Who is in the Slavic group. Countries of the Slavic group

The Slavs today are the largest ethno-linguistic community in Europe. They inhabit vast territories and number about 300-350 million people. In this article, we will consider what branches the Slavic peoples are divided into, we will talk about the history of their formation and division. We will also touch a little on the modern stage of the spread of Slavic culture and those religious beliefs that the tribes adhered to in the course of their development and formation.

Origin theories

So, according to medieval chroniclers, our peoples descend from a common ancestor. He was Japheth. This character, according to the chronicles, gave birth to such tribes as the Medes, Sarmatians, Scythians, Thracians, Illyrians, Slavs, British and other European peoples.

The Arabs knew the Slavs as part of the community of the peoples of the West, which included the Turks, Ugrians and Europe. In their military records, historians associate this conglomerate with the word "Sakalib". Later, deserters from the Byzantine army who converted to Islam began to be called that.

The ancient Greeks and Romans called the Slavs "Sklavins" and correlated them with one of the Scythian tribes - the Skolts. Also, sometimes the ethnonyms Wends and Slavs are brought together.

Thus, the three branches of the Slavic peoples, the scheme of which is given below, have a common ancestor. But later, the paths of their development diverged significantly, due to the vast territory of settlement and the influence of neighboring cultures and beliefs.

Settlement history

Later we will touch separately on each group of tribes, but now we should understand what branches the Slavic peoples are divided into and how the process of settlement took place.
So, for the first time these tribes are mentioned by Tacitus and Pliny the Elder. These ancient Roman historians in their records spoke of the Wends who inhabited the Baltic territories. Judging by the period of life of these statesmen, the Slavs already existed in the second century AD.

The next to speak of these same tribes were Procopius of Caesarea and Prisk, a Byzantine writer and scholar. But the most complete information that relates to the pre-chronic period is available from the Gothic historian Jordanes.

He reports that the Sclaveni are an independent tribe that separated from the Veneti. In the territories north of the Vistula River (modern Vistula), he mentions "a numerous people of the Veneti", which are divided into Antes and Sclaveni. The first lived along the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) from Danastra (Dniester) to Danapra (Dnieper). The Sclavens lived from Novietun (the city of Iskach on the Danube) to Danastra and Vistula in the north.

Thus, in the sixth century AD, the Sclavens already lived on the lands from the Dniester to the Vistula and the Danube. Later, various chroniclers will mention a much larger area of ​​settlement of these tribes. It covered the lands of Central and Eastern Europe.

How were the three branches of the Slavic peoples divided? The diagram we have given above shows that the movement went north, south and east.

Initially, the tribes moved in the direction of the Black and Baltic Seas. Just this period is described by the Gothic historian Jordanes. Further, the Avars invade these lands and split the single area of ​​the tribes into parts.

For two centuries (from the sixth to the eighth) they inhabit the Eastern foothills of the Alps and fall under the rule of Emperor Justinian II. We know this from references in the annals, which spoke of the campaign of the Byzantine army against the Arabs. Sclaveni are also mentioned as part of the army.

In the eighth century, these tribes reach the Balkan Peninsula in the south and Lake Ladoga in the north.

South Slavs

Western and southern Slavs, as we see, were formed at different times. At first, the Antes separated from the conglomerate of tribes, who went east, towards the Black Sea and the Dnieper. Only in the eighth century did this nation begin to settle the Balkan Peninsula.

The process went as follows. Some East and West Slavic tribes moved in search of better lands to the southwest, towards the Adriatic Sea.

Historians identify the following groups in this migration: encouraged (in European chronicles they are known as predenicents), northerners (possible connection with northerners), Serbs, Croats and others. Basically, these are the tribes that lived along the course of the Danube River.

Later, it was replaced by the Penkovskaya archaeological community. Between these cultures there is a gap of two centuries, but it is believed that such a gap is caused by the assimilation of some tribes with others.

Thus, the origin of the Slavic peoples was the result of the authentic formation of larger communities from a number of small tribal associations. Later, the chroniclers of Kievan Rus would give names to these groups: Polans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi and other tribes.

According to ancient Russian chronicles, as a result of the unification of fifteen groups of Eastern Slavs, such a powerful medieval power as Kievan Rus was formed.

Current situation

So, we discussed with you what branches the Slavic peoples are divided into. In addition, we talked about exactly how the process of settling the tribes to the south and east went.

Modern Slavic peoples are slightly different from their direct ancestors. In their culture, they combine the imprints of influences, both neighboring peoples, and many newcomers conquerors.

For example, the main part of the regions of the west of the Russian Federation and Ukraine, which were once part of Kievan Rus, were under the Mongol-Tatar yoke for several centuries. Therefore, many borrowings from the Turkic languages ​​are included in the dialects. Also, some traditional ornaments and rituals bear the imprints of the culture of the enslavers.

The southern Slavs were more influenced by the Greeks and Turks. Therefore, at the end of the article, we will have to talk about religious issues. The once pagan tribes today are adherents of different confessions of the Abrahamic religions.

Thoroughly what branches the Slavic peoples are divided into, the descendants may not know, but, as a rule, everyone easily recognizes their “countryman”. The Southern Slavs are traditionally darker, and in their dialect specific phonemes slip through, which are characteristic only for this region. A similar situation exists with the descendants of western and eastern tribal associations.

So, what countries today have become the homeland for different branches of the Slavic people?

States of the South Slavs

Modern Slavic peoples are settled throughout most of Eastern and Central Europe. However, in the context of globalization, their representatives can be found in almost any country in the world. Moreover, the peculiarity of our mentality is such that after a short time the neighbors begin to understand the Slavic languages. The Slavs have always sought to introduce foreigners to their culture, while little succumbing to the process of their own assimilation.

The modern South Slavs include Slovenes and Montenegrins, Macedonians and Bulgarians, Croats, Bosnians and Serbs. Basically, these peoples live on the territory of their national states, which include Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Serbia and Croatia.

That is, in fact, this is the territory of the Balkan Peninsula and the northeastern part of the Adriatic Sea coast.

The southern Slavic peoples today are increasingly moving away from the idea of ​​a commonality of these peoples, merging into the new family of the European Union. True, several decades ago there was an attempt to create one common country with a population consisting only of southern Slavs, but it failed. Once this state was called Yugoslavia.

Outside the national states, representatives of this branch of the Slavic peoples, according to official statistics, live quite a lot in Italy, Hungary, Austria, Romania, Turkey, Albania, Greece and Moldova.

Western Slavic countries

Since the ethnogenesis of the Slavic peoples mainly took place initially on the territory of modern Poland and Germany, the representatives of the Western tribes practically did not leave their homes.

Today their descendants live in Poland, Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Traditionally, ethnologists distinguish five peoples that belong to the West Slavic branch. These are Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Kashubians and Lusatians.

The first three ethnic groups live mainly in states with the corresponding names, and the last two - in separate areas. Lusatian Serbs, to which the Wends, Lugii and Sorbs also belong, inhabit Lusatia. This territory is divided into the Upper and Lower parts, which are located in Saxony and Brandenburg, respectively.

The Kashubians live in the land called Kashubia. It is part of the modern Polish People's Republic. The unofficial capital of this people is the city of Kartuzy. Also, many representatives of this nationality are found in Gdynia.

The Kashubians consider themselves an ethnic group, but Polish citizenship is recognized. In their environment, they are divided into several formations depending on the place of residence, the characteristics of the national costume, activities and class differences. So, among them there are fences, parcha gentry, gburs, taverns, gokhs and other groups.

Thus, it can be said with confidence that for the most part, the Western Slavic peoples have preserved their customs to the maximum. Some of them are even still engaged in traditional trades and crafts, however, more to attract tourists.

East Slavic powers

The modern territory belongs to such countries as Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Today, these states, one might say, are at a crossroads. Their peoples are faced with a choice: to remain adherents of traditional ways or to follow the path of their southern brethren, accepting Western European values.

Once a powerful state - Kievan Rus eventually transformed into three countries. Moscow was formed around Moscow, and then the Russian Empire. Kyiv united around itself the lands of many tribes from the Carpathians to the Don. And Belarus was formed in the forests of Polissya. Based on the name of the territory, the main part of the country is inhabited by the descendants of Poleshchuks and Pinchuks.

Religions of different branches of the Slavs

The Russian Federation, Ukraine and Belarus are the modern territory of the Eastern Slavs. Here, the majority of the population belongs to Orthodox Christians.

In principle, the official departure from paganism occurred in the tenth century, when the Kiev prince Vladimir the Great baptized Rus. But in 1054 there was a great schism, when separate Orthodox and Catholic faiths appeared in Christianity. The eastern and southeastern tribes remained loyal to the Patriarch of Constantinople, while the western and southwestern tribes became supporters of the Roman Catholic Church.

At a certain stage in history, certain groups of southern Slavs converted to Islam. This is explained by the fact that their lands were under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. For fellow believers, the Turks did a lot of concessions. Today, Muslims include Gorani, Bosniaks, Pomaks, Kuchis and Torbeshis.

Thus, in this article we studied the ethnogenesis of the Slavic peoples, and also talked about their division into three branches. In addition, we figured out which modern countries belong to the territory of settlement of the southern, western and eastern tribes.

1. Introduction 3p.
2. Modern Slavic peoples. Western Slavs. Russian 5str.
3. Ukrainians 7str.
4. Belarusians 9str.
5. Western Slavs. Poles 12p.
6. Czechs 13str.
7. Slovaks 14pp.
8. Luzhychane 16str.
9. Kashubian 17str.
10. Southern Slavs. Serbs 18p.
11. Bulgarians 20p.
12. Croats 21p.
13. Macedonians 23p.
14. Montenegrins 24p.
15. Bosnians 25p.
16. Slovenes 25p.
17. References 27p.

