Ecology
ECOLOGY-And; and.[from Greek. oikos - house, dwelling and logos - teaching]
1. The science of the relationship of plant and animal organisms and the communities they form between themselves and the environment. E. plants. E. animals. E. human.
2. Ecological system. E. forests.
3. Nature and in general the habitat of all living things (usually about their poor condition). Environmental concerns. broken e. The deplorable state of the environment. E. northwestern Russia.
◁ Ecological (see).
ecology(from the Greek óikos - home, dwelling, residence and ... ology), the science of the relationship of organisms and the communities they form with each other and with the environment. The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Since the middle of the XX century. In connection with the increased impact of man on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as the scientific basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, and the term "ecology" itself has a broader meaning. Since the 70s. 20th century human ecology, or social ecology, is being formed, which studies the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as the practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical and other aspects (for example, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, etc.). In this sense, one speaks of the "greening" of modern science. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have caused a number of socio-political movements (the "Greens" and others) that oppose environmental pollution and other negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.
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ECOLOGYECOLOGY (from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, residence and logos - word, doctrine), the science of the relationship of living organisms and the communities they form with each other and with the environment.
The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel (cm. Haeckel Ernst). The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. From Ser. 20th century In connection with the increased human impact on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as the scientific basis for rational environmental management and the protection of living organisms, and the term "ecology" itself has a broader meaning.
From the 70s. 20th century human ecology, or social ecology, is being formed, which studies the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as the practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical and other aspects (eg, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, etc.). In this sense, one speaks of the "greening" of modern science. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have caused a number of socio-political movements ("Green" (cm. GREEN (movement)) etc.), who oppose environmental pollution and other negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.
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ECOLOGY (from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, residence and ... logic), a science that studies the relationship of organisms with the environment, i.e., a set of external factors affecting their growth, development, reproduction and survival. To some extent, these factors can be conditionally divided into “abiotic”, or physicochemical (temperature, humidity, daylight hours, the content of mineral salts in the soil, etc.), and “biotic”, due to the presence or absence of other living organisms (in including those that are prey, predators or competitors).
The subject of ecology
The focus of ecology is that which directly connects the organism with the environment, allowing it to live in certain conditions. Ecologists are interested, for example, in what an organism consumes and excretes, how fast it grows, at what age it begins to reproduce, how many offspring it produces, and what is the probability that these offspring will live to a certain age. The objects of ecology are most often not individual organisms, but populations. (cm. POPULATION), biocenoses (cm. BIOCENOSIS), as well as ecosystems (cm. ECOSYSTEM). Examples of ecosystems can be a lake, a sea, a wooded area, a small puddle, or even a rotting tree trunk. The entire biosphere can be considered as the largest ecosystem (cm. BIOSPHERE).
In modern society, under the influence of the media, ecology is often interpreted as purely applied knowledge about the state of the human environment, and even as this state itself (hence such ridiculous expressions as “bad ecology” of a particular area, “environmentally friendly” products or goods). Although the problems of the quality of the environment for humans, of course, are of great practical importance, and their solution is impossible without knowledge of ecology, the range of tasks of this science is much wider. In their work, ecologists try to understand how the biosphere works, what is the role of organisms in the cycle of various chemical elements and energy transformation processes, how different organisms are interconnected with each other and with their environment, which determines the distribution of organisms in space and the change in their number over time. . Since the objects of ecology are, as a rule, collections of organisms or even complexes that include non-living objects along with organisms, it is sometimes defined as the science of superorganismal levels of life organization (populations, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere), or as the science of the living image of the biosphere.
The history of the formation of ecology
The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by the German zoologist and philosopher E. Haeckel (cm. Haeckel Ernst), who, developing a classification system for the biological sciences, discovered that there is no special name for the field of biology that studies the relationship of organisms with the environment. Haeckel also defined ecology as "the physiology of relationships", although "physiology" was understood very broadly - as the study of a wide variety of processes occurring in living nature.
The new term entered the scientific literature rather slowly and began to be used more or less regularly only from the 1900s. As a scientific discipline, ecology was formed in the 20th century, but its prehistory dates back to the 19th, and even to the 18th century. So, already in the works of K. Linnaeus (cm. LINNEY Carl), which laid the foundations of the systematics of organisms, was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "economy of nature" - the strict ordering of various natural processes aimed at maintaining a certain natural balance. This ordering was understood exclusively in the spirit of creationism (cm. CREATIONISM)- as the embodiment of the "intention" of the Creator, who specially created different groups of living beings to perform different roles in the "saving of nature". Thus, plants must serve as food for herbivores, and carnivores must prevent herbivores from multiplying too much.
In the second half of the 18th century. ideas of natural history, inseparable from church dogmas, were replaced by new ideas, the gradual development of which led to the picture of the world, which is shared by modern science. The most important moment was the rejection of a purely external description of nature and the transition to the identification of internal, sometimes hidden, connections that determine its natural development. So, I. Kant (cm. KANT Immanuel) in his lectures on physical geography delivered at the University of Koenigsberg, he emphasized the need for a holistic description of nature, which would take into account the interaction of physical processes and those associated with the activities of living organisms. In France, at the very beginning of the 19th century. J. B. Lamarck (cm. LAMARK Jean Baptiste) proposed his own, largely speculative concept of the circulation of substances on Earth. At the same time, a very important role was given to living organisms, since it was assumed that only the vital activity of organisms, leading to the creation of complex chemical compounds, is able to withstand the natural processes of destruction and decay. Although Lamarck's concept was rather naive and did not always correspond even to the then level of knowledge in the field of chemistry, it foresaw some ideas about the functioning of the biosphere, which were developed already at the beginning of the 20th century.
Of course, the forerunner of ecology can be called the German naturalist A. Humboldt (cm. HUMBOLDT Alexander), many of whose works are now rightfully considered environmental. It is Humboldt who is responsible for the transition from the study of individual plants to the knowledge of the vegetation cover as a certain integrity. Having laid the foundations of the "geography of plants (cm. GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS)”, Humboldt not only stated the differences in the distribution of different plants, but also tried to explain them, linking them with the peculiarities of the climate.
Attempts to clarify the role of those other factors in the distribution of vegetation were also undertaken by other scientists. In particular, this issue was investigated by O. Dekandol (cm. DECANDOL), who emphasized the importance of not only physical conditions, but also competition between different species for common resources. J. B. Boussingault (cm. BUSSINGO Jean Baptiste) laid the foundations of agrochemistry (cm. AGROCHEMISTRY), showing that all plants need soil nitrogen. He also found out that in order to successfully complete development, a plant needs a certain amount of heat, which can be estimated by summing up the temperatures for each day for the entire period of development. Y. Liebig (cm. LIBICH Justus) showed that various chemical elements needed by the plant are irreplaceable. Therefore, if a plant lacks any one element, for example, phosphorus, then its deficiency cannot be compensated by adding another element - nitrogen or potassium. This rule, which later became known as Liebig's law of the minimum, played an important role in the introduction of mineral fertilizers into agricultural practice. It retains its significance in modern ecology, especially in the study of factors that limit the distribution or growth of the number of organisms.
An outstanding role in preparing the scientific community for the perception of environmental ideas in the future was played by the works of Ch. Darwin (cm. DARWIN Charles Robert), especially his theory of natural selection as the driving force of evolution. Darwin proceeded from the fact that any kind of living organisms can increase its numbers exponentially (according to an exponential law, if we use the modern wording), and since resources to maintain a growing population soon begin to be scarce, competition between individuals necessarily arises (struggle for existence ). The winners in this struggle are the individuals that are most adapted to given specific conditions, that is, those who have managed to survive and leave viable offspring. Darwin's theory retains its enduring significance for modern ecology, often setting the direction for the search for certain relationships and making it possible to understand the essence of various "survival strategies" used by organisms in certain conditions.
