Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) - Russian-American scientist, born in the Vologda province and died in Winchester (USA), is considered the greatest sociologist of our century. His book "Social and Cultural Dynamics" is an unprecedented scientific work in terms of volume, surpassing K. Marx's "Capital". Another of his books, Social Mobility, is recognized as a world classic.
P. Sorokin considers the world as a social universe, that is, a kind of space filled not with stars and planets, but with social ties and relationships of people. They form a multidimensional coordinate system, which determines the social position of any person. In a multidimensional space, two main coordinate axes are distinguished - the X axis (for measuring horizontal mobility) and the Y axis (for measuring vertical mobility). In other words, it turned out to be a kind of classical Euclidean space.
In addition to them, P. Sorokin distinguishes three types of social stratification: economic, political and professional. Social stratification generally describes the stratification of people into classes and hierarchical ranks. Its basis is an uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, power and influence. Its subspecies - economic stratification - means the dissimilarity of economic statuses, in other words, the presence of economic inequality, which is expressed in the difference in incomes, living standards, in the existence of the poor and the rich. Political differentiation describes a system of hierarchical ranks that has entangled, like a giant web, the entire society. It includes authorities, power, prestige, titles, honors. Professional differentiation - the division of the population into occupations, occupations and professions, some of which are considered more prestigious, others less, and their organization necessarily includes leaders of various ranks and subordinates.
For economic stratification, two phenomena are indicative, which Sorokin calls fluctuations:
1) enrichment and impoverishment of a group or society;
2) decrease and increase in the height of the economic pyramid. Using huge statistical material, he proves that there is no family, village, city, region or country that would become richer or poorer year by year. There is no stable trend in history. In the development of any society, periods of enrichment are followed by periods of impoverishment. So it was in ancient Egypt and so it is in modern America. Aimless fluctuations (fluctuations) occur cyclically (for enrichment, impoverishment follows): small cycles - 3 - 5; 7 - 8; 10-12 years old; large - 40 - 60 years. Sorokin believes that his theory of fluctuations refutes the idea of human progress - the constant improvement of the economic situation.
Comparing different classes, eras and countries, Sorokin unexpectedly found that there is no stable trend in the fluctuations in the height of the economic pyramid. If height is measured by the difference between the incomes of the upper, middle and lower strata of society, then it turns out that over the past 500 years it has either increased or decreased. This means that the rich don't get richer and the poor don't get poorer all the time. Instead of a rectilinear process, there are periodic fluctuations. They are equal to 50, 100 and 150 years. In the same way, world prices fluctuate in history - sometimes falling, sometimes increasing. The connection between two phenomena - poverty and world prices - is not surprising, because price changes contribute to the redistribution of national income in favor of one class or another.
In a society based on private property, there are no social upheavals. His pyramid is not too high, but not too low either. As soon as private property is destroyed, society enters a period of social upheaval. In 1917 the Bolsheviks nationalized the banks, liquidated the rich, reduced the gap between the highest and lowest wages to a ratio of 175:100.
The economic pyramid has become almost flat. Although such cases are rare in history, they serve as a harbinger of the coming catastrophe, after which society seeks to restore the normal form of income distribution. And in communist Russia, the rich, the middle and the poor soon appeared. Humanity must learn a simple truth, says P. Sorokin: either a flat pyramid of universal equality and moderate poverty, or a prosperous society with inevitable inequality. There is no third.
When the profile of the pyramid is excessively stretched, this means that there is excessive social stratification. When the stratification reaches its peak, a social catastrophe follows - a revolutionary leveling fever. Two outcomes are possible: either the society immediately returns to the normal form of stratification, or it goes to it through a “big catastrophe”. The first path is closer to reforms, the second to revolution.
Task 3
The estate system is an excellent field for sociological reflections. Find the necessary historical literature and answer the questions:
1. What duties were assigned to each estate in feudal Europe? Can you spot country differences?
2.What duties were assigned to the peasants?
3. Why did the feudal lord not only exploit, but also take care of his subjects?
4. Why did estates exist in the West, but they did not exist in the East?
Among the first theorists of sociology, Sorokin introduced the concept of social space, which he presented to the scientific world as "a universe of an indefinite type, consisting of peoples inhabiting the earth." According to his theory in space, the individual occupies a certain place, both in the horizontal and vertical dimensions. At the same time, the position of any member of society is defined by Sorokin as a “social position”, which, in turn, is a set of connections both within groups and external connections with groups that are different from the group of the individual. In view of this, such concepts as social ascent and social descent are introduced. Among these two concepts, a group of horizontal mobility was formed, characterized by the movement of an individual that does not entail changes in his social status. Moreover, horizontal mobility can be considered any changes such as: a change in place of residence, faith, and the like. Only on the basis of these concepts did it become possible for Sorokin to derive a definition of social stratification.