Introduction

Already about two thousand years ago, Greek and Roman scientists knew that in the east of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and the Baltic Sea, numerous tribes of Wends live. These were the ancestors of modern Slavic peoples. By their name, the Baltic Sea was then called the Venedian Gulf of the Northern Ocean. According to archaeologists, the Wends were the original inhabitants of Europe, the descendants of the tribes that lived here in the Stone and Bronze Ages.

The ancient name of the Slavs Wends was preserved in the language of the Germanic peoples until the late Middle Ages, and in the Finnish language Russia is still called Veneia. The name "Slavs" began to spread only one and a half thousand years ago in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. At first, only Western Slavs were called that way. Their eastern counterparts were called Ants. Then the Slavs began to call all the tribes speaking Slavic languages.

At the beginning of our era, throughout Europe there were large movements of tribes and peoples who entered into a struggle with the slave-owning Roman Empire. At this time, the Slavic tribes already occupied a large territory. Some of them penetrated to the west, to the banks of the Odra and Laba (Elbe) rivers. Together with the population living along the banks of the Vistula River, they became the ancestors of the modern West Slavic peoples - Polish, Czech and Slovak.

Especially grandiose was the movement of the Slavs to the south to the banks of the Danube and to the Balkan Peninsula. These territories were occupied by the Slavs in the VI VII centuries. after long wars with the Byzantine Empire, which lasted over a century.

The ancestors of the modern South Slavic peoples Bulgarians and the peoples of Yugoslavia were Slavic tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula. They mixed with the local Thracian and Illyrian population, which had previously been oppressed by Byzantine slave owners and feudal lords.

At the time when the Slavs settled in the Balkan Peninsula, Byzantine geographers and historians became closely acquainted with them. They pointed to the large number of Slavs and the vastness of their territory, reported that the Slavs were well acquainted with agriculture and cattle breeding. Of particular interest is the information of Byzantine authors that the Slavs in the VI and VII centuries. did not yet have a state. They lived in independent tribes. War chiefs were at the head of these numerous tribes. The names of leaders who lived more than a thousand years ago are known: Mezhimir, Dobrita, Pirogost, Khvilibud and others. The Byzantines wrote that the Slavs were very brave, skilled in military affairs and well armed; they are freedom-loving, do not recognize slavery and submission.

The ancestors of the Slavic peoples of our country Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian in ancient times lived in the forest-steppe and forest areas between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers. Then they began to move north, up the Dnieper. It was a slow, centuries-old movement of agricultural communities and individual families who were looking for new convenient places for settlement and areas rich in animals and fish. The settlers cut down virgin forests for their fields.

At the beginning of our era, the Slavs penetrated the upper Dnieper region, where tribes lived, related to modern Lithuanians and Latvians. Further north, the Slavs settled areas in which, in some places, ancient Finno-Ugric tribes lived, related to modern Maris, Mordovians, as well as Finns, Karelians and Estonians. The local population in terms of their culture was significantly inferior to the Slavs. A few centuries later, it mixed with the aliens, learned their language and culture. In different areas, the East Slavic tribes were called differently, which is known to us from the oldest Russian chronicle: Vyatichi, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Polyana, Radimichi and others.

The Slavs waged a constant struggle with the nomads who lived in the Black Sea steppes and often plundered the Slavic lands. The most dangerous enemy was the nomadic Khazars, who created in the 7th VIII centuries. a large strong state in the lower reaches of the Volga and Don rivers.

During this period, the Eastern Slavs began to be called Russ or Ross, as is believed, from the name of one of the tribes Russ, who lived on the border with Khazaria, between the Dnieper and the Don. This is how the names "Russia" and "Russians" came about. [ 7 ]

Modern Slavic peoples

East Slavs

Russians

Russians (Us. Great Russians) East Slavic people living mainly in the Russian Federation, and also constituting a significant proportion of the population of Belarus, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania and Uzbekistan. In anthropological terms, Russians represent different subtypes of a large Caucasian race, they speak Russian, they are connected by a common history, culture and origin.

The number of Russians is currently about 150 million, of which 115.9 million are in the Russian Federation (according to the 2002 census). Orthodoxy, adopted in 988, is considered the traditional national religion.

A significant part of Russians lives in the central part, in the south and north-west of Russia, in the Urals. According to 2002 data, among the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the largest percentage of the Russian population is in the Vologda Oblast (96.56%). The share of Russians exceeds 90% in 30 subjects of the Federation, mainly in the regions of the Central and Northwestern federal districts, as well as in the south of Siberia. In most national republics, the share of Russians ranges from 30 to 50%. The smallest number of Russians is in Ingushetia, Chechnya and Dagestan (less than 5%).

According to the peculiarities of language and life, Russians are divided, according to the scheme proposed by A. A. Shakhmatov, A. I. Sobolevsky and later adopted by many, in particular Soviet, researchers (B. M. Lyapunov, F. Philip, etc.), into two or three large dialect groups:northern border and southern shark with an intermediate dialect of Moscow. The border between the first two runs along the line PskovTverMoscowNizhny Novgorod. At present, due to the development of school education and mass communication, the differences in dialects have greatly decreased.

A number of smaller ethnographic groups stand out among the Russians with everyday and linguistic features:mountaineers, tundra peasants, Cossacks(Kazan, Don, Amur, etc.), masons (Bukhtarma), Kamchadals, Karyms, Kerzhaks, Kolymchans, Lipovans, Markovians, Meshchers, Molokans, Odnodvortsy, Polekhs, Poles(ethnographic group of Russians),Pomors, Pushkars, Russian Germans, Russian Ustyintsy, Sayan, Semey, Tudov, Tsukan, Yakut.

The first information about the history of Russians originates from the Tale of Bygone Years, compiled in the 12th century on the basis of the first chronicle of the 11th century. In the introductory part, the compiler of the Tale talks about the Slavic tribes that belong to the Russians. The name “Russians” comes from the people of Rus, according to the compiler of The Tale of Bygone Years, the Varangian (Scandinavian) people. There are disputes about the ethnic origin of the first bearers of this name: Western and many Russian scientists recognize their Varangian origin, but there are other versions: some scientists consider them Slavs, others Iranian-speaking nomads (Roxalans), others other Germanic tribes (Goths, Rugs and etc.).

Around the 12th century, as a result of the merger of East Slavic tribal unions, the Old Russian nationality was formed. Its further consolidation was prevented by the feudal disintegration of Kievan Rus, and the unification of the principalities under the rule of several states (the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later the Commonwealth) laid the foundation for its further disintegration into three modern peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The greatest role in the formation of the Russian people was played by the descendants of the tribes of the north-east of Rus' Slovene Ilmen, Krivichi, Vyatichi, etc., due to the weak migration processes in the Middle Ages, the contribution of other tribes is seen as much less significant.

At the turn of the XIXXX centuries, the Russians were understood as the totality of three ethnographic groups: Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians, that is, all Eastern Slavs. It was 86 million or 72.5% of the population of the Russian Empire. This was the dominant point of view, reflected in encyclopedias. However, already at that time, a number of researchers considered the differences between the groups sufficient to recognize them as separate peoples. In connection with the subsequent deepening of these differences and the national self-determination of the Little Russians (Ukrainians) and Belarusians, the ethnonym "Russians" ceased to apply to them and was preserved only for the Great Russians, replacing the former ethnonym. Now, usually, when speaking about pre-revolutionary Russia, only Great Russians are understood as Russians in particular, arguing that Russians made up 43% of its population (about 56 million).

Religion

The baptism of Kievan Rus, which united all the Eastern Slavs, was performed in 988 by Prince Vladimir. Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium in the form of the Eastern rite and began to spread in the upper strata of society long before this event. Meanwhile, the rejection of paganism proceeded slowly. The magi of the old gods had a noticeable influence as early as the 11th century. Until the 13th century, princes received two names pagan at birth and Christian at baptism (Vsevolod the Big Nest, for example, also bore the name Dmitry); but this is not necessarily explained by the remnants of paganism (“princely”, dynastic name had a state and clan rather than a pagan-religious status).

The largest religious organization uniting Orthodox Russians is the Russian Orthodox Church; its dioceses, autonomous and independent Orthodox churches function outside of Russia. In the 17th century, a small part of Russians did not support the reforms of the church carried out by Patriarch Nikon, which caused a split and the emergence of Old Believers. Large Old Believer organizations are also ethnographic groups. Many pagan beliefs in a modified form survived until the 20th century and even to this day, existing together with Christianity. The attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church towards them is ambiguous from disapproval to inclusion in the official cult. Among them are both rituals (holidays Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala, etc.), as well as belief in creatures of pagan mythology (brownies, goblin, mermaids, etc.), witchcraft, fortune-telling, omens, etc. Orthodoxy played a crucial role in the self-determination of Russians influencing culture and mentality. The adoption of Orthodoxy turned a person into a Russian, regardless of his ethnic origin.

At present, there is also an interest in a very small part of the Russian population in paganism in the form in which it existed before the introduction of Christianity in Rus'. There is a formation of large associations of communities (Union of Slavic Communities, Veles Circle, Circle of Pagan Traditions). The number of adherents of the pagan religion at the moment is small. Part of the Russian population of Russia and some other countries are adherents of a number of totalitarian sects.

The second largest confession among Russians is Protestantism (1-2 million). The largest Protestant movement in Russia is Baptism, which has a 140-year history in Russia. There is also a large number of Pentecostals and Charismatics, there are Lutherans, Seventh Day Adventists, Methodists, Presbyterians.

Some Russians profess Catholicism, Islam, Buddhism and other religions, including "para-Christian" or pseudo-Christian, often called sects or totalitarian sects, for example, "Jehovah's Witnesses", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" (Mormons), "Unification Church" (Moonies).

Russian holidays

Russian national holidays holidays of the Russian people associated with widespread folk traditions of their celebration.