In the second half of the 19th century, research that was essentially ecological began to be carried out in many countries, both by botanists and zoologists. So, in Germany, in 1872, the capital work of August Grisebach (1814-1879) was published, who for the first time gave a description of the main plant communities of the entire globe (these works were also published in Russian), and in 1898 - a major summary of Franz Schimper (1856-1901) "Geography of Plants on a Physiological Basis", which provides a lot of detailed information about the dependence of plants on various environmental factors. Another German explorer - Karl Möbius (cm. Moebius Karl August), studying the reproduction of oysters in the shallows (the so-called oyster banks) of the North Sea, proposed the term "biocenosis (cm. BIOCENOSIS)”, which denoted the totality of various living beings living in the same territory and closely interconnected.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the very word "ecology", almost not used in the first 20-30 years after it was proposed by Haeckel, begins to be used more and more often. There are people who call themselves ecologists and strive to develop ecological research. In 1895, the Danish researcher J. E. Warming (cm. WARMING Johannes Eugenius) publishes a textbook on the "ecological geography" of plants, soon translated into German, Polish, Russian (1901), and then into English. At this time, ecology is most often seen as a continuation of physiology, which only transferred its research from the laboratory directly to nature. In this case, the main attention is paid to the study of the impact on organisms of certain environmental factors. Sometimes, however, completely new tasks are posed, for example, to identify common, regularly recurring features in the development of various natural complexes of organisms (communities, biocenoses).
An important role in shaping the range of problems studied by ecology and in the development of its methodology was played, in particular, by the idea of succession. (cm. SUCCESSION). Thus, in the USA, Henry Kauls (1869-1939) restored a detailed picture of succession by studying vegetation on sand dunes near Lake Michigan. These dunes were formed at different times, and therefore it was possible to find communities of different ages on them - from the youngest, represented by a few herbaceous plants that can grow on quicksand, to the most mature, which are real mixed forests on old fixed dunes. Subsequently, the concept of succession was developed in detail by another American researcher - Frederick Clements (1874-1945). He interpreted the community as a highly holistic formation, somewhat reminiscent of an organism, for example, like an organism undergoing a certain development - from youth to maturity, and then old age. Clements believed that if at the initial stages of succession different communities in one locality can differ greatly, then at later stages they become more and more similar. In the end, it turns out that for each area with a certain climate and soil, only one mature (climax) community is characteristic.
Much attention was also paid to plant communities in Russia. So, Sergei Ivanovich Korzhinsky (1861-1900), studying the border of the forest and steppe zones, emphasized that in addition to the dependence of vegetation on climatic conditions, the impact of the plants themselves on the physical environment, their ability to make it more suitable for the growth of other species, is no less important. In Russia (and later in the USSR), for the development of research on plant communities (or in other words, phytocenology), the scientific works and organizational activities of V. N. Sukachev were important (cm. SUKACHEV Vladimir Nikolaevich). Sukachev was one of the first to start experimental studies of competition and proposed his own classification of different types of succession. He constantly developed the doctrine of plant communities (phytocenoses), which he interpreted as integral formations (in this he was close to Clements, although the latter's ideas were often criticized). Later, already in the 1940s, Sukachev formulated the concept of biogeocenosis (cm. BIOGEOCENOSIS)- a natural complex that includes not only a plant community, but also soil, climatic and hydrological conditions, animals, microorganisms, etc. The study of biogeocenoses in the USSR was often considered an independent science - biogeocenology. At present, biogeocenology is usually considered as part of ecology.
The 1920-1940s were very important for the transformation of ecology into an independent science. At this time, a number of books on various aspects of ecology were published, specialized journals began to appear (some of them still exist), and ecological societies arose. But the most important thing is that the theoretical basis of the new science is gradually being formed, the first mathematical models are being proposed, and its own methodology is being developed, which makes it possible to set and solve certain problems. At the same time, two rather different approaches were formed that also exist in modern ecology: the population approach, which focuses on the dynamics of the number of organisms and their distribution in space, and the ecosystem approach, which focuses on the processes of matter circulation and energy transformation.
Development of the population approach
One of the most important tasks of population ecology was to identify the general patterns of population dynamics, both individually taken and interacting (for example, competing for one resource or connected by predator-prey relationships). To solve this problem, simple mathematical models were used - formulas showing the most probable relationships between individual quantities characterizing the state of the population: fertility, mortality, growth rate, density (number of individuals per unit of space), etc. Mathematical models made it possible to check the consequences of various assumptions, having identified the necessary and sufficient conditions for the implementation of one or another variant of population dynamics.
In 1920, the American researcher R. Pearl (1879-1940) put forward the so-called logistic model of population growth, which suggests that as the population density increases, its growth rate decreases, becoming equal to zero when a certain limiting density is reached. The change in the size of the population over time was described in this way by an S-shaped curve reaching a plateau. Pearl considered the logistic model as a universal law of development of any population. And although it soon became clear that this was far from always the case, the very idea that there were some fundamental principles that manifested themselves in the dynamics of many different populations turned out to be very productive.
The introduction of mathematical models into the practice of ecology began with the work of Alfred Lotka (1880-1949). He himself called his method "physical biology" - an attempt to streamline biological knowledge with the help of approaches usually used in physics (including mathematical models). As one of the possible examples, he proposed a simple model describing the coupled dynamics of predator and prey abundance. The model showed that if all mortality in the prey population is determined by the predator, and the birth rate of the predator depends only on the availability of its food (i.e., the number of victims), then the numbers of both the predator and the prey make regular fluctuations. Then Lotka developed a model of competitive relations, and also showed that in a population that increases its size exponentially, a constant age structure is always established (i.e., the ratio of the shares of individuals of different ages). Later, he also proposed methods for calculating a number of important demographic indicators. Around the same years, the Italian mathematician V. Volterra (cm. VOLTERRA Vito), independently of Lotka, developed a model of competition between two species for one resource and showed theoretically that two species, limited in their development by one resource, cannot coexist stably - one species inevitably crowds out the other.
Theoretical studies of Lotka and Volterra interested the young Moscow biologist G.F. Gause (cm. GAUZE Georgy Frantsevich). He proposed his own, much more understandable to biologists, modification of the equations describing the dynamics of the number of competing species, and for the first time carried out an experimental verification of these models on laboratory cultures of bacteria, yeasts, and protozoa. Experiments on competition between different types of ciliates were especially successful. Gause was able to show that species can coexist only if they are limited by different factors, or, in other words, if they occupy different ecological niches. This rule, called "Gause's law", has long served as a starting point in the discussion of interspecific competition and its role in maintaining the structure of ecological communities. The results of Gause's work were published in a number of articles and in the book The Struggle for Existence (1934), which, with the assistance of Pearl, was published in English in the United States. This book was of great importance for the further development of theoretical and experimental ecology. It has been reprinted several times and is still often cited in the scientific literature.
The study of populations took place not only in the laboratory, but also directly in the field. An important role in determining the general direction of such research was played by the work of the English ecologist Charles Elton (1900-1991), especially his book Ecology of Animals, first published in 1927 and then reprinted more than once. The problem of population dynamics was put forward in this book as one of the central ones for the whole of ecology. Elton drew attention to the cyclical fluctuations in the number of small rodents that occurred with a period of 3-4 years, and, having processed long-term data on fur harvesting in North America, he found out that hares and lynxes also show cyclical fluctuations, but population peaks are observed about once every 10 years. Elton paid much attention to the study of the structure of communities (assuming that this structure is strictly natural), as well as food chains and the so-called "pyramids of numbers" - a consistent decrease in the number of organisms as you move from lower trophic levels to higher ones - from plants to herbivores, and from herbivores to carnivores. The population approach in ecology has long been developed mainly by zoologists. Botanists, on the other hand, studied communities more often, which were most often interpreted as integral and discrete formations, between which it is quite easy to draw boundaries. Nevertheless, already in the 1920s, individual ecologists expressed "heretical" (for that time) views, according to which different plant species can react in their own way to certain environmental factors, and their distribution does not have to coincide with the distribution of others. species in the same community. It followed from this that the boundaries between different communities can be very blurred, and their very allocation is conditional.
Most clearly, such a view of the plant community, ahead of its time, was developed by the Russian ecologist L. G. Ramensky (cm. RAMENSKY Leonty Grigorievich). In 1924, in a short article (which later became a classic), he formulated the main provisions of the new approach, emphasizing, on the one hand, the ecological individuality of plants, and on the other hand, “multidimensionality” (i.e., dependence on many factors) and the continuity of the entire vegetation cover. Ramensky considered unchanged only the laws of compatibility of different plants, which should have been studied. In the United States, Henry Allan Gleason (1882-1975) developed quite independently similar views around the same time. In his "individualistic conception", put forward as an antithesis of Clements' ideas about the community as an analogue of the organism, the independence of the distribution of different plant species from each other and the continuity of the vegetation cover were also emphasized. Real work on the study of plant populations unfolded only in the 1950s and even 1960s. In Russia, the undisputed leader of this direction was Tikhon Alexandrovich Rabotnov (1904-2000), and in Great Britain - John Harper.
