forms that are formed by the grammatical convergence of different roots or stems are called supplementary,

and this way of expressing grammatical meanings is suppletivism. In all languages, suppletivism is usually combined with other means of forming word forms. Thus, in the Indo-European languages, plural forms of nouns are usually formed with the help of affixes, and even the form people has a plural ending; in the form come, the past tense is expressed by the suffix -l. Suppletive forms (suppletives) are relatively rare.

Hand), tu-tu (mouths, ptu - mouth). The repetition of superlative stems is also not found in all languages, but is more common than the formation of number forms. So, in Hawaiian we have: lii -

small and lii-lii very small; in Chinese: xiao - small xiao-xiao-dy - very small, hao - good ihao-hao-dy - very good. In the Turkic languages, the first SLO r is repeated and a labial consonant is added to it; for example, Chuvash forms: sara - yellow, sap-sara - yellow-preyellow, shura - white, shap-shura - white-white, khura - black "khup-khura - completely black.

Consideration of grammatical means shows that they do not exist by themselves: they act as components of grammatical forms, express the semantics of categories characteristic of a particular part of speech. The peculiarity of the grammatical structure of different languages lies in the presence and specific weight of not only grammatical means, but the grammatical units themselves, their semantics and the combination of grammatical means that form one or another category.

§ 35. FORMS OF THE WORD AND DERIVATIVE MODELS

Morphems are the smallest bilateral units of a language; they, as we have seen, are not used by themselves and historically undergo various modifications, merge with each other, begin to function as morphemic blocks and blocks, forming derivative stems and compound (complex) affixes. The increase in the proportion of morphemic blocks also occurs due to borrowing: words are usually borrowed, and not their morphemic composition. The borrowed word is perceived as a pure base, which takes on the form of the language that borrows.

Compare two rows of words: pencil - pen, bulldozer-receptionist, hairdresser- farmer. If the Russians

kind. Their morphemic articulation is lost: the repeated borrowed suffix -er is in a connected state due to the ambiguity of the generating stem. Morphemic motivation may also be lost in words of original origin (see p. 259).

The morphological structure of the word is realized not only due to the free use of stems and affixes, but also due to the fact that each word is included in one category or another, takes one or another paradigm, becomes a component of one or another word-formation series. The presence of associative links between words and word forms, their combination into paradigms and word-formation series and nests are the two main types of links characteristic of

language as a grammatical whole.

and feet - feet (legs), man - man and_men -

people, write - write (write) and wrote - wrote (wrote), think - think (think) and thought - thought (thought). Internal inflection plays a large role in Semitic languages (see § 45, p. 274).

Suppletive forms and repetitions. Grammatical means can arise not only through the phonetic modification of roots and stems, the transition of significant words into functional ones, but also through the convergence of different stems and roots, as well as through their repetition.

The forms he and he (him, etc.) differ not only in inflections, but also in the basis, the change of which arose by bringing together two pronominal roots (he and; cf. below). The forms id-u and she-l differ not only in affixes (inflection -u and suffix -l-), but also in the basis, the change of which is the result of the convergence of different roots. In German, the present tense of the verb sein is bin (ist, sind), and the past tense is war. The difference between go and (I) walked, bin and war is not related to the expression of different concepts about the action itself and the state, this is a grammatical difference. If we take such pairs as Russian person - people, Bulgarian chowek - chora, then we will notice that the difference between these words expresses the meaning of the singular and plural. Therefore, the convergence of two different roots expresses grammatical meanings, and these pairs of words can be called word forms: bin and war are tense forms of the verb sein, man and people are number forms of the same word.

The word forms that are formed by the grammatical convergence of different roots or stems are called suppletive, and this way of expressing grammatical meanings is called supplet and vism. In all languages, suppletivism is usually combined with other means of forming word forms. Thus, in Indo-European languages, plural forms of nouns are usually formed with the help of affixes, and even the form people has a plural ending; in the form come, the past tense is expressed by the suffix -l. Suppletive forms (suppletives) are relatively rare.

The repetition of stems for expressing the plural of a name is used mainly in Indonesian, Paleo-African, Austronesian, as well as in Chinese, Japanese, Korean. So, in Indonesian there are forms orang-orang (people, priorang - person), kuda-kuda (horses, prikuda - horse), in Chinese zhen-zhen, (people, prizhen - man), xing-sin (stars, prisin - star), in Bushmen ka-ka (hands, prika - hand), tu-tu (mouths, pritu - mouth). The repetition of superlative stems is also not found in all languages, but is more common than the formation of number forms. So, in Hawaiian we have: lii -

Meaning of ZERO FLEXION in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

ZERO FLEXION

An ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in the word in comparison with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

In the noun pupil, in relation to the forms of indirect cases of pupil, pupil, etc., pupils, pupils, etc., a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the form of the nominative singular.

In the short adjective new, in relation to the forms of other genders and the plural nova, new, new, the zero ending of the singular masculine is distinguished. The zero ending in the possessive pronoun ours has a similar meaning (in comparison with the forms ours, ours, ours). In the verb form read, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the masculine gender (in comparison with the forms read, read, read). Zero endings go back to endings that were once materially expressed, and appeared as a result of the phonetic loss of reduced vowels (ъ) and (ь) at the end of words (cf. Old Russian stol, chital, pain - in the last word, ь was a graphic sign denoting a reduced mid front vowel).

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012