Simply put, according to Sorokin's theory, social stratification is a space in society with unequal vertical and horizontal distances, where the reference points in space are the statuses of various individuals. Based on this, it becomes obvious that there is no society, and probably never will be without the influence of stratification due to the ongoing social inequality that characterizes each individual. Speaking in general terms about Sorokin's theory of social stratification, it can be understood that this sociological theorist uses a multidimensional model of stratification, divided by three main areas: economics, politics and professional activity, which can be called basic, but besides these there are such characteristics that are not basic and create stratification in society as age, culture, speech, and the like, which are divided into simple ones and complex ones that are composed of them. In turn, complex groups, according to Sorokin's theory, are typical and atypical, internally solidary and not solidary. At the same time, the interpretation of the social stratification of this sociologist coincides with Weber's theory in the following: an individual who occupies a certain position in economic terms society of the upper stratum, simultaneously belongs to the highest political and professional strata, and the lower strata in the hierarchy, as a rule, are deprived of civil rights. However, with such a classification, there is an exception, for example, it is not at all necessary for a person occupying high positions in financial spheres to simultaneously belong to both political and professional peaks. Also, individuals who occupy a low position financially at the same time do not always occupy the same level in politics and the professional hierarchy. Political stratification according to Sorokin's theory, it has the following form: within any group there are various ranks and, regardless of the terms that define them, this means that the group has political differentiation, which is directly affected by the size of the political body and the heterogeneity of the population. Occupational stratification defined as groups of society divided among themselves according to the nature of their activities and occupations, while some professions have a more prestigious coloring than others. Sorokin's main idea should be considered the assertion that in society as a whole there is a stable trend of a social pyramid with the top of the privileged strata and, accordingly, the base of those with fewer privileges. Only under the condition that the pyramid is pulled up in society, social cataclysms, upheavals, revolutions occur, turning the pyramid into a trapezoid. Following this, the pyramid grows again due to the entry of new forces into it, and this alternation is cyclical, that is, social development corresponds to a sinusoid.
For a better understanding of Victory:
Stratification is the division of society into social strata (strata), by combining various social positions with approximately the same social status, reflecting the prevailing idea of social inequality, built vertically (social hierarchy), along its axis according to one or more stratification criteria (indicators of social status)
The most common stratification model is dichotomous - division into elites and masses.
Social structure arises from the social division of labor, and social stratification - the social distribution of the results of labor, i.e. social benefits.
Social mobility is a set of social movements (a change in social status, a place that occupies in the stratification structure of society. Sorokin introduced it. It can be vertical (in turn, divided into ascending and descending), horizontal (transition of an individual from one social stratum to another located at the same level - place of residence, religion). high social position or fall to a lower one than parents) and intragenerational (change in social position by the same individual beyond comparison with parents).
From point of view Pitirim Sorokin, social stratification- this is the differentiation of a certain set of people into classes in a hierarchical rank. It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its basis and essence lies in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and obligations, the presence or absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community.
Specific forms of social stratification are very diverse. However, all their diversity can be reduced to three main forms: economic, political and professional stratification.
Economic stratification expressed in the difference in income, standard of living, in the existence of rich and poor segments of the population.
Political stratification presupposes the existence within a group of hierarchically different ranks, governing and being governed. Political stratification is influenced by two main factors: the size of the political organization; biological, psychological and social homogeneity or heterogeneity of its members. Patterns: when the size of a political organization increases, i.e., the number of its members increases, political stratification also increases, and vice versa; when the heterogeneity of the members of the organization increases, stratification also increases, and vice versa.
TO professional stratification can be attributed to the allocation in society of various groups according to the nature of their activities, occupations. At the same time, some professions are considered more prestigious than others. Professional stratification can be interprofessional and intraprofessional.
As a rule, all 3 forms of stratification are closely intertwined. For example, representatives of the highest economic strata simultaneously belong to the highest political and professional strata. This is the general rule, although there are many exceptions. So, for example, the richest are not always at the top of the political or professional pyramid, nor in all cases are the poor at the lowest places in the political and professional hierarchy.