Development of Ecosystem Research
The term "ecosystem" was proposed in 1935 by the prominent English botanist Arthur Tensley (1871-1955) to refer to the natural complex of living organisms and the physical environment in which they live. However, studies that can rightly be called ecosystem studies began to be carried out much earlier, and hydrobiologists were the undisputed leaders here. Hydrobiology, and especially limnology (cm. LIMNOLOGY) from the very beginning were complex sciences, dealing with many living organisms at once, and with their environment. In this case, not only the interactions of organisms were studied, not only their dependence on the environment, but also, which is no less important, the influence of the organisms themselves on the physical environment. Often, the object of research for limnologists was a whole reservoir in which physical, chemical and biological processes are closely interconnected. Already at the very beginning of the 20th century, the American limnologist Edward Burge (1851-1950), using strict quantitative methods, studied "lake respiration" - the seasonal dynamics of the content of dissolved oxygen in water, which depends both on the processes of mixing the water mass and diffusion of oxygen from the air, as well as from the life of organisms. It is significant that among the latter are both producers of oxygen (planktonic algae) and its consumers (most bacteria and all animals). In the 1930s, great successes in the study of the circulation of matter and the transformation of energy were achieved in Soviet Russia at the Kosinskaya limnological station near Moscow. The head of the station at that time was Leonid Leonidovich Rossolimo (1894-1977), who proposed the so-called "balance approach", focusing on the circulation of substances and energy transformation. Within the framework of this approach, G. G. Vinberg began his studies of primary production (i.e., the creation of organic matter by autotrophs) (cm. VINBERG Georgy Georgievich) using the ingenious method of "dark and light flasks". Its essence is that the amount of organic matter formed during photosynthesis is judged by the amount of oxygen released.
Three years later, similar measurements were carried out in the USA by G. A. Riley. The initiator of these works was George Evelyn Hutchinson (1903-1991), who, with his own research, as well as his ardent support for the initiatives of many talented young scientists, had a significant impact on the development of ecology not only in the United States, but throughout the world. Peru Hutchinson owns "Treatise on Limnology" - a series of four volumes, which is the world's most complete summary of the life of lakes.
In 1942, in the journal Ecology, an article was published by Hutchinson's student, a young and, unfortunately, very early deceased ecologist, Raymond Lindemann (1915-1942), in which a general scheme for the transformation of energy in an ecosystem was proposed. In particular, it was theoretically demonstrated that during the transition of energy from one trophic level to another (from plants to herbivores, from herbivores to predators), its amount decreases and only a small part (no more than 10%) of the energy that was at the disposal of organisms of the previous level.
For the very possibility of carrying out ecosystem studies, it was very important that, with a colossal variety of forms of organisms existing in nature, the number of basic biochemical processes that determine their life activity (and, consequently, the number of main biogeochemical roles!), is very limited. For example, a variety of plants (and cyanobacteria (cm. CYANOBACTERIA)) carry out photosynthesis (cm. PHOTOSYNTHESIS), in which organic matter is formed and free oxygen is released. And since the end products are the same, it is possible to summarize the results of the activity of a large number of organisms at once, for example, all planktonic algae in a pond, or all plants in a forest, and thus estimate the primary production of a pond or forest. The scientists who were at the origins of the ecosystem approach understood this well, and the ideas they developed formed the basis of those large-scale studies of the productivity of different ecosystems, which were developed in different natural zones already in the 1960s-1970s.
The study of the biosphere adjoins the ecosystem approach in its methodology. The term "biosphere" for the area on the surface of our planet covered by life was proposed at the end of the 19th century by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831-1914). However, in detail, the idea of the biosphere as a system of biogeochemical cycles, the main driving force of which is the activity of living organisms (“living matter”), was developed already in the 1920s and 30s by the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945). As for direct assessments of these processes, their obtaining and constant refinement unfolded only in the second half of the 20th century, and continues to this day.
The development of ecology in the last decades of the 20th century
In the second half of the 20th century. the formation of ecology as an independent science is being completed, having its own theory and methodology, its own range of problems, and its own approaches to solving them. Mathematical models are gradually becoming more realistic: their predictions can be tested in experiment or observations in nature. The experiments and observations themselves are increasingly planned and carried out in such a way that the results obtained make it possible to accept or refute the hypothesis put forward in advance. A significant contribution to the development of the methodology of modern ecology was made by the work of the American researcher Robert MacArthur (1930-1972), who successfully combined the talents of a mathematician and a naturalist biologist. MacArthur studied the regularities in the ratio of the abundances of different species included in the same community, the choice of the most optimal prey by the predator, the dependence of the number of species inhabiting the island on its size and distance from the mainland, the degree of permissible overlapping of the ecological niches of coexisting species, and a number of other tasks. Ascertaining the presence in nature of a certain repetitive regularity (“pattern”), MacArthur proposed one or more alternative hypotheses explaining the mechanism of the emergence of this regularity, built the corresponding mathematical models, and then compared them with empirical data. MacArthur articulated his point of view very clearly in Geographical Ecology (1972), which he wrote when he was terminally ill, a few months before his untimely death.
The approach developed by MacArthur and his followers was focused primarily on clarifying the general principles of the device (structure) of any community. However, within the framework of the approach that became widespread somewhat later, in the 1980s, the main attention was shifted to the processes and mechanisms that resulted in the formation of this structure. For example, when studying the competitive displacement of one species by another, ecologists began to be interested primarily in the mechanisms of this displacement and those features of species that predetermine the outcome of their interaction. It turned out, for example, that when different plant species compete for mineral nutrients (nitrogen or phosphorus), the winner is often not the species that, in principle (in the absence of a shortage of resources) can grow faster, but the one that is able to maintain at least minimal growth under lower concentration in the medium of this element.
Researchers began to pay special attention to the evolution of the life cycle and different survival strategies. Since the possibilities of organisms are always limited, and organisms have to pay something for each evolutionary acquisition, clearly pronounced negative correlations (the so-called “traidoffs”) inevitably arise between individual features. It is impossible, for example, for a plant to grow very quickly and at the same time form reliable means of protection against herbivores. The study of such correlations makes it possible to find out how, in principle, the very possibility of the existence of organisms in certain conditions is achieved.
In modern ecology, some problems that have a long history of research still remain relevant: for example, the establishment of general patterns in the dynamics of the abundance of organisms, the assessment of the role of various factors that limit population growth, and the elucidation of the causes of cyclic (regular) population fluctuations. Significant progress has been made in this area - for many specific populations, the mechanisms of regulation of their numbers, including those that generate cyclic changes in numbers, have been identified. Research continues on predator-prey relationships, competition, and mutually beneficial cooperation of different species - mutualism.
A new direction in recent years is the so-called macroecology - a comparative study of different species on the scale of large spaces (comparable to the size of continents).
Enormous progress in the late 20th century was made in the study of the cycle of matter and the flow of energy. First of all, this is due to the improvement of quantitative methods for assessing the intensity of certain processes, as well as the growing possibilities for the large-scale application of these methods. An example can be remote (from satellites) determination of the chlorophyll content in the surface waters of the sea, which makes it possible to map the distribution of phytoplankton for the entire World Ocean and assess the seasonal changes in its production.
The current state of science
Modern ecology is a rapidly developing science, characterized by its range of problems, its theory and its methodology. The complex structure of ecology is determined by the fact that its objects belong to very different levels of organization: from the whole biosphere and large ecosystems to populations, and the population is often considered as a collection of individual individuals. The scales of space and time in which these objects change and which should be covered by research also vary extremely widely: from thousands of kilometers to meters and centimeters, from millennia to weeks and days. In the 1970s human ecology is formed. As pressure on the environment grows, the practical importance of ecology increases, philosophers and sociologists are widely interested in its problems.
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The science of the interactions of living organisms and their communities with each other and with the environment. The term was first proposed by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
The modern meaning of the concept ecology has a wider meaning than in the first decades of the development of this science. Currently, environmental issues are most often misunderstood, first of all, environmental issues. In many ways, this shift in meaning occurred due to the increasingly tangible consequences of human influence on the environment, but it is necessary to separate the concepts ecological(“relating to the science of ecology”) and environmental(“relating to the environment”). The general attention to ecology entailed the expansion of the field of knowledge (exclusively biological) originally quite clearly defined by Ernst Haeckel to other natural sciences and even the humanities.