New Year (on the night of December 31 to January 1). It is customary to decorate the room with a decorated Christmas tree or branches. At midnight on January 1, the congratulations of the head of state and the chimes are listened to. It is customary to serve, among other things, Olivier salad and champagne. Children are given gifts (from "Santa Claus"). According to opinion polls, this is the most celebrated holiday.

- Nativity(Jan. 7 according to the new style and December 25 according to the Julian calendar) Orthodox holiday. On the night before Christmas, it is customary to guess, which has never been approved by the Orthodox Church. Fortune-telling of girls about future marriage was especially popular. The holiday is celebrated with a gala dinner. The tradition of celebrating Christmas has been officially restored in post-Soviet Russia.

Epiphany (January 19 according to the new style) Orthodox holiday. On the night of Epiphany, it is customary to bless the water in the church. The onset of especially strong “Epiphany frosts” is associated with Epiphany. Swimming is also practiced in an ice-hole carved in the form of a cross (Jordan).

Maslenitsa (“Pancake Week”) the week before Lent. It has ancient pagan roots. Pancakes are baked and eaten throughout the week. There are many other, less well-known traditions associated with each of the days of Shrove Tuesday.

- Palm SundayOrthodox holiday (entrance of the Lord into Jerusalem). It is customary to decorate the room with willow branches, symbolizing the palm branches of those who met Jesus Christ.

Easter Orthodox holiday of the Bright Resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. Festive food Easter (cottage cheese with candied fruit), Easter cakes dyed red and hard-boiled eggs. Orthodox believers greet each other with exclamations: "Christ is Risen!", "Truly Risen!" and kiss three times.

Ukrainians

Ukrainians (Ukrainian Ukrainians ) East Slavic people living mainly on the territory of Ukraine and formerly also called Rus, Ruthenians, Little Russians, Little Russians (that is, the people living in a small (small) part of Russia, in a different sense - the people living in the central, historical part of Rus'), Cossacks.

They speak the Ukrainian language of the East Slavic group of the Indo-European family. The following dialects are distinguished: northern (left-bank-Polesye, right-bank-Polesye, Volyn-Polesye dialects), southwestern (Volyn-Podolsky, Galician-Bukovinian, Carpathian, Dniester dialects), southeastern (Podneprovsky and East Poltava dialects).

Writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet, continuing Old Russian; proper Ukrainian from the 19th century based on the Russian civil script. Russian is also widespread (mainly in the southern, eastern and central regions, especially among the townspeople) and surzhik.

Ukrainians, along with closely related Russians and Belarusians, belong to the Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians include Carpathian Rusyns (Boikos, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polissya ethnographic groups (Litvins, Polishchuks).

The formation of the Ukrainian nationality took place in the XIIXV centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population. The tribes of Polyans, Drevlyans, Tivertsy, Northerners, Ulichs, Volynians and White Croats inhabiting the territory of Ukraine united in the states: Kievan Rus (IXXII centuries), and later Galicia-Volyn Rus (XIIXIV centuries). The tribes of the Tiverts and Uliches were, according to some scholars, of Thracian origin.

In Ancient Rus', the word Rusyn was used as an ethnonym to refer to the inhabitants. It is first encountered in The Tale of Bygone Years and is used along with Russian, Russian people this is how people related to Rus' are called.

In the Middle Ages, especially actively in the 16th-17th centuries, on the territory of modern central Ukraine (Hetmanate), the term Rusyn was applied to the language, religion, and also as an ethnonym for designating the nationality of people living in these territories, and was used as a synonym for the word "Russian". On the territory of Galicia and Bukovina, this name remained until the early 1950s, and in Transcarpathia it has survived to this day.

During the period of political fragmentation, in connection with the existing local features of the language, culture and way of life, prerequisites were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian. The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality was the Middle Dnieper - Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernihiv region.

At the same time, Kyiv played a significant integrating role, where the most important shrines of Eastern Slavic Orthodoxy (such as the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra) were located. Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated towards this center - Sivershchina, Volhynia, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia.

Starting from the 13th century, the territory where the Ukrainian ethnos was formed was subjected to Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldavian conquests. From the end of the 15th century, the raids of the Tatar khans who had established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region began. In the XVIXVII centuries, in the course of the struggle against foreign invaders, the Ukrainian nationality was significantly consolidated. The most important role was played in this by the emergence of the Cossacks (XV century), who created the state (XVI century) with a kind of republican system Zaporizhzhya Sich, which became the political stronghold of Ukrainians.

The defining moments of the ethnic history of the Ukrainians of the 17th century were the further development of crafts and trade, in particular, in the cities that used the Magdeburg right, as well as the creation as a result of the war of liberation under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Ukrainian state Hetmanate, and its entry (1654) on the rights of autonomy into composition of Russia. This created the prerequisites for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands. In the 17th century, there was a movement of significant groups of Ukrainians from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, their development of empty steppe lands and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina.

Religion

Believing Ukrainians, mostly Christians, belong to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), to a lesser extent to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kyiv Patriarchate) and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. Greek Catholics who belong to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (Catholics of the Byzantine or Eastern rite, Uniates) prevail in Galicia, Orthodoxy prevails among Ukrainians in Transcarpathia (according to a 2004 study, 57.8% of the population of the region trust all Orthodox jurisdictions), 20 25% Uniates; there is a small number of Roman Catholics. Protestantism is also known in the form of Pentecostalism, Baptism, Adventism, etc.

According to unofficial data, approximately 420,000 Ukrainians adhere to Rodnoverie (also called Slavic paganism), while considering themselves "genuine" Russians.

social relations

In the public life of the Ukrainian village to the end XIX centuries, remnants of patriarchal relations were preserved, a significant place was occupied by the neighboring community - bulk . Many traditional collective forms of labor were characteristic ( cleaning, mating) and rest ( couples bulks- associations of unmarried guys;evenings and dosvitki, New Year's carols and carolsand etc.). The dominant form of the Ukrainian family was small , with the expressed power of its head - husband and father, although until the beginning of the 20th century, especially in Polesie and in the Carpathians, the remnants of a large patriarchal family remained. Family rituals were varied, maternity, especially wedding, with wedding rites, a loaf section, accompanied by songs and dances. The folk art of Ukrainians is rich and varied: pictorial (artistic painting of the dwelling, embroidery with its traditional types - zanizuvannya, zavolikannya and laying etc.), song-musical, choreographic, verbal folklore, including colorful specific thoughts and historical songs composed by kobza and lyre players. Scientific and technological progress and urbanization, intensive mobility of the population have led to the erasure of most of the features of individual ethnographic regions and groups of Ukrainians. The traditional life of the village was destroyed. The consequences of forced collectivization, which were detrimental to the countryside, were exacerbated by the severe famine of 1932-33, Stalinist repressions, as a result of which Ukrainians lost more than 5 million people.

Belarusians

Belarusians (self-name Belor. Belarusians ) East Slavic people with a total number of about 10 million people, the main population of Belarus. They also live in Russia, Ukraine and other countries.

The total number is about 10 million people. They speak the Belarusian language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family; the southwestern, northeastern dialects, the so-called Polissya dialects, differ. Russian, Polish, Lithuanian languages ​​are also widespread. Writing based on Cyrillic. Believing Belarusians are predominantly Orthodox, about 25% are Catholics.

Belarusians, along with Russians and Ukrainians, belong to the Eastern Slavs. According to the most common concept of the origin of the Belarusians, the ancient tribes that lived on the ethnic territory of the Belarusians - the Dregovichi, Krivichi, Radimichi - as part of Kievan Rus, together with other East Slavic tribes, consolidated into the Old Russian people. IN XIII-XIV centuries, in the era of political fragmentation of the western land of the Old Russian state, they became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, within which Belarusians were formed. The specific features of the Belarusians were formed on the basis of the regional features of the Old Russian community. Important ethno-forming factors were the relatively high economic and cultural level of the East Slavic population, its large numbers and compact settlement. The language factor played an important role. The western dialect of the Old Russian language - Old Belarusian - in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania served as the state language, in XVI century, printing appeared on it.

The Belarusian ethnic community took shape in XIV - XVI centuries. The name Belorussians goes back to the toponym Belaya Rus, which in XIV - XVI for centuries it was applied in relation to the Vitebsk region and the north-east of the Mogilev region, and in XIX - early XX centuries already covered almost the entire ethnic territory of the Belarusians. The form of the modern name - Belarusians - arose in XVII century. At the same time, a name appeared for the Belarusian-Ukrainian population - Poleshuks. At the same time there were ethnonyms Litvins, Ruthenians, Ruthenians. As a self-name, the ethnonym Belarusians became widespread only after the formation of the Byelorussian SSR (1919).

The traditional occupations of Belarusians are agriculture, animal husbandry, as well as beekeeping and gathering. They grew winter rye, wheat, buckwheat, barley, peas, flax, millet, hemp, and potatoes. Cabbage, beets, cucumbers, onions, garlic, radishes, poppies, and carrots were planted in vegetable gardens. In the gardens - apple trees, pears, cherries, plums, berry bushes (gooseberries, currants, blackberries, raspberries, etc.). The dominant land use system at the beginning XX century there was a three-field, for those with little land - a two-field.

The main arable implements are the plow. They also used a ralo, a bipod. For harrowing, a wicker or knitted harrow and a more archaic knotted harrow, smyk, were used. From the end XIX century, the iron plow and harrow appeared. Harvesting tools - sickles, scythes, pitchforks, rakes. The grain was dried in log houses - Ossets or Evnyas. For threshing, they used a flail, a roll, a round deck. Grain was stored in barns and cages, potatoes - in furnaces and cellars, crypts.

Pig breeding played an important role in animal husbandry. Cattle were also bred. Sheep breeding is widespread throughout Belarus. Horse breeding is most developed in the northeast. Berries and mushrooms were collected everywhere in the forest, maple and birch sap were harvested. They fished in rivers and lakes.