In this regard, Sorokin notes that many researchers are mistaken in distinguishing, for example, two social classes: "poor" and "rich". This means that they take into account only economic stratification, considering it the only form of social stratification.
It is also important that any organized social group is always socially stratified. There has not been and is not a single permanent social group in which all its members would be equal. Even in primitive social groups, features of stratification are emerging.
Under social mobility any transition of an individual or social group from one social position to another is understood. Among the types of social mobility, one can distinguish: individual and group, vertical and horizontal, intergenerational and intragenerational.
Under horizontal social mobility the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level, is implied. For example, the movement of an individual from one citizenship to another, from one family to another, from one factory to another, while maintaining his professional status.
Under vertical social mobility implies a movement associated with a change in place in the social hierarchy or the movement of an individual from one social stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are two types of vertical mobility: ascending and descending, that is, social ascent and social descent.
Updrafts exist in two forms: the penetration of the individual from the lower stratum into the higher stratum; or the penetration of the entire group into a higher layer. Accordingly, the downward currents also have two forms: the first consists in the fall of the individual from a higher social position to a lower one, without destroying the original group to which he belonged; another form manifests itself in the degradation of the social group as a whole, in the lowering of its rank against the background of other groups, or in the destruction of its social unity.
Cases of individual penetration into higher strata or falling from a high social level to a low one are familiar and understandable. They do not need explanation. With regard to group upward and downward mobility, examples can be given such as the Brahmin caste in India, which has not always held high positions and has been the highest caste for the last two millennia; the rank of the higher clergy of the Christian church in Rome, which was undoubtedly high in the Middle Ages, but much lower in modern times; Bolsheviks in Russia, who did not have a high position before the revolution, but who took high positions in Russian society after.
It is also important to distinguish intragenerational mobility, which involves a change in the status of an individual within one generation and intergenerational mobility, which takes place when there is a change of generations and can be expressed either in the intergenerational continuity of social statuses or in the acquisition of a different experience, level of education, and the development of new professions.
The ways in which people move from one social group to another are called channels of social mobility. The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions. The most important of these social institutions are: the army, church, school, political, economic and professional organizations.
Army. This institution plays a particularly important role in wartime, that is, during periods of interstate and civil wars. In the course of the war, these people advance in rank primarily in the presence of talent. The power thus obtained is used for further promotion. The ability to rob, loot, humiliate your victim in every possible way, take revenge on enemies, surround yourself with titles, etc. provides such people with a new opportunity to bathe in luxury, to transfer their power by inheritance to their descendants. In peacetime, the army continues to play the role of a channel for vertical circulation, but during these periods its role is much less than in wartime.
Church. The second channel of vertical social circulation was and is the church. But the church performs this function only when its social significance increases. An example is the Christian church, thanks to which slaves and dependent peasantry, people of simple origin, becoming clergymen, received freedom and achieved high positions in society. Other religious organizations can also be included here: Buddhism, Islam, Taoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism, despite their closed caste nature, played the role of vertical circulation channels in the respective societies.
School. The institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what concrete form they take, have been the means of vertical social circulation in all ages. In modern Western society, schools represent one of the most important channels of vertical circulation, and this manifests itself in a wide variety of forms. Without graduating from a university or college, it is virtually impossible (and in some European countries even legally prohibited) to achieve any prominent position among high government ranks and in many other areas, and vice versa, a graduate with an excellent university diploma is easily promoted and occupies responsible government posts outside depending on his background and his family.
Government groups, political organizations and political parties.. As a channel of social circulation, political organizations are now very important. In democratic countries, where the institution of elections plays a decisive role in the approval of rulers, in order to be elected, a person must somehow show his personality, aspirations and abilities, successfully fulfill the functions of a leader, be it a senator, mayor, minister or president. The easiest way is political activity or participation in any political organization. Without this, there is very little chance of attracting the attention of voters and being elected.
professional organization. Some of these organizations also play a large role in the vertical movement of individuals. Such are the scientific, literary, creative institutions and organizations. Since entry into these organizations was relatively free for everyone who showed appropriate abilities, regardless of their social status, then promotion within such institutions was accompanied by a general advancement along the social ladder. Many scientists, lawyers, writers, artists, musicians, architects, sculptors, doctors, actors, singers and other creators of simple origin have risen socially thanks to this channel.
Wealth Creation Organizations. We are talking about the accumulation of wealth as one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement. If a person is rich, then all doors are open to him, regardless of origin and source of income.