The classical definition of ecology is the science that studies the relationship between living and non-living things.
Here are some possible definitions of the science of "ecology":
- Ecology is the knowledge of the economy of nature, the simultaneous study of all the relationships of life with organic and inorganic components of the environment ... In a word, ecology is a science that studies all the complex relationships in nature, considered by Darwin as conditions for the struggle for existence.
- Ecology is a biological science that studies the structure and functioning of superorganismal systems (populations, communities, ecosystems) in space and time, in natural and human-modified conditions.
- Ecology is the science of the environment and the processes taking place in it.
Territory as the main ecological resource
Land is the most important natural resource. This is a resource that provides the possibility of the existence of life, is a factor in its diversity and a spatial basis. The paramount importance of land resources in the formation of other natural environments, such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, has long been scientifically proven, but in most cases is not taken for granted.
According to Art. 4 of Federal Law No. 7-FZ "On Environmental Protection", the land is the object of protection from pollution, depletion, degradation, damage, destruction and other negative impacts of economic and other activities.
In a global sense, the main components of the earth's nature include the earth, subsoil, soil, surface and groundwater, atmospheric air, flora, fauna and other organisms, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth. The resources of nature are also natural forces and phenomena, including gravity, radiation, vibrations, wind, currents, as well as natural conditions.
20. Substantiation of the integrating position of anthropoecology in the system of knowledge about a person
Anthropoecology
("anthropos" (Greek) - "man"; "ecology" (Greek) - "the doctrine of housing")
- a) the doctrine of the relationship and interdependence of man with the world around him.
The terms "human ecology" and "anthropology" should be distinguished. Human ecology is the doctrine of the preservation and development of people's health on the basis of identifying the dependence of the human body, its psyche on the state of the natural and social environment.
Anthropology is the study of the relationship and interdependence of man with the world around him: from nature, society and culture to the biosphere and the universe as a whole.
Human ecology is turned mainly inward, anthropology - outward, human ecology is close to valueology, anthropology focuses on the spiritual component of the relationship of man with everything that exists.
Man has always sought to live in harmony and harmony with the nature around him, in friendship and peace with other people. These aspirations have found their highest expression in almost all religions of the world, in the works of great writers, composers and artists. In recent decades, these natural aspirations of mankind have been recorded in many documents of international organizations - the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, etc.
The immediate tasks of applied anthropoecological research, i.e. having practical significance, may also be the following:
1. The study of human communities in a specific ecological environment (assessment of biological characteristics, types of metabolism, genetic characteristics, growth and development processes, etc.).
2. The study of the processes of human growth and development in various environmental conditions (for example, differentiation according to various biological characteristics of inhabitants of tropical and extratropical latitudes).
3. The study of the population of the city as an anthropogenic ecological niche (for example, the phenomenon of acceleration, which is typical mainly for citizens). Based on the results of studies of the urban population, systems of possible changes in the physical appearance of a person can be developed.
4. Global modeling of anthropoecological relationships. In this case, the focus of the study is the human population with its characteristic complex of adaptive morphophysiological and genetic traits, as well as the system of its relationships with climatic and geochemical factors.
Knowledge of the general problems of human ecology is necessary for representatives of various branches of science and practice - planners of new cities (urban planning), hygienists, legal ecologists, environmentalists, heads of various departments in local and regional governments, representatives of the teaching profession, social and extreme psychologists, ecopsychologists. Anthropoecological knowledge is necessary for the ecological well-being of the population of our country and its individual regions, in the daily activities of various ministries, departments, institutions that need anthropoecological information.
21. The reasons that allowed a person to change the strategy of changing the population size.
the present almost limitless power of humanity is finite in time.
Population decline can occur for several reasons. First, starvation caused by a reduction in food resources can become a decisive factor. This mechanism is well known to mankind, and it still "works" in some countries. On the planet, only 500 million people have an abundance of wholesome food, and 2 billion people are malnourished and starving. 20 million die of hunger every year. The human population is increasing by 200 million a year. If the number of people dying of hunger increases by an order of magnitude, population growth will stop, and if even more, it will begin to decline. In this case, people will die "somewhere far away and infrequently", so the wider community could even pretend not to notice anything. This is the most "natural" version of the collapse.
The second option is non-biological: one of the nuclear countries will try to seize the remnants of non-renewable resources, while others will start a nuclear war with it. It was precisely at the critical moment of the population explosion that humanity had accumulated atomic weapons in such a quantity that it was enough to bring itself to an arbitrarily small number at any moment. Whether this is a coincidence or a ruthless manifestation of some laws of evolution, let philosophers guess. There is hope that, no matter how primitive the thinking of politicians, they still will not allow this scenario to be staged.
The third option is purely political: countries deliberately introduce birth control and gradually reduce the population. This path, from the point of view of a biologist, may turn out to be ineffective. The fact is that human fertility is determined by population biological mechanisms, and therefore, so far, all attempts by the state to stimulate or limit the birth rate have been unsuccessful, but have caused a very strong protest from people. We will return to this issue later. We immediately note that it would be a completely different matter if the birth rate had decreased without coercion, spontaneously, on the basis of the actions of population mechanisms.
But this would be the fourth form of collapse, the mildest and therefore the most desirable. After all, the biosphere is giving us ever stronger signals that we are dangerously outnumbered.
At the beginning of the XX century. a new biological science has been formed - ecology. Translated from Greek, it is "the science of the habitat."
Ecology- is the science of the relationship of organisms, communities with each other and with the environment.
Ideas about the relationship of living beings with each other and with their environment have existed in biology for a long time. In zoological and botanical works, in addition to describing the structure of animals and plants, it has long been told about the conditions of their existence.
The term "ecology" itself was introduced into science in 1866 by the prominent German biologist E. Haeckel. However, only in the 20th century, mainly in the second half of it, did purely ecological research gain enormous scope. And this, of course, is not accidental.
The development of human society at the end of the 2nd millennium is characterized by an intensive growth in the population, and, consequently, an increase in the needs of mankind for food and raw materials. In the conditions of scientific and technological progress, the impact of people on nature has acquired a truly planetary character. Huge spaces on Earth have undergone radical transformations as a result of human economic activity. This was expressed both in the depletion of natural resources, and in the destruction of natural complexes, and in the pollution of the external environment.
Man has entered into a sharp conflict with nature, the deepening of which threatens with a global ecological catastrophe. As a result, many species of organisms can die, and first of all the person himself. To prevent this, we need to rethink our relationship with the outside world. The existence and development of human society should be based on a deep understanding of the laws of existence and development of living nature, natural complexes and systems.
It is ecology that will serve as the scientific basis for solving the above problems. Today, it is rapidly accumulating data and has an ever-increasing impact on natural science, science in general, as well as on all areas of human activity - agriculture, industry, economics and politics, education, health and culture. Only on the basis of environmental knowledge can an effective system of nature protection and rational nature management be built.
Tasks of ecology as a science:
1) the study of the relationship of organisms and their populations with the environment;
2) study of the effect of the environment on the structure, vital activity and behavior of organisms;
3) establishing the relationship between the environment and population size;
4) study of relationships between populations of different species;
5) the study of the struggle for existence and the direction of natural selection in a population.
human ecology- a complex science that studies the patterns of human relationships with the environment, population issues, the preservation and development of health, the improvement of the physical and mental capabilities of a person.
The human habitat, in comparison with the habitat of other living beings, is a very complex interweaving of interacting natural and anthropogenic factors, and this set differs sharply in different places.
Humans have 3 habitats:
1) natural;
2) social;
3) technogenic. The criterion for the quality of the human environment is the state of its
health.
Unlike all other creatures, a person has a dual nature from the point of view of ecology: on the one hand, a person is an object of various environmental factors (sunlight, other creatures), on the other hand, a person himself is an ecological (anthropogenic) factor.
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1. Who first introduced the term "ecology" into science?
A) E. HaeckelC) Y. Odum
C) V. Vernadsky
D) K. Roulier
E) A. Tensley
2. Define the science of ecology:
A) a science that studies the relationship between living organisms, living conditions and the environment
C) a science that studies the dynamics of growth and development of animals and factors affecting their growth
C) the science that studies the development of plants and the influence of abiotic and biotic factors on them
D) the science that studies the distribution of animal plants and microorganisms in nature depending on the action of climatic factors
E) a science that studies the population of auls, villages, cities and the whole world and their socio-economic situation
3. What is the name of the section of ecology that studies the relationship of individuals with the environment?
A) autoecology
B) demoecology
C) synecology
D) geoecology
E) bioecology
4. What is the name of the section of ecology that studies population changes, composition, adaptive ecological mechanisms, regulation of population size and stability of natural cenoses?