Trades and crafts were developed - the manufacture of mats and mats, agricultural tools, the processing of leather, sheepskin, furs, the manufacture of shoes, vehicles, furniture, ceramic dishes, barrels and household utensils made of wood. Of particular importance is the manufacture of decorative and applied products from textile raw materials and leather, products with folk embroidery. Certain types of trades and crafts were constantly preserved, but many disappeared. In recent years, weaving from straw, making belts, embroidering clothes, etc. have begun to revive.

The main types of Belarusian settlements are Veska (village), shtetls, dungeons (settlements on rented land), settlements, farms. Villages are the most widespread. Historically, several forms of settlement planning developed: crowded, linear, street, etc. The crowded form was most common in the northeast, especially in the outskirts of the gentry. Linear planning (estates are located along the street on one side of it) throughout the territory of Belarus has become widespread in XVI - XVII centuries. The number of houses in the settlement - from 10 to 100 (mainly in Polesie).

The traditional complex of men's national clothes consisted of a shirt, nagovits (belt clothes), sleeveless jackets (camiselles). The shirt was worn loose, girdled with a colored belt. Footwear - bast shoes, leather postols, boots, felt boots in winter. Hats - a straw hat (bryl), a felted hat (magerka), in winter a fur hat (ablavukha). A leather bag was carried over the shoulder. The white color prevailed in the men's suit, and embroideries and decorations were on the collar, at the bottom of the shirt; the belt was multicolored.

Women's costume is more diverse, with pronounced national specifics. There are four complexes: with a skirt and an apron; with a skirt, apron and garset; with a skirt to which a garset bodice is sewn; with panel, apron, garset. The first two are known throughout Belarus, the last two in the eastern and northeastern regions. There are three types of shirts: with straight shoulder inserts, tunic-shaped, with a yoke; great attention was paid to embroideries on the sleeves. Belt clothes - a skirt of various styles (andarak, saiyan, tent, letnik), as well as panevs, aprons. Skirts - red, blue-green, in a gray-white cage, with longitudinal and transverse stripes. Aprons were decorated with lace, folds; sleeveless jackets (garset) - embroidery, lace.

The headdress of girls is narrow ribbons (skidochka, shlyachok), wreaths. Married women put their hair under a cap, put on a towel headdress (namitka), a scarf; there were many ways to tie them. Everyday women's shoes - bast shoes, festive - postols and chrome boots. Upper men's and women's clothing almost did not differ. It was sewn from felted undyed cloth (retinue, sarmyaga, cloak, lettuce) and tanned (kazachyna) and untanned (casing) sheepskin. They also wore a caftan, kabat. The modern costume uses the traditions of national embroidery, cut, and colors.

Belarusian folklore presents a wide range of genres - fairy tales, legends, legends, proverbs, sayings, riddles, conspiracies, calendar and family ritual poetry, folk theater, etc. Legends, traditions, bylichkas reflect pre-Christian ideas of Belarusians about the origin of the world. The song creativity of Belarusians is rich. Of the musical instruments, batleyka, basetl, zhaleika, lyre, tambourine, etc. are popular.

Western Slavs

Poles

Poles West Slavic people. Total number of ethnic Poles 40 million, people of Polish origin about 60 million. Language Polish Slavic group of the Indo-European family. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. Believers - mostly Catholics, there are Protestants.

The Poles as a nation evolved with the formation and development of the ancient Polish state. It was based on the associations of the West Slavic tribes of the Polyans, Slenzan, Vislyans, Mazovshans, and Pomeranians. The process of consolidation of Pomerania with the rest of the Polish lands was hampered not only by the fragility of its political ties with the ancient Polish state, but also by the peculiarity of its socio-economic and cultural development (long-term domination of paganism, etc.). According to the dialects, the meadows, slenzans and wistles were close. During the period of political fragmentation ( XI-XIII centuries), individual Polish lands became isolated, but cultural and economic ties between them were not interrupted. In the course of resisting German expansion and overcoming political fragmentation ( XIII-XIV century) the unification of Polish lands was carried out, the ties between their populations expanded and strengthened. At the same time, there was a process of Germanization of the western and northern lands captured by the Germans (Lower Silesia, Pomerania, Masuria, Western Greater Poland).

In XIV-XV For centuries, the unification of the lands of the Polish state contributed to the process of national consolidation of the Poles, which intensified in XVII century. Within the framework of the multinational state - the Commonwealth (formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) - the process of consolidating the Polish nation took place. This process has become more complicated XVIII century in connection with the three divisions of the Commonwealth (1772, 1793 and 1795) between Russia, Austria and Prussia and the loss of a single Polish statehood. At the end XVIII - XIX centuries, the national liberation movements played an outstanding role in the preservation and growth of the national self-consciousness of the Poles, the Polish people remained committed to their homeland, native language and customs.

But the political disunity of the Poles affected their ethnic history. Also in XIX century there were several groups of Poles, differing in dialects and some ethnographic features: in the west - Velikopoliane, Lenchitsy and Seradzyan; in the south - malopolane; in Silesia - slenzane (Silesians); in the north-east - Masurians and Warmiaks; on the coast of the Baltic Sea - Pomeranians. The group of Malopolyans included Gorali (the population of mountainous regions), Krakovians and Sandomierz. Among the Silesians there were Poles, Silesian Gurals and other groups. The Kuyavians belonged to the Velikopoliane, and the Kurpis belonged to the Masurians. In Pomorie, the Kashubians were especially distinguished, preserving the specifics of their language and culture (sometimes they are considered a special nationality). With the growth of industry and urbanization, especially since the end XIX century, the differences between these groups began to blur.

More than half of the Poles live in cities (the largest are Warsaw, Lodz, Krakow, Wroclaw, Poznan), are employed in diversified industry, trade, consumer services, healthcare, education, science, and culture.

The main branches of agriculture are agriculture and animal husbandry; the main direction is the cultivation of grain crops, a significant part of the sown area is occupied by potatoes. Vegetable growing and horticulture are of great importance. In addition to modern agricultural machinery, old tools are used: frame harrows, scythes, rakes, pitchforks. Livestock dairy and meat (cattle, sheep, pigs). For moving, transportation, and partly agricultural work, peasants traditionally also use horses, and to a lesser extent, oxen.

Traditional types of rural settlements: street villages, okolnitsy and oval with houses located around a central square or pond (radial layout). In the process of socio-economic and cultural development, the layout and types of buildings in Polish villages are changing. In many villages, new buildings have been erected - schools, clubs, cafes, etc., the architecture of which combines modern style and local traditions. In clubs (svetlitsy) and cafes one can see old peasant furniture, the interior of cafes is often designed entirely in the style of an old tavern, still preserved in some villages. Polish national dishes and drinks are served here.

Most Poles wear modern costumes. Traditional folk clothes are worn in parts of the villages on holidays. The traditional costumes of peasants who come from different regions for the harvest festival and other national celebrations are varied and colorful. More than in other areas, traditional clothing has been preserved in the vicinity of the city of Łowicz and in the mountains, where peasants wear it every day. The Łowicz costume is characterized by striped fabrics; skirts, aprons, women's capes, men's trousers are sewn from them.

The upper men's clothing - sukman - has been preserved. In the mountains, men wear a short linen shirt with a cufflink made of silver or other metal, white cloth trousers decorated with a heart-shaped pattern, a wide leather belt, and a short jacket (tsuhu) made of white wool. Peasant women wear a skirt made of patterned or plain fabric, a shirt, and a sleeveless jacket. Winter clothes of gurals - casings. The Krakow costume is peculiar: a women's skirt made of flowered fabric, a tulle or linen apron, a cloth or velvet corsage over the shirt, decorated with gold or silver embroidery, metal plates, etc .; male - a shirt with a turn-down collar, striped pants, a blue caftan with rich embroidery, from headwear (warm fur hats, hats, etc.) an interesting confederate, similar to the headdress of the Polish military.

The family is predominantly small (simple), the extended (complex) family is less common. IN XIX century, there were complex "paternal" families of spouses-parents, their sons with wives and children, and "fraternal" families, uniting several brothers with wives and children. Of the old customs, some family (for example, wedding) and calendar customs have been preserved.

In Poland, the traditions of folk art are alive: sculpture, carving, painting on glass, cutting out vytsinanok - patterns from paper, embroidery, ceramics, weaving and weaving. Folk motifs are used in their work by many professional artists. Oral folk art is rich (ritual, calendar, lyrical, family, labor songs, legends, ballads, fables, fairy tales, proverbs, etc.). Polish folk dances - polonaise, krakowiak, mazurka, etc., in a revised form, spread throughout Europe. Folk dances, songs and music have entered the repertoire of modern professional and amateur groups. Folk dance and song melodies are heard in the works of Polish composers.

Czechs

Czechs West Slavic people, the main population of the Czech Republic. The total number is about 11 million. Language Czech.

According to the language, the Czechs belong to the West Slavic peoples. The language of central Bohemia was put at the basis of the early works of Czech writing of the 13th-14th centuries. But as the influence in the country of the Catholic Church, German feudal lords and the patriciate of cities increased, the Czech language began to be subjected to oppression in favor of the German and Latin languages. But during the period of the Hussite wars, literacy and the literary Czech language became widespread among the masses. Then came the two-century decline of Czech culture under the rule of the Hagsburgs, who pursued a policy of Germanizing the subject Slavic peoples (by the middle of the 19th century, 15% of the population spoke Czech, and the possibility of taking one of the Slavic languages, in particular the Russian literary language, was considered as a literary language). The Czech language began to revive only at the end of the 18th century, its basis was the literary language of the 16th century, which explains the presence of many archaisms in the modern Czech language, in contrast to the living spoken language. The spoken language is divided into several groups of dialects: Czech, Middle Moravian and East Moravian.