Family and marriage. Marriage usually leads one of the partners to either social advancement or social degradation. In the past, marriage to a servant or a member of a lower caste led to the "social fall" of one of the partners who previously occupied a higher position, and, accordingly, to a decrease in the social rank of his children.
Attention should also be paid to the concepts of intensity (or speed) and generality of vertical social mobility.
Under intensity refers to the vertical social distance or the number of layers - economic, professional or political - passed by an individual in his upward or downward movement in a certain period of time.
Under universality vertical mobility refers to the number of individuals who have changed their social position in the vertical direction over a certain period of time.
Combining the intensity and generality of vertical mobility in a certain social sphere, one can obtain an aggregate indicator of the vertical economic mobility of a given society.
Depending on the indicators of intensity and generality, 2 types of society are distinguished - closed and open, which are ideal types with minimum indicators of intensity and generality of mobility in the first case and maximum in the second.
closed society- a society in which opportunities for vertical movement are difficult, limited or non-existent for some social groups. These include slave, caste and estate states.
open society- a society in which opportunities for vertical movement are equal and available to all. Open societies include modern democracies.
General principles of vertical mobility:
First statement. It is unlikely that societies have ever existed whose social strata were absolutely closed or in which there would be no vertical mobility.
Second statement. There has never been a society in which vertical social mobility would be absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another would be carried out without any resistance.
Third statement. The intensity and generality of vertical social mobility varies from society to society, that is, in space.
Fourth statement. The intensity and generality of vertical mobility - economic, political and professional - fluctuate within the same society at different periods of its history.
Fifth statement. In vertical mobility, in its three main forms, there is no constant direction either towards strengthening or towards weakening its intensity and universality. This assumption is valid for the history of any country, for the history of large social organisms, and, finally, for the entire history of mankind.
Subject: The essence of the theory of stratification by Piterim Sorokin
Introduction
P.A. Sorokin is a prominent sociologist of the 20th century, who made a huge contribution to the development of both Russian and American sociology. His works contain valuable material that underlies the modern science of society.
The subject of my attention was the views of P. A. Sorokin on the structure of society.
Elements of society
The first necessary element of social activity is living human individuals - subjects of activity, with which its triggering and regulatory mechanisms are associated. Despite the fact that a person represents a whole and integral "microcosm", he is an element of activity, i.e. its simplest, further indivisible formation.
The second element is the object of social activity. Objects of social activity can be divided into two classes:
Things, “tools” with which people influence the real world around them. With the help of these things, people carry out adaptive activities, adapting to the environment through its material-energy alteration, purposeful transformation.
Symbols, signs (books, pictures, icons, etc.). These objects serve not to directly change reality, but to change our ideas about the world. They affect our consciousness, aspirations, goals, and through them, indirectly, affect a reality that is different from consciousness.
Theory of social stratification
“Social stratification- this is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank”, is expressed in the existence of higher and lower strata, uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and obligations, the presence and absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community . P. Sorokin, the man who was the first in the world to give a complete theoretical explanation of this phenomenon, and who confirmed his theory with the help of a huge empirical material stretching throughout human history, thought this way or something like this.
There are numerous forms of stratification, but it is worth highlighting 3 main ones:
- Economic
- Political
- professional
Of course, they are all closely intertwined and interconnected.
Economic stratification
Speaking about the economic status of the group, two main types of changes should be distinguished. The first refers to the economic decline or rise of the group; the second - to the growth or reduction of economic stratification within the group itself. The first phenomenon is expressed in the economic enrichment or impoverishment of social groups as a whole; the second is expressed in a change in the economic profile of the group or in an increase or decrease in the height of the economic pyramid.
Political stratification
Political stratification is distinguished by universality and constancy, but this does not mean that it has always and everywhere been identical.
The height of the pyramid of political stratification varies from country to country, from one period to another.
Occupational stratification
Its existence follows from two main groups of facts. It should be noted that certain classes of professions have always been at the top of the social stratum, while other professional groups have always been at the bottom of the stratification. The most important professional classes are not located horizontally, that is, at the same social level, but, as it were, overlap each other. In addition, the phenomenon of professional stratification is also found within each professional sphere.
Theory of social mobility
It is not difficult to find several individuals belonging to the same social groups (for example, they can all be Orthodox, democrats, employed in trade, etc.), and, nevertheless, along the "vertical" their social position can be completely various.