A) demoecology
B) autecology
C) synecology
D) geoecology
E) bioecology
5. What is the name of the section of ecology that studies the relationship of various connected populations or ecological communities between themselves and the environment?
A) synecology
B) demoecology
C) autecology
D) geoecology
E) bioecology
6. Define the environmental factor:
A) direct and indirect effects on the body of environmental elements
C) the cycle of matter and energy sources in nature
C) elements of the aquatic environment that have a negative impact on animals
D) the chemical composition of the soil, which has an indirect effect on the development of plants
E) change in the cycle of chemicals in the components of the biosphere
7. What are the indivisible elements of the environment that have a direct or indirect effect on organisms called?
A) environmental factors
C) conditions of existence
C) limiting factor
D) unfavorable factor
E) favorable
8. Define the abiotic factor:
A) the effect of elements of the inorganic environment on living organisms
9. Define the biotic factor:
A) the beneficial and adverse effects of living organisms on each other and on the environment
C) the effect of elements of the inorganic environment on living organisms
C) direct or indirect impact of human activities on the environment
D) the effect of climatic and nutritional factors on the population size
E) the relationship between decomposers and consumers of the 2nd order
10. Define the anthropogenic factor:
A) direct or indirect impact of human activities on the environment
C) beneficial and adverse effects of living organisms on each other and on the environment
C) the effect of elements of the inorganic environment on living organisms;
D) the effect of climatic and nutritional factors on the population size
E) the relationship between decomposers and consumers of the 2nd order
11. What plants are heliophytes?
A) plants that grow in well-lit areas
C) plants growing in dense forests, in the lower tier of meadows
C) plants growing in rare and steppe forests
D) plants adapted to grow in dark places
12. What plants are sciophytes?
A) plants growing in dense forests and in the lower tier of meadows
C) plants that grow in well-lit areas
C) plants adapted to grow in dark places
D) plants growing in rare and steppe forests
E) plants growing in soils with high salinity
13. What plants are facultative heliophytes?
A) plants growing in rare and steppe forests
C) plants growing in dense forests and in the lower tier of meadows
C) plants growing in dense forests and in the lower tier of meadows
D) plants growing in well-lit areas
E) plants growing in soils with high salinity
14. What plants are called hydrophytes?
a) aquatic plants, or plants wholly or partly growing in water
C) plants growing near lakes, their roots are in the soil, and the lower parts are lowered into the water
D) plants growing in sufficiently moist places
15. What plants are called hygrophytes?
A) plants that grow in a highly humid environment
C) plants growing in moderately moist places
E) plants growing in highly saline soils (salt marshes)
16. What plants are called mesophytes?
A) plants that grow in moist places
C) aquatic plants, or plants that grow wholly or partly in water
C) plants growing in a highly humid environment
D) plants growing in the sands, in arid places and in deserts
E) plants growing in highly saline soils (salt marshes)
17. What plants are called xerophytes?
A) plants that grow in dry places and in deserts
C) aquatic plants, or plants that grow wholly or partly in water
C) plants growing near lakes
D) plants growing in moderately moist places
E) plants growing in highly saline soils
18. What are the names of plants adapted to drought, with dry and hard leaves that are not able to retain moisture?
A) sclerophytes
B) succulents
C) mesophytes
D) hygrophytes
E) heliophytes
19. What are the names of plants that are very well adapted to drought, with fleshy leaves that can retain moisture?
A) succulents
B) sclerophytes
C) mesophytes
D) hygrophytes
E) heliophytes
20. What are the names of plants growing in soils with a high concentration of dissolved salts?
A) halophytes
B) sclerophytes
C) hygrophytes
D) halophiles
E) heliophytes
21. What are the names of microorganisms and animals that can exist in conditions with high salt concentration?
A) halophiles
B) halophytes
C) zooglycophiles
D) film halophiles
E) heliophiles
22. What is the name of the reaction of organisms to the length of daylight hours?
A) photoperiodism
B) biological rhythms
C) phototropism
D) suspended animation
E) menopause
23. What is the name of the distribution area of a population or group of living organisms on land?
B) ecotone
C) ecosystem
D) natural landscape
E) ecological niche
24. What is the name of the community of organisms that inhabit a certain territory, interacting with each other and the environment?
A) biocenosis
B) microcenosis
C) phytoplankton
D) zooplankton
E) periphyton
25. Which of the types of relationships refers to competition?
A) the struggle for a limited resource between organisms belonging to the same or different species
C) a relationship in which one species takes care of the other
26. Which of the types of relationships refers to predation?
A) a relationship based on the killing, expulsion and destruction of one species by another because of the food resource, etc.
C) the coexistence of two species that do not harm each other
C) a relationship in which one species uses another species as a habitat
D) a relationship in which two species do not harm each other, but rather benefit
A) the use by one species of another as a source of food or habitat
C) a relationship based on the killing, expulsion and destruction of one species by another
C) the struggle for a limited resource between organisms belonging to one or more species
D) a relationship in which two species do not harm each other, but rather benefit
E) a type of relationship in which organisms release chemicals from their bodies
28. What is the name of the relationship in which organisms release chemicals from their bodies?
A) allelopathy
B) zoocharia
C) symbiosis
D) neutralism
E) commensalism
29. What is the name of the process of distribution of offspring by animals due to a change in habitat?
A) zoocharia
B) allelopathy
C) symbiosis
D) neutralism
E) commensalism
30. What is the name of the type of relationship in which both types do not bring each other any harm, but rather benefit?
A) symbiosis
B) allelopathy
C) zoocharia
D) neutralism
E) commensalism
31. Indicate the form of relationship in which one species, eating the remains of another, does not harm it:
A) commensalism
B) mutualism
D) neutralism
E) allelopathy
32. A form of relationship in which organisms belonging to different species create favorable conditions for existence:
A) mutualism
C) amensalism
D) neutralism
E) commensalism
33. What is the name of the lowest layer of the atmosphere?
A) troposphere
B) ionosphere
C) stratosphere
D) mesosphere
E) exosphere
34. Where is the ozone layer formed?
A) in the stratosphere
B) in the thermosphere
C) in the mesosphere
D) in the exosphere
E) in the troposphere
35. Specify the content of carbon dioxide in the air?
E) 78%
36. Which of the scientists first proposed the concept of "lithosphere"?
A) E. Suess
B) V. Vernadsky
C) A. Tensley
D) V. Dokuchaev
E) E. Haeckel
37. Which of the scientists studied the biosphere from a scientific point of view and made a theoretical contribution to science?
A) V. Vernadsky
C) A. Tensley
D) V. Dokuchaev
E) E. Haeckel
38. Which of the chemicals leads to the destruction of the ozone layer?
B) nitric oxide
C) carbon monoxide
D) formaldehyde
E) propane
39. What is pollution?
A) an increase in the concentration of certain substances in the environment
C) an increase in the number of plants and animals
C) unlimited consumption of natural resources
D) shifting the use of pesticides in agriculture to other substances
E) change in the cycle of biological and chemical impurities in the soil layers
40. Depending on the classification of pollution, what types are they divided into?
A) natural, anthropogenic
B) favorable, unfavorable
C) direct, indirect
D) direct, harmful
E) critical, lethal
41. What is physical pollution?
A) noise, radiation
B) microorganisms
C) chemicals
D) volcanic eruptions
E) flood
42. What refers to the objects of pollution?
A) water, soil, atmosphere
C) natural resources
C) production
D) technological devices
E) hydropower devices
43. What is the pollutants?
A) pesticides
C) pressure
D) temperature
E) sunshine
44. What are the sources of pollution?
A) agriculture
B) rivers and lakes
C) dryland plants
D) soil minerals
E) solar radiation
45. Sources of acid rain?
C) freons, chlorohydrocarbons
46. Specify the anthropogenic factor:
A) deforestation
B) competition
C) natural selection
D) volcanic eruptions
E) floods
47. What is the thickness of the ozone layer?
C) 0.5-0.9 mm
E) 15-25 m
48. Specify the organisms that cannot endure a sharp change in temperature:
A) stenothermal
B) eurythermal
C) thermophilic
D) thermophobic
E) hypothermic
49. Specify the organisms adapted to sharp temperature changes:
A) eurythermal
B) stenothermal
C) thermophilic
D) poikilothermic
E) hypothermic
50. What is the name of the area of quantitative values of any environmental factor within which representatives of a given species or population of organisms can exist?