Believers: Catholics - 27%, Czech Evangelical Brothers - 1%, Czech Hussites - 1%, other religions (Christian minority churches and sects, Orthodox, Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, etc.) - about 3%. The majority of the population classifies themselves as atheists (59%), and almost 9% find it difficult to answer the question about their religion.

The Czechs have a rich cultural and historical heritage in the form of fortresses, castles, historical cities, monasteries and other elements of church architecture, many "technical" monuments.

The world-famous black theater "Ta Fantastica" is one of the wonders of Prague, which attracts tourists from all over the world. Originated in 1980 in the USA, where its creator emigrated Petr Kratochvil . After the Velvet Revolution, the theater returned to Prague. For several years, "Ta Fantasy" has traveled to more than 30 countries on three continents. Tours invariably ended in triumph. The magic is based on a simple optical trick. Actors dressed in black disappear against the backdrop of black scenery. Props snatched from the darkness by rays of light begin to take on a life of their own. The Ta Fantastica Theater has perfected this technique and reformed it using the most modern technologies and special effects. Before the eyes of the audience, the actors fly without touching the stage, mysterious images change on the huge screen, giant puppets play on a par with people. During the performances, live music sounds - an equal participant in the theatrical performance. The emphasis shifts to the dramatic action, and the trick ceases to be a goal and becomes a means, but a very bright and spectacular means.
"Ta Fantastica" differs from other black theaters and an unusually wide repertoire. Here you can see adaptations of such famous novels as "Don Quixote", "Alice in Wonderland", "The Little Prince", as well as plays written specifically for the theater: "Magic Fantasy", "Dream", "Garden of Paradise" ( based on a painting by Hieronymus Bosch). The highlight of the theater is musicals with the participation of fatal and pop stars of the first magnitude: Pied Piper, Joan of Arc and Excalibur, which has been on the stage since 2003. The theater owes its fame to the famous singer and actress Lucy Biele Czech pop star.

Slovaks

Slovaks, people, the main population of Slovakia (85.6%). The number is over 4.5 million people. They speak the Slovak language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family. Writing based on Latin graphics. Most believers are Catholics, there are Protestants (Lutherans) and Greek Catholics (Uniates).

Slavs on the territory of Slovakia began to prevail from VI century. Moving from the southeast and north, they partially absorbed the former Celtic, Germanic, and then the Avar population. Probably, the southern regions of Slovakia were part of the first West Slavic state of Samo in VII century. The first tribal principality of the ancestors of the Slovaks - Nitra, or the Principality of Pribina, arose at the beginning IX century along the Vaga and Nitra. Around 833, it joined the Moravian Principality, the core of the future Great Moravian state.

In 863 Glagolitic writing appears. Under the onslaught of the Hungarians, who appeared in the Danube at the end IX century, the Great Moravian state collapsed. Its eastern regions gradually became part of the Hungarian state, then (after 1526) the Austrian (since 1867 Austro-Hungarian) monarchy. The term "Slovaks" appeared from the middle XV century. In earlier sources, the ethnonym "Slovenia", "Slovenka" and the territory "Slovenian" are found.

The Slovak regions in the north of Hungary did not represent a special administrative unit. WITH XVI century, since the Ottoman occupation of the Hungarian regions proper, the ethnoterritorial concept of Slovakia appeared. The formation of the Slovak nation took place in the conditions of national oppression and forced modernization. Slovak "national revival" began in the 80s XVIII centuries, the rural intelligentsia (priests, teachers) and townspeople played an important role in it. The emergence of the Slovak literary language at the end XVIII century contributed to the growth of self-consciousness and national consolidation of the Slovaks. In 1863, the national cultural and educational society Matica Slovakskaya was founded in the city of Martin.

In 1918-93 Slovakia was part of Czechoslovakia. Since 1993 - an independent sovereign Slovak Republic.

The traditional occupation of the Slovaks is agriculture: in the mountainous areas pastoral pastoralism (cattle, sheep), in the lowlands - agriculture (cereals, grapes, gardening). Industry develops; the dispersed nature of industry allows rural residents to work in industrial enterprises.

Traditional crafts - leather goods, wooden utensils, weaving, embroidery, lace production, printed fabrics. The largest ceramic workshops in Modra and Pozdisovec produce faience and ceramics in the traditional style.

Traditional settlements in Southern Slovakia with ordinary and street layout. In mountainous areas, small cumulus settlements and farms predominate. There are also settlements stretching in a chain for several kilometers. Traditional dwellings consist of three rooms: hut (hut), pitvora (canopy), komora (pantry). Wooden log buildings predominate in the mountainous regions, while adobe and adobe buildings predominate on the plains, the walls of which are painted in light colors, painted with bright ornaments in the southwest. The houses face the street, residential and utility rooms are located in a row under one roof.

Traditional clothing has about 60 options. The most common women's costume consists of a long undershirt with straps, a short shirt gathered at the collar, a front and back apron (later a skirt and an apron). Another common complex is a tunic-shaped long shirt, skirt, apron, sleeveless jacket.

Men's clothing - pants (narrow or wide, cloth, linen, embroidered with cord), tunic shirt, fur and cloth vests. Singles wear feathers and long ribbons on their hats. An obligatory accessory of the highlander's costume is a very wide leather belt with brass buckles.

Until the middle of XX centuries there were complex paternal or fraternal families. The head of the family (ghazda) enjoyed indisputable power. Traditional neighborly mutual assistance is preserved. Of the family rituals, the most solemn is the wedding: earlier it was celebrated by all relatives and neighbors for a whole week.

Popular theatrical performances associated with family and calendar rituals were characteristic: young people in masks staged dances and games. Christmas remains one of the biggest calendar holidays. It is celebrated in the family circle, they decorate a Christmas tree (earlier it could have been a sheaf), they give gifts. New Year's detours of "pozniks" with wishes of happiness and goodness, which once had a magical function, are common.

Fairy tales and legends occupy a large place in the folklore of the Slovaks. Especially strong is the tradition of singing folk avengers "robbers", among which the most popular is Juraj Janoshik, the hero of folk ballads and fairy tales.

Folk songs are associated with family and calendar rituals. Lyrical songs have been preserved, with a predominance of a minor tone. Dance songs are typical in the east of Slovakia. The most common dances are odzemok, chardash, polka, etc., which have many variants. There are many musical folk ensembles (strings, winds). Solo instrumental music (violin, flute, bagpipes, cymbals, etc.) is popular. Folklore festivals are held annually, the largest of them is the all-Slovak festival in the city of Vychodna.

Lusatians

Lusatians (Sorbs), the indigenous Slavic population living on the territory of the Lower and Upper Lusatia areas that are part of modern Germany. They speak the Lusatian language, which is divided into Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian.

Modern Lusatians are a remnant of the Lusatian Serbs, or simply Serbs, one of the 3 main tribal unions of the so-called Polabian Slavs, which also included the tribal unions of Lutich and Bodrich. The Polabian Slavs or, in German, the Wends, in the early Middle Ages inhabited at least a third of the territory of the modern German state north, northwest and east. At present, all of them, with the exception of the Lusatians, are completely Germanized. This process lasted for several centuries, during which the population of these once purely Slavic lands, being under German military-political domination, was gradually Germanized. The process of incorporating the Polabian and Pomeranian lands into the German states stretched over the period from the 12th to the 14th centuries. The lands of the Lusatians became part of the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne in the 9th century. At the beginning of the 11th century, the Lusatian lands were conquered by Poland, but soon came under the authority of the Meissen margraviate. In 1076, the German Emperor Henry IV ceded the Lusatian March to the Czech Republic. During the period of being part of the Czech Kingdom, an active process of Germanization of the region began. Colonists from Germany moved to Lusatia en masse, receiving various trade and tax privileges from the Czech state. After the establishment of the Habsburg dynasty in the Czech Republic, the processes of Germanization of the Slavic population accelerated. In the 17th century, the Lusatian lands were ceded to Saxony, and in the 19th century they became part of Prussia, since 1871 - as part of the German Empire.

The Lusatians are the last surviving ethnic community of the Slavs in Germany, whose representatives use the Slavic language.

The first settlements of the Lusatian Serbs, in accordance with German theories, were recorded presumably by the 6th century. According to these theories, these lands were inhabited by various Celtic tribes before the Slavs. According to other theories, the Lusatians, like the Slavs, in general, are the autochthonous population of these territories, in which the process of separating the Slavs as such from earlier Indo-European communities took place. In particular, they are correlated with the so-called Przeworsk culture.

The Lusatian Serbs are one of the four officially recognized national minorities in Germany (along with the Gypsies, Frisians and Danes). It is believed that about 60,000 German citizens now have Lusatian Serb roots, of which 20,000 live in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg) and 40,000 in Upper Lusatia (Saxony).

Literature. Before the emergence of literature in their native language, the Lusatians, like many peoples of Western Europe, used the Latin language. The oldest surviving monument in the Lusatian language "Budyshyn Oath" (beginning XVI century). The founder of Lusatian national literature is the poet and prose writer A. Seiler (1804-1872). IN XIX century, the poet J. Radyserb-Velya (1822-1907), prose writer J. Muchink (1821-1904) and others also performed. Lusatian literature of the border XIX - XX centuries is represented primarily by the poet J. Bart-Chishinsky (1856-1909); prose writers M. Andritsky (1871-1908), Yu. Winger (1872-1918) are known at this time. For Literature of Critical Realism XX The century is characterized by the work of the poets Yu. Novak (born 1895), M. Vitkoits (born 1893), Yu. Since 1945, the development of literature has reflected the growth of the spiritual culture of the Lusatian national minority in the GDR. The literature of modern Lusatians, which is an integral part of the socialist folk literature of the GDR, is represented by prose writers J. Brezan (born 1916), J. Koch (born 1936), poet K. Lorenz (born 1938), and others.