Social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual or a social object (value) from one social position to another. There are two main types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal social mobility, or movement, refers to the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another, located at the same level. Vertical social mobility refers to those relationships that arise when an individual or a social object moves from one social stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are two types of vertical mobility: upward and downward, i.e. social ascent and social descent.
From a quantitative point of view, it is necessary to distinguish between the intensity and generality of vertical mobility. Intensity is understood as social distance, the number of layers passed by an individual in his ascending or descending period for a certain period of time.
Under the universality of vertical mobility is meant the number of individuals who have changed their social position in the vertical direction for a certain period of time.
Since vertical mobility is present in any society and there must be some kind of elevators and stairs between the layers, I consider it important to show these channels of social circulation.
The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions and channels of social mobility. There are many, but I would like to consider the most important of them: the army, the church, the school, political, economic and professional organizations.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution of higher professional education
IZHEVSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY "Management and Marketing"
Department of Finance and Credit
ABSTRACT ON SOCIOLOGY
Off topic: “The concept of social stratification by P. Sorokin”
Completed by: student of group 2-52-2 Rassamakhna A.S.
Checked: teacher Pecherskikh S.P.
Izhevsk, 2011
Introduction ……………………………………………………………….……3
Social stratification……………………….………………………. 4
Economic stratification ……………………………………..……..5
Political stratification.………………………………………….…….6
Occupational stratification ………………………………….…….8
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………20
References………………………………………………………...21
INTRODUCTION
Social stratification, according to the large encyclopedic dictionary (BES), defines a sociological concept that denotes: the structure of society and its individual layers; a system of signs of social differentiation; branch of sociology.
In modern sociology, there are many concepts of the social structure of society, the range of which expands over time.
In theories of social stratification, based on such characteristics as education, living conditions, occupation, income, psychology, religion, etc., society is divided into "higher", "middle" and "lower" classes and strata.
P.A. Sorokin is a prominent sociologist of the 20th century, who made a huge contribution to the development of both Russian and American sociology. His works contain valuable material that underlies the modern science of society.
P.A. Sorokin is one of the founders of the modern sociological theory of social stratification, which is why a thorough analysis of the main provisions of his theory in the light of his scientific views and historical reality is so important.
The relevance and significance of the topic of this work is explained by the fact that any society is differentiated both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal differentiation is due to the natural-historical distribution of types and spheres of human activity (agriculture, cattle breeding, handicraft; workers in the mining and manufacturing industries and their subdivisions) and the technical division of labor (performers of various types of labor and labor functions).
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
“Social stratification is the differentiation of a certain set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank”, expressed in the existence of higher and lower strata, uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and obligations, the presence and absence of social values, power and influence among members of that or another community. So or something like this, P. Sorokin thought of social stratification - the man who was the first in the world to give a complete theoretical explanation of this phenomenon, and who confirmed his theory with the help of a huge empirical material.
There are numerous forms of stratification, but it is worth highlighting 3 main ones:
Economic
Political
professional
Of course, they are all closely intertwined and interconnected.
ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION
Economic stratification, according to P. Sorokin, contains two main types of fluctuations: the first refers to the economic rise or fall of the group, the second - to the growth or reduction of stratification within the group. The question of whether a group rises to a higher economic level or falls can be decided in general terms on the basis of fluctuations in per capita national income and wealth measured in monetary units. Based on these data, P. Sorokin believes, it is possible to compare the economic status of different groups.
Any society, moving from a primitive to a more developed state, finds an increase in economic inequality, which is expressed in changes in the height and profile of the economic pyramid of society. At the same time, under normal social conditions, the economic cone of a developed society fluctuates within certain limits. Its shape is relatively constant. In extreme circumstances (for example, a revolution), these limits can be violated, and the profile of economic stratification can become, according to P. Sorokin, either very flat or very convex and high. In both cases, this situation is short-lived. And if the economically "flat society" does not perish, then the "flatness" is quickly replaced by increased economic stratification. If economic inequality becomes too strong and reaches a point of overstrain, then the top of society is destined to collapse or be overthrown. Thus, P. Sorokin postulates, in any society at any time there is a struggle between the forces of stratification and leveling. The former work constantly and steadily, the latter - spontaneously, impulsively, using violent methods. In other words, there are cycles in which increasing economic inequality is replaced by its weakening.
POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
Political stratification, according to P. Sorokin, is also subject to periodic fluctuations under the influence of various factors. Among their huge number, the scientist identifies two main ones, most significantly, in his opinion, influencing political stratification: the size of a political organization; biological (race, gender, age), psychological (intellectual, volitional, emotional) and social (economic, cultural, political) homogeneity or heterogeneity of its members. At the same time, P. Sorokin revealed the following patterns.
1. Under general equal conditions, when the size of a political organization increases, i.e., the number of its members increases, political stratification also increases, and vice versa. For example, a larger population dictates the need to create a more developed and large administrative apparatus, and an increase in managerial personnel leads to its hierarchization and stratification.
2. When the heterogeneity of the members of the organization increases, stratification also increases, and vice versa, since an increase in the heterogeneity of the population leads to an increase in political inequality. For example, the size and heterogeneity of such European political organisms as Switzerland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Bulgaria, Hungary and some others are small, therefore their political stratification is much less than that of larger political organisms such as the British Empire, Germany , France, Russia.
3. When both of the above factors work in the same direction, then the stratification changes even more, and vice versa. When one or both factors suddenly object (for example, in the case of military conquest or the voluntary amalgamation of several previously independent political organizations), then political stratification is greatly enhanced. With an increase in the role of one factor and a decrease in the role of another, they restrain the mutual influence on the fluctuation of political stratification.
4. The forces of political alignment act simultaneously with the forces of political stratification and cyclically (as in economic stratification). Sometimes in one place the forces of alignment prevail, in another they stratify. At the same time, any strengthening of equalizing factors causes an increase in counteraction from opposing forces. Thus, society in the first period of the social revolution often resembles a flat trapezium in shape, without the upper echelons of power and their hierarchy. However, this situation is extremely unstable, and after a short period of time, an old or new hierarchy of groups is established. Thus, a too flat profile is only a transitional political state of society. If the stratification becomes too high and prominent, sooner or later its upper layers are cut off by revolution, war, the introduction of new laws, etc. By these methods, the political organism returns to a state of equilibrium when the shape of the social cone is either very flat or very high.
5. There is no constant trend of transition from monarchy to republic, from autocracy to democracy, from minority rule to majority rule, and vice versa. Rather, there is a periodicity of political fluctuations, cyclicality in changes in political regimes (different authors point to the existence of such cycles lasting 15-16, 30-33, 100, 125.300, 500.700 and 1200 years). At the same time, the profile of political stratification is more mobile and fluctuates within wider limits, more often and more impulsively than the profile of economic stratification.
PROFESSIONAL STRATIFICATION
The existence of occupational stratification is established from two main groups of facts. It is obvious that certain occupational classes have always constituted the upper social strata, while other occupational groups have always been at the bottom of the social cone. The most important occupational classes do not lie horizontally, that is, on the same social level, but, so to speak, overlap each other. Secondly, the phenomenon of professional stratification is also found within each professional sphere. Whether we take the field of agriculture or industry, trade or management, or any other professions, people employed in these areas are stratified into many ranks and levels: from the upper ranks, which exercise control, to the lower ranks, which are controlled and which are subordinate to their "bosses" in a hierarchy. ", "directors", "authorities", "managers", "bosses", etc. Professional stratification, therefore, manifests itself in these two main forms: 1) in the form of a hierarchy of main professional groups (interprofessional stratification) and 2) in the form of stratification within each professional class (intraprofessional stratification).
The existence of interprofessional stratification manifested itself in different ways in the past and makes itself felt ambiguously now. In the bush society, it was expressed in the existence of lower and higher castes. According to the classical theory of caste hierarchy, caste-professional groups overlap rather than sit side by side on the same level.
There are four castes in India - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Among them, each preceding one surpasses the next one in origin and status. The legitimate occupations of the Brahmins are education, teaching, performing sacrifices, performing worship, charity, inheritance and harvesting in the fields. The occupations of the kshatriyas are the same, with the exception of teaching and performing worship, and, perhaps, collecting donations. They are also assigned managerial functions and military duties. The legitimate occupations of the Vaisyas are the same as those of the Kshatriyas, with the exception of managerial and military duties. They are distinguished by agriculture, livestock breeding and trade. To serve all three castes is prescribed to the sudra. The higher the caste he serves, the higher his social dignity.
The actual number of castes in India is much higher. And therefore the professional hierarchy between them is extremely essential. In ancient Rome, among the eight guilds, the first three played a significant political role and were of paramount importance from a social point of view, and therefore were hierarchically higher than all the others. Their members made up the first two social classes. This stratification of professional corporations continued in a modified form throughout the history of Rome.
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