A) factor biointerval
B) optimism
C) population endurance limits
D) endurance limits of an individual
E) adaptation limits
51. Can an organism exist at the extreme value of the factor?
A) maybe only in the short term
B) can, just does not reproduce
C) exists, reproduces and gives offspring
D) cannot exist
E) only large organisms can exist
52. What is the name of the increased value of a factor that is dangerous for the existence of an organism?
A) extreme factor
B) lethal factor
C) critical factor
D) stress factor
E) optimal factor
53. What are the values of the factor at which the disturbances occurring in the body are still reversible and still retain the ability to self-repair after the termination of the factor are called?
A) critical
B) lethal
C) extreme
D) stress factors
E) optimal
54. What is the name of the value of the factor at which the disturbances occurring in the body are irreversible and lead to the death of the body?
A) lethal
B) critical
C) extreme
D) stress factor
E) optimal
55. What type of relationship is caring for offspring in animals?
A) intraspecific
B) interspecies
C) trophic
D) topical
E) genetic
56. What relations can be attributed to the hierarchy in the herd?
A) intraspecific
B) interspecies
C) generative
D) trophic
E) genetic
57. What is the law: "Any ecological system and organisms in it interact with the greatest efficiency at certain values of the factor that are the most favorable"?
A) the law of optimality
C) the law of tolerance
D) law of constellation
E) the law of adaptation
58. What is the name of a factor that is in deficiency or excess, negatively affects organisms and limits the possibility of manifestation of the action of other factors, including those in the optimum?
A) limiting
B) lethal
C) critical
D) optimal
E) adaptive
59. What is the name of the joint action of factors, in which they increase the influence of each other, and they produce a greater effect?
A) synergistic
B) negative
C) antagonistic
D) antisynergic
E) optimal
60. What is the name of the joint action of factors in which there is a mutual weakening of the effects?
A) negative
B) synergistic
C) synchronous
D) antagonistic
E) stressful
61. Specify the law on the dependence of plant productivity on a substance that is in short supply:
A) Liebig's law
B) Shelford's law
C) the law of optimum
D) William's law
E) the law of tolerance
62. What is this law: “For the ecological well-being of a species, an optimal combination of a number of leading environmental factors in values close to their biological optimums is necessary”?
A) the law of joint action
C) the law of limiting factors
C) the law of tolerance
D) Shelford's law
E) Bergman's rule
63. What are organisms adapted to high factor values called?
A) hyperfactorial organisms
B) hypofactorial organisms
C) stenobionts
D) eurybionts
E) tolerant organisms
64. What are organisms adapted to low factor values called?
A) hypofactorial organisms
B) hyperfactorial organisms
C) stenobionts
D) eurybionts
E) tolerant organisms
65. What is the name of the equilibrium established in an ecosystem?
A) homeostasis
B) succession
C) synusia
D) trophic relationship
E) menopause
66. What is the name of the relationship between organisms of the same species?
A) homotypic reactions
C) heterotypic reactions
C) competition
D) struggle for existence
E) hierarchy
67. What is the name of the relationship between organisms of different species?
A) heterotypic reactions
C) homotypic reactions
C) competition
D) struggle for existence
E) hierarchy
68. The influence of the group itself, as well as the number of individuals in it, on the behavior, physiology, development and reproduction of individuals caused by the perception of the presence of individuals of their own species through the senses is called:
A) group effect
B) mass effect
C) competition
D) population change
E) adaptation
69. Changes in the habitat that occur with an increase in the number of individuals and density:
A) mass effect
B) group effect
C) population change
D) homeostasis
E) adaptation
70. Specify the types of biotic interactions:
A) homotypic and heterotypic
C) natural and anthropogenic
C) cyclic and random
D) long-term and short-term
E) periodic and non-periodic
71. Specify the changes characterized by the quantitative indicator of the population:
A) modifications
B) mutational changes
C) individual
D) group
E) genetic
72. Specify the changes that are characterized by a qualitative indicator of the population:
A) mutational
B) modification
C) individual
D) group
E) physiological
73. What is the name of the community of individuals of species in an agrocenosis?
A) agrocenotic population
B) geographic population
C) biogeocenosis
D) local population
E) territorial population
74. What is the name of the total number of individuals in a given territory?
A) population size
C) population density
C) the birth rate of the population
D) biocenosis
E) population productivity
75. What is the name of the average population size inhabiting a certain space or territory?
A) population density
B) population size
C) population growth
D) population reproduction
E) population mortality
76. What is the name of the relationship according to morphophysiological features, gender principle, distribution of a population with their division into territories?
A) population structure
C) population homeostasis
C) synusia
D) bigeocenosis
E) population density
77. Specify the properties that characterize the dynamics of the population?
A) birth rate, growth rate, death rate;