Kashubians

Kashubians - descendants of the ancient Pomeranians, live on the coast of the Baltic Sea, in the northwestern regions of Poland. The population is about 550 thousand people. They speak the Kashubian dialect of Polish. At first XIV V. the lands of the Kashubians were captured by the Teutonic Order. Eastern Pomerania was reunited with Poland under the Peace of Torun in 1466. According to the 1st and 2nd partitions of Poland (1772, 1793), Prussia captured the Kashubian lands. They were returned to Poland only under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Despite the long forced Germanization, the Kashubians retained their culture.Most Kashubians prefer to say that they are Poles by citizenship, and Kashubians by ethnicity, i.e. consider themselves both Poles and Kashubians.

The unofficial capital of the Kashubians is the city of Kartuzy. Of the major cities, Gdynia has the largest percentage of people of Kashubian origin. Initially, the main occupation of most Kashubians was fishing; most now work in the tourism industry.

The main organization that cares about preserving the identity and traditions of the Kashubians is the Kashubian-Pomeranian Union.

South Slavs

Serbs

Serbs , people, the main population of Serbia (6428 thousand people). They speak the Serbian language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family. In those regions where Serbs live together with other peoples, they are often bilingual. Writing based on Cyrillic. Most believers are Orthodox, a small part are Catholics and Protestants, there are Sunni Muslims.

The ethnic history of the Yugoslav peoples, including the Serbs, is associated with the mass migration of Slavic tribes to the Balkans in the 6th-7th centuries. The local population was mostly assimilated, partly pushed to the west and to the mountainous regions. Slavic tribes - the ancestors of the Serbs, Montenegrins and the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied a significant part of the territory in the basins of the southern tributaries of the Sava and Danube, the Dinaric Mountains, the southern part of the Adriatic coast. The center of the settlement of the ancestors of the Serbs was the region of Raska, where an early state was formed in the 2nd half of the 8th century.

In the middle of the 9th century, the Serbian principality was created. In the 10th-11th centuries, the center of political life shifted either to the southwest, to Duklja, Travuniya, Zahumia, or again to Raska. From the end of the 12th century, the Serbian state intensified its aggressive policy and in the 13th-1st half of the 14th century significantly expanded its borders, including at the expense of Byzantine lands. This contributed to the strengthening of Byzantine influence on many aspects of the life of Serbian society, in particular on the system of social relations, art, etc. After the defeat at Kosovo Field in 1389, Serbia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1459 was included in its composition. Ottoman domination, which lasted almost five centuries, held back the processes of consolidation of the Serbs.

During the period of Ottoman rule, the Serbs repeatedly moved both within the country and abroad, especially to the north to Vojvodina - to Hungary. These movements contributed to a change in the ethnic composition of the population. The weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the intensified movement of the Serbs for liberation from foreign power, especially the First Serbian Uprising (1804-13) and the Second Serbian Uprising (1815), led to the creation of an autonomous (1833), and then independent (1878) Serbian state. The struggle for liberation from the Ottoman yoke and state unification was an important factor in the formation of the national identity of the Serbs. There were new major population movements in the liberated regions. In one of the central regions - Shumadia - the absolute majority were immigrants. This area became the center of consolidation of the Serbian people, the process of national revival began. The development of the Serbian state and market relations, economic and cultural ties between individual regions led to some leveling in the culture of their population, blurring of regional borders and strengthening of a common national identity.

The historical destinies of the Serbs developed in such a way that for a long time they were separated politically, economically and culturally as part of different states (Serbia, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary). This left an imprint on the culture and life of different groups of the Serbian population (some specificity remains today). So, for the villages of Vojvodina, the development of which was carried out according to the plans approved by the authorities, a typical layout is in the form of a rectangle or square with wide streets, with a rectangular central square around which various public institutions are grouped. Separate elements of the culture of the Serbian population of this region were formed under the influence of the culture of the population of Vojvodina, with whom the Serbs lived in close contact.

The Serbs are aware of their national unity, although the division into regional groups (Shumadi, Uzhichan, Moravian, Macvan, Kosovo, Srem, Banachan, etc.) is preserved in the memory of the people. There are no sharply defined boundaries in the culture of certain local groups of Serbs.

The unification of the Serbs within the framework of a single state took place in 1918, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created (later the name and partly the borders of this state changed). However, after the collapse of the SFRY, the Serbs again found themselves divided by the borders of the countries that emerged in the post-Yugoslav space.

In the past, the Serbs were mainly engaged in agriculture - agriculture (mainly cereals), horticulture (the cultivation of plums retains a special place), viticulture. An important role was played by cattle breeding, mainly of the distant-pasture type, and pig breeding. They were also engaged in fishing and hunting. Crafts - pottery, wood and stone carving, weaving (including carpet weaving, mostly lint-free), embroidery, etc. - have received significant development.

The Serbs were characterized by a scattered (mainly in the mountainous regions of the Dinaric massif) and crowded (eastern regions) type of settlement with a diverse form of planning (cumulus, ordinary, circular). In most settlements, quarters were distinguished, separated from each other by 1-2 km.

The traditional dwellings of the Serbs are wooden, log (they were widespread in the middle of the 19th century in forested areas), as well as stone (in karst areas) and frame (Moravian type). Houses were built on high foundations (the exception is the Moravian type), with four- or gable roofs. The oldest dwelling was single-chamber, but in the 19th century the two-chamber dwelling became predominant. Stone houses could have two floors; The first floor was used for business purposes, the second - for housing.

The folk clothes of the Serbs vary considerably by region (if there are common elements). The oldest elements of men's clothing are a tunic shirt and trousers. Outerwear - vests, jackets, long raincoats. Beautifully decorated belts were an obligatory accessory for a man's costume (they differed from women's in length, width, and ornament). Characteristic leather shoes such as moccasins - opanki. The basis of the women's traditional costume was a tunic-shaped shirt, richly decorated with embroidery and lace. Women's costume included an apron, a belt, as well as various vests, jackets, dresses, sometimes oar. Folk clothes, especially women's, were usually decorated with embroidery, woven ornaments, cord, coins, etc.

The social life of the Serbs in the past was characterized by rural communities. Various forms of mutual assistance and joint work were widespread, for example, when grazing livestock. The Serbs had two types of family - simple (small, nuclear) and complex (large, zadruzhnaya). Back in the first half of the 19th century, the zadruga was widespread (up to 50 or more people). Zadrugs were characterized by collective ownership of land and property, collective consumption, virilocality, and so on.

In the oral folk art of the Serbs, a special place is occupied by the epic genre (youth songs), which reflects the historical fate of the Serbian people, their struggle for freedom. Folk dances are characterized by a circular movement (kolo), close to a round dance.

The cardinal socio-economic transformations that took place in the life of the Serbs in the 2nd half of the 20th century, the transition of a significant number of them from agriculture to industry, the service sector, and the growth of the intelligentsia lead to some leveling of culture. However, the Serbs, who have defended their independence and freedom in the centuries-old struggle, take care of historical and cultural monuments, folk architecture, traditional crafts, and oral folk art. Folk traditions are combined with innovations in the layout of dwellings, the cut and decoration of clothes, etc. Some elements of traditional culture (clothing, food, architecture, crafts) are sometimes artificially revived (including to attract tourists). Traditional folk art is preserved - decorative weaving, pottery, carving, etc..

Bulgarians

Bulgarians , people, the main population of Bulgaria. The number in Bulgaria is 7850 thousand people. They speak the Bulgarian language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family. Writing based on Cyrillic. There are two groups of dialects - eastern and western. Believers are mostly Orthodox, there are small groups of Catholics and Protestants; significant group of Muslims.

The main role in the ethnogenesis of the Bolgars was played by the Slavic tribes who moved to the Balkans in VI-VII centuries. Other ethnic components are the Thracians, who lived in the east of the Balkan Peninsula from the Bronze Age, and the Turkic-speaking Proto-Bulgarians, who came in the 670s from the Black Sea steppes. Thracian features in the traditional culture of the Bulgarians can be traced to a large extent south of the Balkan Range; in the northern and western regions of Bulgaria, the layer of Slavic culture is brighter.

The origins of Bulgarian statehood go back to Slavic tribal associations VII century - Slavinia by Byzantine authors. It was further developed with the formation of a political association of the Slavs of Misia and the Proto-Bulgarians, who brought a centralized organization. The synthesis of two social traditions marked the beginning of the Bulgarian state. The dominant position in it was originally occupied by the Proto-Bulgarian nobility, therefore the ethnonym "Bulgarians" gave the name to the state. With the expansion of the boundaries of the First Bulgarian Kingdom (formed in 681) in VIII - IX centuries, it included new Slavic tribes and small groups of Proto-Bulgarians. The formation of the Slavic-Bulgarian state, the development of commodity-money relations contributed to the consolidation of the Slavic tribes and the assimilation of the Proto-Bulgarians by the Slavs. Assimilation was carried out not only due to the numerical predominance of the Slavs, but also because their economic and cultural type created a broader and more stable basis for socio-economic development in the Balkans. An important role for ethnic unification was played by the adoption of Christianity in 865, as well as the spread of IX centuries of Slavic writing. At the end IX-X century, the term "Bulgarians", which used to mean subjects of Bulgaria, acquired the meaning of an ethnonym. By this time, the process of the ethnogenesis of the Bulgarians and the formation of the nationality had basically ended. During the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the culture of the medieval Bulgarians reached its peak. At the end XIV century, the Ottoman conquest led to a deformation of the social structure of the Bulgarians: the nobility ceased to exist, the trade and craft layer in the cities significantly decreased.

The bearer of ethnic culture before XVIII century was mainly the peasantry. The language, customs, traditions of the rural community, as well as the Orthodox faith, played a pronounced ethno-differentiating role; the monasteries acted as custodians of the historical memory of the Bulgarians and their cultural heritage. The struggle against the oppressors, which took various forms, supported national self-consciousness. It was reflected in folklore (Yunatsky and Guidutsky epics). Part of the Bulgarians underwent Turkish assimilation, the other part (in the Rhodope Mountains), having converted to Islam, retained their native language and culture.