B) survival, tolerance
C) eurybiontism, reproduction
D) stenobiontness, growth, development
E) stenobiont, eurybiont, growth, development
78. What is connected with the increase and decrease in the population size?
B) offspring
C) competition
D) environmental conditions
E) environmental factors
79. Specify the causes of mass mortality:
A) epizootics, natural disasters
B) lack of trophic resources
C) change in adaptive capacity
D) non-communicable diseases
E) change in solar activity
80. Specify the factors that regulate the population size:
A) population density
B) fertility and extinction
C) population growth rate
D) the biological potential of the population
E) population productivity
81. What types of food regimen exist?
A) zoophagy, phytophagy, detritophagy
C) zoophagy, phytophagy, autotrophy
C) autotrophs, heterotrophs
D) autumn, spring, summer modes
E) hourly, daily, monthly mode
82. Specify the food regime, characterized by the use of animals and their products:
A) zoophagia
B) phytophagy
C) detritophagia
D) necrophagia
E) coprophagia
83. What is the name of the diet in which plant organisms and their products are used?
A) phytophagy
B) zoophagy
C) detritaphagia
D) necrophagia
E) coprophagia
84. What is the name of the diet in which rotten plants and the remains of their decay are used?
A) detritophagy
B) zoophagy
C) phytophagy
D) coprophagia
E) phagocytosis
85. What groups are heterotrophs divided into according to the degree of limited food specialization?
A) polyphages, oligophages, monophages
B) zoophages, phytophages, detritophages
C) biophages, necrophages
D) autotrophs, heterotrophs
E) right reactions, reverse reactions
86. What are organisms that use extensive species of animals and plants as food called?
A) polyphages
B) oligophages
C) zoophagous
D) monophages
E) phytophages
87. What is the name of organisms whose range of food materials includes a limited variety of organisms?
A) oligophages
B) biophages
C) polyphages
D) monophages
E) phytophages
88. What are organisms that use one species or several closely related species of the same genus as food?
A) monophages
B) biophages
C) polyphages
D) oligophages
E) phytophages
89. Specify the types of nutrition in animals:
A) passive and active power
B) feeding on plants and animals
C) selective and non-selective
D) frequent and rare meals
E) regime and non-mode power supply
90. What type of nutrition is selective in animals?
A) active power
B) passive power
C) group meals
D) individual nutrition
E) power supply
91. What type of nutrition in animals is indiscriminate?
A) passive power
B) active nutrition
C) group meals
D) individual nutrition
E) power supply
92. Who proposed the concept of "ecological niche"?
A) Elton in 1927
B) V.I. Vernadsky in 1920
C) E. Haeckel in 1865
D) Y. Odum in 1900
E) E. Suess in 1869
93. What are natural resources?
A) a set of elements of nature used by man
B) minerals of the bowels of the earth
C) substances used in production as raw materials
D) fuel and energy fund
E) types of energies
94. Specify exhaustible resources:
A) renewable and non-renewable
B) air, soil, water resources
C) climate resources
D) space resources
E) nuclear energy
95. Specify renewable resources:
A) economically renewable
D) natural export resources
96. What resources are considered non-renewable?
A) irreplaceable from an economic point of view
C) self-replenishing, not requiring additional costs
C) resources that can be replaced
D) natural export resources
E) artificially renewable
97. What resources are considered replaceable?
A) resources that can be replaced by other resources
C) climatic and space resources
C) self-replenishing
D) water resources and air
E) resources extracted artificially
98. What refers to inexhaustible resources?
A) water resources
B) energy resources
C) radioactive substances
D) bioresources
E) minerals
99. Specify inexhaustible resources:
A) climate resources
B) energy resources
C) radioactive substances
D) bioresources
E) minerals
100. Specify inexhaustible resources:
A) space resources
B) energy resources
C) radioactive substances
D) bioresources
E) minerals
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101. Specify the climatic resource:
A) atmospheric air
B) energy resources
C) radioactive substances
D) bioresources
E) minerals
102. What factor is the influence of the physical and chemical properties of the soil on living organisms?
A) edaphic factor
B) endogenous factor
C) biotic factor
D) abiotic factor
E) climatic factor
103. How are natural resources divided?
A) exhaustible and inexhaustible
B) ground and underground
C) atmospheric, hydrospheric and lithospheric
D) living and non-living resources
E) energy material
104. Specify the groups of aquatic organisms:
A) plankton, nekton, benthos
C) organisms that float and do not float on land
C) swimming for food and diving
D) organisms that catch food in depth and on the surface
E) passively swimming and actively swimming organisms
105. What is plankton?
A) a set of organisms passively floating in the upper layer of water
C) fish that actively swim in the water column
C) the totality of animals and plants that exist at the bottom of the sea
D) microorganisms
106. What is a nekton?
A) organisms that actively swim in the water column
C) the totality of organisms that exist at the bottom of the sea
D) microorganisms that exist in the upper layer of water
E) organisms that live in the upper layer of the air
107. What is benthos?
A) a community of organisms capable of living at the bottom
C) organisms that swim passively in the upper layer of water
C) organisms that actively swim in the water column
D) organisms that exist in the upper layer of water
E) organisms that live in the upper layer of the air
108. What is the name of the reaction of organisms to the length of daylight hours?
A) photoperiodism
B) biological rhythms
C) phototropism
D) suspended animation
E) menopause
109. What organisms are producers?
A) plants
B) animals
C) microorganisms
D) protozoa
E) predators
110. What organisms do not belong to consumers?
A) plants
B) animals
C) microorganisms
D) protozoa
E) worms
111. What organisms are decomposers?
A) bacteria
B) animals
C) plants
D) predators
E) birds
112. What is the name of the rate of energy consumption by plants as a result of photo- or chemosynthesis and its accumulation in the form of organic substances?
A) ecosystem productivity
B) secondary productivity
113. What is the rate of accumulation of organic substances at the level of consumers called?
A) secondary productivity
B) basic productivity
C) total primary productivity
D) net primary productivity
E) net secondary productivity
114. What is the name of the total rate of photosynthesis spent not only on the formation of organic substances, but also on the process of respiration?
A) total primary productivity
B) basic productivity
C) secondary productivity
D) net primary productivity
E) net secondary productivity
115. What is the biosphere?
A) life shell
B) soil shell
C) water shell
D) air shell
E) water, air shell
116. How many components does the biosphere consist of?
E) 7
117. Which of the scientists first proposed the term "acid rain"?
A) R. Smith
C) P. Crutzen
C) S. Rowland
D) M. Malin
E) V. Dokuchaev
118. What refers to the ecological systems of the land?
B) wetlands
C) estuaries
D) upwellings
E) seas and oceans
119. What applies to freshwater ecological systems?
A) wetlands
B) upwellings
C) estuaries
E) seas and oceans
120. What is the name of the branch of ecology that studies the global problems of the biosphere as a whole or its individual components?
A) global ecology
B) general ecology
C) synecology
D) demoecology
E) autoecology
121. Which of the scientists proposed the concept of "biocenosis"?
A) K. Mobius
B) V. Vernadsky
C) N. Naumov
E) A. Tensley
122. What is the name of the assessment of the state and monitoring of all changes in the environment?
A) monitoring
B) forecast
C) modeling
D) planning
E) standardization
123. What is the purpose of environmental monitoring?
A) monitoring the sources of anthropogenic factors
C) conducting research in biological systems
C) discovering the laws of nature
D) expert evaluation of natural objects
E) collection of payment for the conservation of the natural fund
124. Who introduced the term "ecological system"?
A) A. Tensley
C) K. Mobius
C) E. Suess
E) E. Haeckel
125. What area of ecology considers ecological systems at the biosphere level?
A) geoecology
B) human ecology
C) animal ecology
D) ecology of microorganisms
E) legal ecology
126. What is the name of the relationship between different life forms of an ecological system that affects the dynamics of growth?
A) trophic relationships
B) succession
C) homeostasis
D) menopause
E) adaptation of organisms
127. What is succession?
A) change of one biocenosis by another
C) balance in ecological systems
C) change in the mass of a substance over a certain period of time
D) the production of organic substances by plants during photosynthesis
E) decrease in the number of plants due to human activities
128. In what region is the Aksu-Zhabagyly reserve located?
A) in South Kazakhstan
B) in Almaty
C) in Kostanay
D) in Kyzylorda
E) in the North Kazakhstan
129. The highest form of landscape protection:
A) organization of reserves
B) building design
C) resource use
D) soil erosion protection
E) planting plants and trees
130. Which scientist introduced the rule that some organs of birds and mammals of the south are larger than those of related species of the northern hemisphere?
A) D. Allen
B) V. Dokuchaev
C) J. Liebig
D) A. Humboldt
E) V. Vernadsky
131. What are the sources of anthropogenic pollution of natural waters?
A) municipal waste
C) soil organisms
D) solar energy
E) microorganisms and bacteria
132. What refers to anthropogenic sources of air pollution?
A) industry
B) volcanic eruptions
C) natural disasters
D) plants
E) wind energy
133. What is natural sources of air pollution?
A) volcanic eruptions
B) industry
C) aerosols and solar radiation
D) pesticides and aerosols
E) wind and solar energy
134. Which of these animals is listed in the Red Book:
B) a cow
C) saiga
D) mountain goat
E) deer
135. What, according to VI Vernadsky, is the basis of the biosphere as an area of existence?
A) the interaction of living and non-living substances
B) the activity of the living matter of the biosphere
C) radiant energy from the sun
D) human economic activity
E) geosphere
136. What are the distinctive mechanisms of a species that ensure its discreteness called?
B) mimicry
C) differentiation
E) synusia
137. What is biocenosis synusia?
A) tiered biocenosis
B) an individual of a species
C) a group of organisms of the same species
D) population area
E) ecosystem resilience
138. What are the limits of low and high values of factors under which living organisms can exist?
A) limits of tolerance
B) upwelling
C) abrasive
E) habitat
139. What is demography?
A) a science that studies the composition, population size and their dynamics?
B) a science that studies the relationship between two states
C) the science of population migration
D) the disappearance of a people or nation
E) social status of the population
140. What are insecticides?
A) chemicals used to kill insect pests
B) animal diseases
C) vitamins for animals
D) chemicals used to kill weed plants
E) chemicals used to kill rodents
141. What are herbicides?
A) chemicals used to kill weeds
B) chemicals used to kill insect pests
C) a drug used to treat plant and animal diseases
D) chemicals used to kill rodents
E) vitamins for animals
A) adaptation of organisms of different species to similar conditions
B) mutation әserinen paida bolatyn aғzalar
C) selection result
D) organisms with increased ecological plasticity
E) Species
143. The essence of the rule of food correlation of population size:
A) those populations are preserved whose reproduction rate is correlated with the amount of food resources
B) the death of those populations whose food reserves are consumed faster than the restoration of these reserves
C) a catastrophic shortage of food resources even for one population
D) limiting food potential, which affects the distribution of the population
E) those populations are preserved whose reproduction rate is maximum
144. The existence of any ecosystem depends on:
A) from a constant supply of energy
B) from the carbon cycle
C) from the transfer of food resources from one level to another
D) from the presence of a fertile soil layer
E) from the constancy of the chemical composition of water
145. Organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances are called:
A) heterotrophs
B) autotrophs
C) producers
D) chemotrophs
E) decomposers
146. What is the name of a natural geographical complex in which all its components (relief, climate, water, plants, animals) are interconnected?
A) landscape
D) ecological system
E) geographic system
147. What are the names of territories subject to direct or indirect human influence?
A) anthropogenic landscape
B) natural landscape
C) geographic system
D) geographical envelope
E) geobiosphere
148. Name the recreational landscape:
A) resort
B) reserve
C) reserve
D) enterprise
E) irrigated land
149. Name the specially protected area:
A) reserve
B) resort
C) city parks
D) irrigated land
E) enterprise
150. Name the anthropogenic source of soil pollution:
A) agriculture
B) volcanic eruption
C) an earthquake
D) solar radiation
E) sat down
151. Name the natural source of soil pollution:
A) volcanic eruptions
B) agriculture
C) waste from enterprises
D) household waste
E) warm water power plants
152. Specify the primary periodic factor:
A) change of seasons
B) humidity
C) an earthquake
D) animal adaptation
153. Specify the secondary periodic factor:
A) humidity
B) change of seasons
C) an earthquake
D) human activity
E) natural disasters
154. Specify a non-periodic factor:
A) an earthquake
B) humidity
C) temperature
D) human adaptation
E) the change of seasons
155. Indicate the climatic factor:
A) temperature
C) the chemical composition of water
C) soil organisms
E) salinity and density of water
156. Specify the edaphic factor:
A) the mechanical composition of the soil
C) ambient temperature
C) relief
D) the chemical composition of the soil
E) salinity and density of water
157. Indicate the orographic factor:
A) relief
C) animals
D) plants
E) microorganisms
158. What is the name of the change by organisms of their morphology, depending on changes in living conditions?
A) life form
B) reaction rate
C) bioluminescence
D) adaptation
E) homeostasis
159. Which scientist introduced the classification of life forms of animals?
A) D. Kashkarov
C) S.Raunkier
C) W. Shelford
D) V. Vernadsky
E) A. Tensley
160. The totality of vital factors, without which plants cannot exist, are called:
A) a condition for existence
B) the natural environment
C) exogenous conditions
D) environment
E) endogenous conditions
161. At the level of an individual organism, abiotic factors primarily affect:
A) behavior
B) to adapt
C) for distribution
D) on the climatic regime
E) to reproduce
162. At the population level, abiotic factors primarily affect:
A) to reproduce
B) behavior
C) for distribution
D) on the morphological structure
E) to adapt
163. How are organisms adapted to certain values of a factor called?
A) stenobionts
B) eurytherms
C) eurybionts
D) resistant
E) tolerant
164. How are organisms adapted to changing values of a factor called?
A) eurybionts
B) stenobionts
C) eurythermal
D) resistant
E) tolerant
165. What part of the biosphere does the hydrosphere occupy?
E) 2/5
166. How many % of the globe are all oceans and seas?
E) 58%
167. Sources of acid rain?
A) sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide
C) freons, chlorohydrocarbons
C) phenol, cyanides, ammonia, methyl mercaptan
D) dichloroethane, chlorine, bromobenzene, ammonia, nitrates
E) molybdenum, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methyl alcohol
168. What is the main source of radioactive contamination?
A) alpha, beta, gamma radiation
C) industrial enterprises, agriculture
C) chemical ions, nuclear structures
D) carbon oxides, nitrates and sodium oxides
E) solar and wind energy, electromagnetic waves
169. What is suspended animation?
A) weakening the life of organisms in adverse conditions
C) the place of distribution of a population or groups of living organisms on land
C) the similarity of animals and plants with inanimate and natural divisions
D) adaptation of organisms to new habitat conditions
E) the spread of plants to new spaces
170. What is population fluctuation?
A) population fluctuations
C) self-regulation of the number of populations
C) population homeostasis
D) genetic changes in the population
E) the maximum instantaneous population growth rate
171. Specify the main function of the ozone layer:
A) protective
B) providing oxygen
C) oxygen uptake
D) retention of infrared rays
E) greenhouse effect
172. Which of the chemical elements makes up 78.08% of the atmosphere?
D) hydrogen
E) oxygen
173. Cause of mass mortality of a population:
A) epizootics, natural disasters
C) lack of trophic resources
C) changes in adaptive abilities
D) non-communicable diseases
E) anthropogenic impacts
174. Which of the scientists introduced the term "geographical envelope"?
A) A. Grigoriev
B) E. Suess
C) Y. Odum
D) E. Haeckel
E) I. N. Ponomareva
175. Choose the chemical formula of ozone?
Ecology- the science of the interaction of living organisms and their systems with the environment (OS), their mutual influence and interpenetration, which allows you to determine ways to optimize and possibly change the conditions for the environment and living organisms. The environment refers to almost the entire universe. Very often the term OS is replaced by the word "nature".
Under living organisms is understood not only a person, but also all other living representatives of nature: animals, plants, protozoa.
Literally translated, the word "ecology" means the doctrine of "home" (from the Greek "oikos" - habitat, dwelling, house and "logos" - teaching). This term and the general definition of ecology were first made by the German biologist E. Haeckel in 1866.
In accordance with the history of the development of ecology, the following branches can be distinguished in it:
A) bioecology- ecology of microorganisms, fungi, protozoa, animals (the bioecology of birds, fish, etc. is considered separately), as well as paleoecology (evolutionary ecology);
b) systems ecology- tundra, deserts, semi-deserts, forests, steppes, etc. This also includes radiation and chemical ecology. The term "ecosystem" was proposed in 1935 by the English botanist A. Huxley;
V) human ecology- historical, archaeological, actually human, city (urboecology), industrial, agricultural, recreational (ecology of recreation areas), legal, economic, etc.
2. The structure of modern ecology
From a scientific point of view, it is quite reasonable to divide ecology into theoretical and applied:
theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life;
applied ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man, ways to prevent this process and develops principles for the rational use of natural resources.
Ecology
dynamic;
Analytical;
General (bioecology);
Geoecology;
applied;
human ecology;
Social ecology.
autecology(autoecology) is a branch of ecology that studies the characteristics of the response and interaction of species of living organisms with environmental factors. Currently, population ecology has emerged as an independent scientific discipline in autecology, the subject of scientific research of which is a population of living organisms that exist in certain environmental conditions and under the influence of which it develops and changes.
synecology- This is a branch of environmental science that studies the patterns of development and existence of communities of living organisms (biocenoses) in specific changing environmental conditions. In recent years, such a branch of ecology as biogeocenology has been actively developing. The activation of scientific research within this direction is associated with the revealed significant influences of biogeocenotic factors on the features of the development of human communities.
Population ecology
population- a group of organisms of the same species living in a certain area. Examples of populations are all perches in a pond, common squirrels or white oaks in forests, the population in a particular country, or the population of the Earth as a whole. Populations- These are dynamic groups of organisms that adapt to changes in environmental conditions by changing their size, distribution of age groups (age structure), and genetic composition.
Biogeocenology - Homogeneous areas of land or water inhabited by living organisms are called biotopes (places of life). The historically established community of organisms of different species inhabiting a biotope is called biocenosis, or biome.
The community of organisms of the biocenosis and the inanimate nature surrounding them form a stable and dynamic system - the biogeocenosis, or ecosystem. Thus, biogeocenosis is a combination of biome and biotope.
Some authors see a difference in the terms "ecosystem" and "biogeocenosis". In this case, the difference lies in the fact that the ecosystem may not contain plant communities, and biogeocenosis is impossible without phytocenosis. The boundaries of biogeocenosis coincide with the boundaries of the plant community, which is its basis. Biogeocenosis functions as an integral, self-reproducing and self-regulating system. The composition of biogeocenosis includes the following components:
inorganic substances included in the cycle (compounds of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, mineral salts, etc.);
climatic factors (temperature, pressure, illumination, etc.);
organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids);
producers- autotrophic organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances under the influence of sunlight (mainly green plants);
consumers- heterotrophic organisms (herbivorous and carnivorous consumers of finished organic matter). Mostly animals.
■ destructors and decomposers- heterotrophic organisms that destroy the remains of dead plants and animals (worms, wood lice, crayfish, catfish) and turn them into mineral compounds (bacteria, fungi).
global ecology(study of the biosphere)
The division of general ecology also includes: plant ecology; animal ecology; ecology of microorganisms; aquatic organisms.
Chapter geoecology considers : land ecology; fresh water ecology; sea ecology; ecology of the Far North; ecology of the highlands, etc.
Applied Ecology: industrial (engineering);technological;Agriculture;medical;field;chemical;recreational; geochemical; to nature management.
Human ecology: city ecology; population ecology;
Social ecology: ecology of personality; ecology of humanity; ecology of culture; ethnoecology.