The traditional occupations of the Bulgarians are arable farming (cereals, legumes, tobacco, vegetables, fruits) and animal husbandry (cattle, sheep, pigs). Various crafts are developed in the cities, in XIX century the industry was born. Agrarian overpopulation led to the development of leisure activities (including those abroad), among which horticulture and construction crafts are especially well known. Modern Bulgarians are employed in diversified industry and mechanized agriculture.

Women's traditional clothing is waist with two panels (in the north), with one panel (locally in the south), a sundress (sukman) in the middle zone of the country and swing (saya) in the south (sukman and saya - with aprons). Shirt in the north with poliks (triangular inserts), in other areas tunic-shaped. Men's clothing - white cloth with tight pants and maid clothes (jacket) to the knees or to the waist (in the west) and dark cloth with wide pants and a short maid (in the east). Both types - with a tunic-shaped shirt and a wide belt. In the villages, some of its modified elements from factory fabrics are preserved: aprons, sleeveless jackets, scarves, occasionally in the elderly - sukmans, wide belts, etc.

Traditional social life is characterized by customs of mutual assistance; patriarchal foundations of the family are a thing of the past.

A lot of originality is preserved by folk festive culture. New Year's greetings according to the old custom - visiting the homes of relatives and friends, who are patted on the backs with a decorated dogwood branch (a symbol of health), while pronouncing words from a ritual song. In the villages of Western Bulgaria, mummers walk in zoomorphic masks, decorated with bird feathers, with bells on their belts - survakars (the popular name for the New Year is Surva godina). They are accompanied by comic characters: some of them ("the bride") had a connection with the fertility cult. The holiday ends in the morning on the square with the good wishes of the survakars and a general round dance. In these customs, ancient Slavic and Thracian traditions are synthesized.

Two civil holidays are specific for Bulgarians: Day of Slavic Literature and Bulgarian Culture on May 24, dedicated to the compilers of the Slavic alphabet Cyril and Methodius and figures of Bulgarian culture; Day of Remembrance of the Freedom Fighters June 2. Festivals of humor and satire, carnivals organized in the city of Gabrovo, famous for its folklore, are widely known..

Croatians

Croatians , people, the main population of Croatia (3.71 million people, 1991). The total number of 5.65 million people. Croats speak the Croatian language of the southern subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family. The dialects are Shtokavian (it is spoken by the main part of the Croats, a literary language has developed on the basis of its Ikavian subdialect), Chakavian (mainly in Dalmatia, Istria and the islands) and Kajkavian (mainly in the vicinity of Zagreb and Varazdin). Writing based on Latin graphics. Believers are Catholics, a small part are Orthodox, Protestants, and also Muslims.

The ancestors of the Croats (tribes Kachichi, Shubichi, Svachichi, Magorovichi, etc.), having moved along with other Slavic tribes to the Balkans in VI-VII centuries, settled in the north of the Dalmatian coast, in southern Istria, in the interfluve of the Sava and Drava, in northern Bosnia. At the end IX century, the Croatian state was formed. At first XII century, the main part of the Croatian lands was included in the Kingdom of Hungary, by the middle XV century Venice (back in XI century, which captured part of Dalmatia) took possession of the Croatian Primorye (with the exception of Dubrovnik). IN XVI century, part of Croatia was under the rule of the Habsburgs, part was captured by the Ottoman Empire (during this period, part of the Croats converted to Islam). To protect against the Ottoman invasion, a fortified strip was created (the so-called Military Border); its main population (called border guards) were Croats and Serbs - refugees from Eastern Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia. At the end XVII - early XVIII centuries, the lands of the Croats became completely part of the Habsburg Empire. From the 2nd half XVIII century, the Habsburgs intensified the policy of centralization and Germanization, which pushed Croatia to recognize in 1790 dependence on the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian authorities began to pursue a policy of Magyarization. In the 1830s and 1840s, a socio-political and cultural movement (Illyrianism) developed, aimed at reviving the national Croatian culture. In 1918 the Croats and other Yugoslav peoples of the disintegrated Austria-Hungary united into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia); part of the Croats of the Adriatic fell in 1920 under the rule of Italy. After the 2nd World War, the Croats entered the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (since 1963 - SFRY), from which the independent Republic of Croatia emerged in 1991.

Due to the difference in historical destinies and geographical conditions, 3 historical and ethnographic regions inhabited by Croats have developed - the Adriatic (Primorye), Dinaric and Pannonian. However, there are no clear boundaries between them. Regional groups are preserved (Zagortsy, Medyumurtsy, Prigortsy, Lychans, Fuchki, Chichi, Bunevtsy, etc.).

Traditional occupations are agriculture (cereals, flax, etc.), horticulture, viticulture (especially in Primorye), animal husbandry (in mountainous regions - transhumance), and fishing (primarily in the Adriatic). Crafts - weaving (mainly Pannonia), lace making (Adriatic), embroidery, pottery with a special firing method (in the Dinaric region), wood, metal, leather processing.

The emergence of many cities (Zadar, Split, Rijeka, Dubrovnik, etc.) on the Adriatic coast is associated with the Greek and Roman eras. They are characterized by narrow steep, sometimes stepped streets with stone two-three-story houses. In lowland Croatia, cities arose later, mainly at crossroads as trade and craft centers. Rural settlements were of two types - crowded (part of the plains of Croatia, Primorye and islands) and scattered (predominant in the mountains, also found in Dalmatia). Villages with street planning are widespread, especially in the flat part. The traditional stone dwelling (mountainous regions, Primorye, islands), log or frame with a gable roof. In hilly areas, houses were built mainly one-story on a high foundation, on the coast and on the islands - two-story. Chimneys of stone houses sought to decorate beautifully in order to demonstrate the wealth of the owner. The layout is mainly two-part, although a three-part house has long existed. An oven was used for heating and cooking.

Traditional clothes are mainly made of homespun linen (Pannonia), cloth (Dinaric region), in Primorye also made of silk fabrics: for men - a tunic-shaped shirt and trousers, jackets, vests, capes, raincoats, belts with metal trim (male and female), shoes - opanki (from a single piece of leather), boots; for women - a long or short tunic-shaped shirt, decorated with lace (Primorye) or embroidery and a woven pattern (Pannonia and the Dinaric region), blouses, sleeveless jackets, belts, aprons, wide pleated skirts, raincoats, etc. Festive clothes were richly decorated with embroidery, lace , coins and other metal decorations, especially in the Dinaric region.

The Croats have long preserved communal traditions - mutual assistance, self-government, etc. Also in XIX century, there were remnants of male unions, a large (friend) family. The decomposition of zadrug began earlier in Primorye; in other regions of Croatia, their massive divisions were noted at the end. XIX century.

The heroic epic occupies a significant place in the oral folk art of the Croats. A folk drama is developed, the elements of which are included in the calendar (for example, Shrovetide) and family rituals. Songs such as ditties are common, most often performed during dances. Round dances (kolo) or pair dances.

Urban culture is widespread among modern Croats. Many work in industry, in transport, in the service sector. A national intelligentsia was formed.

Macedonians

Macedonians South Slavic people, which arose as a result of the assimilation of the ancient population of the Balkan Peninsula (ancient Macedonians, Thracians, etc.) with the South Slavs. The total number is about 2 million people. Language Macedonian. Macedonian belongs to the South Slavic languages. The Macedonian city of Ohrid in ancient times was the center of Slavic writing and culture in particular, it was from there that Saint Clement of Ohrid was born, according to the annals, who created the classic version of the Cyrillic alphabet. The Macedonian language is similar to Bulgarian and Serbian, but has its own linguistic specificity. Significant grammatical and lexical changes have taken place in the Macedonian language, which distinguish it from the literary language of neighboring Slavic peoples (a different form of the perfect, other definite articles, other rules for using verb tenses, etc.). Despite this, nationalist Bulgarians do not recognize the existence of a separate Macedonian language distinct from Bulgarian and consider it a dialect or variant of Bulgarian.

Religion predominantly Orthodoxy, Protestantism is also common.

Higher education has made significant progress. In 1939 in Skopje there was only a department of the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Belgrade (about 120 students). In the 1971/72 academic year, over 32 thousand students studied at 9 faculties of the University in Skopje, founded in 1949, as well as in 11 other higher educational institutions in Macedonia, in 2005 over 180 thousand students.

There are a number of scientific institutions and societies: institutions of national history, folklore, economic, hydrobiological, geological. Societies of physicists and mathematicians, geographers and others. The Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts was established in 1967.

In 1971, 80 newspapers (with a total circulation of 21,736,000 copies) and 53 magazines (with a total circulation of 705,000 copies) were published in Macedonia; 668 titles of books and brochures were also published with a total circulation of 3,634,000 copies. The central press organ of Macedonia is the daily newspaper Nova Makedonija, founded in October 1944, published in the city of Skopje (an organ of the Socialist Union of the Working People of Macedonia).

Broadcasting in Macedonian has been carried out by a radio station in Skopje since December 1944. Regular television broadcasts began in SRM from 1964.

In 1971, Macedonia had 16 clinics and general hospitals, 28 other medical hospitals with 9,000 beds (about 500 doctors), over 1,000 polyclinics, outpatient clinics, dispensaries, consultations, first-aid posts (over 600 doctors, more than 400 dentists and dentists). On the territory of Macedonia there are a number of resorts, tourist centers.

The wood carving related to XII XIV centuries; in the XVII XIX For centuries, realistic figures of animals and people have been woven into the floral ornament. The school of the city of Debar (a combination of Greek and Venetian influences, elements of baroque and rococo) is known for carving on iconostases.

Wood carving and other historically developed branches of arts and crafts (silver chasing, embroidery, carpet weaving) are developing in the SRM as folk crafts.

Late XIX early XX centuries on the territory of the SRM there are prerequisites for the development of secular musical culture. Cultural and educational societies arose, which played a significant role in the development of national musical art (the first society was founded in 1894 in Veles). In 1895, a brass band was created in Skopje, and in 1907, the singing society "Vardar". In the 1900s, the activity of the first professional musician A. Badev, a student of N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov and M. A. Balakirev, began. In 1928 the music teacher S. Arsich organized the first music school in Macedonia in Skopje, in 1934 the Mokranjac music school was founded there, and in 1937 a string quartet. The 1930s include the work of professional composers S. Gaidov, Zh. Firfov and others. In the late 1930s, a group of performers and composers led an active concert activity and promoted Macedonian music: P. Bogdanov-Kochko, I. Juvalekovsky, T. Skalovsky, I. Castro. The works of the composers M. were published for the first time.

Among the composers of the 60s and early 70s are T. Prokopiev, B. Ivanovski, V. Nikolovski, T. Proshev and others working in the genres of opera, ballet, symphony, chamber, vocal, instrumental, choral music. Skopje has the Philharmonic (founded in 1944), the State Opera at the Macedonian Folk Theater (founded in 1947), a secondary music school, and a department of music (opened in 1953) at the Pedagogical Institute. A choir (founded in 1945) and a string quartet (founded in 1946) work on the radio. The Union of Composers was created.

Montenegrins

Montenegrins people, the main population of Montenegro (460 thousand people). The total number is 620 thousand people. They speak the Shtokavian dialect of the Serbian language. Believers mostly Orthodox.

The culture and life of the Montenegrins have much in common with the Serbs, however, isolation associated with natural conditions (mountains), the centuries-old struggle against the Ottoman yoke for independence and, as a result, the paramilitary life slowed down the socio-economic development of Montenegro and contributed to the long-term preservation of patriarchal tribal foundations. Although the ethnic composition of the Montenegrin tribes (Vasoevichi, Piperi, Kuchi, Belopavlichi, etc.) was quite motley (they included refugees from different regions of the country, as well as groups of Albanian origin), according to popular beliefs, all members of the tribe had a common ancestor and were related by blood. kinship. The traditional occupations of Montenegrins are cattle breeding and agriculture. After the proclamation of socialist Yugoslavia in 1945 and the creation of the Republic of Montenegro, mechanization and new agricultural techniques were introduced into Montenegrin agriculture, and industrial enterprises sprang up. The former cultural backwardness of the Montenegrins is disappearing.

The Montenegrins' original applied arts (wood and stone carving, artistic metal processing, embroidery, etc.), oral poetry, music, and dances were further developed.

Montenegro has long had rich folklore. Religious works, lives of saints, breviaries, etc., have been preserved from the Middle Ages. There are known manuscripts by A. Zmaevich (162449), I. A. Nenadich (170984); "History of Montenegro" (1754) by V. Petrovich (170966), "Messages" by Peter I Petrovich Njegosh (17471830), etc.

Most researchers attribute the beginning of the development of new Montenegrin literature to the end XVIII 1st half of the XIX centuries Its founder was the poet and statesman Peter II Petrovich Negosh (181351), whose work continued the heroic traditions of the folk epic. In his works, Negosh created a poetic picture of the life of Montenegro, glorified the struggle of Montenegrins and Serbs for liberation from the Ottoman yoke; the pinnacle of his poetry is the dramatic epic poem The Mountain Crown (1847), imbued with the idea of ​​the unity of the southern Slavs. Njegos also played a prominent role in the development of early Romanticism in Serbian literature.

Most of the scientific institutions of Montenegro are located in Titograd: the highest scientific institution of the republic Academy of Sciences and Arts of Montenegro (founded in 1976), Historical Institute, Institute of Geological and Chemical Research, Hydrometeorological Institute, Seismological Station; in Kotor Institute of Marine Biology.

Bosnians

Bosnians Slavic people inhabiting Bosnia and Herzegovina. It arose as a result of the conversion to Islam of the Serbs living in the Ottoman Empire. The number of 2100 thousand people. Language Bosan (a dialect of Serbo-Croatian). The writing is in the Latin alphabet of the Croatian sample (“Gaevica”), the Arabic script, Glagolitic and Bosanchitsa (a local variety of Cyrillic alphabet) were also used earlier). Believing Sunni Muslims.

Bosnians is the name of the population of the historical region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule, mainly Serbs and Croats. The territory of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina was inhabited by Slavic tribes in VI-VII centuries. Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued from the 2nd half XV century until 1878. During the period of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, Islam was most widespread in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Various religious movements clashed here - Orthodoxy and Catholicism, Bogomilism, a kind of Bosnian church that developed here, which created an atmosphere of religious tolerance and facilitated the spread of Islam, especially since conversion to Islam brought tax cuts and some legal rights. Many Turks, immigrants from the North Caucasus, Arabs, Kurds and representatives of other peoples who profess Islam moved here. Some of them were assimilated by the local population, their culture influenced the culture of the Bosnians. Islamization covered not only the upper social stratum (landowners, officials, large merchants), but also part of the peasants and artisans. When the Ottoman Empire began to lose its possessions in Europe (from the end XVII centuries), the Muslim population of various South Slavic lands poured into Bosnia, further complicating its ethnic composition. The occupation of this area by Austria-Hungary in 1878 caused a massive outflow of the Muslim population to Turkey.

The basis of the culture of the Bosnians is the ancient Slavic, but features brought by the Turks and other immigrants from Asia Minor were layered on it. Representatives of the wealthy strata of society sought to copy the lifestyle of the upper strata of Ottoman society. Elements of Eastern, predominantly Turkish, culture also penetrated into the life of the masses, although to a lesser extent. This influence is most strongly felt in the architecture of cities (mosques, handicraft quarters, large bazaars, protruding upper floors of houses, etc.), in the layout of dwellings (dividing the house into male and female halves), their decoration, and in food - an abundance of fatty dishes and sweets, in clothes - bloomers, fezzes, in family and especially in religious life, in personal names. It is characteristic that it is in these areas of life that most of all borrowings from Turkish and other oriental languages.

Slovenians

Slovenians South Slavic people. The total number is about 2 million people. Language Slovenian. Most believers are Catholics, but there are also Protestants, Orthodox and Muslims. Many are atheists.

Ancestors of modern Slovenes in VI-VII centuries occupied vast areas in the basin of the Middle Danube, the Pannonian lowland, the Eastern Alps (Carantania), Primorye (the territory adjacent to the Adriatic Sea). In the middle VIII V. The Slovenes of Carantania fell under the rule of the Bavarians, and in the end VIII c., like the Slovenes of lower Pannonia, became part of the Frankish state. Most of the Slovenian lands were ruled by German feudal lords for almost a thousand years; German and Hungarian colonists settled these lands. Eastern Slovenian lands were occupied by Hungarian magnates; part of the Pannonian Slovenes was Magyarized. From the last third XIII V. a significant part of the Slovenian lands was subordinated to the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1918, the bulk of the Slovenes, along with other Yugoslav peoples, entered a single state (since 1929 it was called Yugoslavia), however, about 500 thousand Slovenes of the Julian Krajina fell under the rule of Italy, and about 100 thousand Slovenes of Carinthia and Styria - under the rule of Austria. After World War II (1939-45), most of the Julian Krajina, settled by Slovenes, became part of Yugoslavia. The historical past of the Slovenes, who for many centuries did not have state unity, their geographical disunity contributed to the formation of a number of ethnographic groups.

The Slovenes of Slovenian Littoral, Istria and Venetian Slovenia have been influenced by Italians, most of them bilingual; the Slovenes of Carinthia came under significant Austrian influence. After the establishment of a people's democratic system in Yugoslavia (1945), the Slovenes were given the opportunity to develop a socialist economy and national culture on an equal footing with other peoples of Yugoslavia.

There are 3 daily newspapers and over 20 weekly newspapers, magazines and other periodicals published in Slovenia. Slovenian publishing houses publish about 1,200 books and pamphlets a year. The central print organ is the daily newspaper Delo (founded in 1959), published in Ljubljana, an organ of the Socialist Union of the Working People of Slovenia, with a circulation of 94,700 copies.

In addition to national radio and television, there are 12 local radio stations. Broadcasting in Ljubljana since 1928, television since 1958.

At the turn of XIX XX centuries in Slovenian literature, such trends as naturalism (F. Govekar, 18711949, A. Kreiger, 18771959, etc.) and Slovenian modernism (I. Cankar, 18761918, O. Zupancic, 18781949, D. Kette, 187699, I. Murn-Alexandrov, 18791901, etc.), in which realism is intertwined with elements of impressionistic and symbolist poetics. The foundations of proletarian literature were laid by Tsankar (For the Benefit of the People, 1901; King of the Betainovs, 1902; On the Street of the Poor, 1902; Laborer Yerney and His Law, 1907). The greatest achievement of Slovenian poetry in the early 20th century. Župančić's lyrics ("Across the Plain", 1904; "Monologues", 1908, etc.). A significant phenomenon in Slovenian prose was the work of F. Finzhgar (18711962; Under the Free Sun, 190607, etc.).

Bibliography

1. Lavrovsky P., Ethnographic essay of the Kashubians, "Philological Notes", Voronezh, 1950.
2. History of Yugoslavia, vol. 12, M., 1963.
3. Martynova I., Art of Yugoslavia, M., 1966
4. Ryabova E.I., Main directions in the interwar Slovenian literature, M., 1967.
5. Dymkov Yu., Russians. Historical and ethnographic atlas. M., 1967
6. Semiryaga M.I., Luzhychane, M., 1969
7. Shelov D.B., Slavs. Dawn of civilization, M., 1972.
8. Rovinsky P.A., Montenegro in its past and present, vol. 13, M., 1980.
9. Shilova N. E., Art of Macedonia, M., 1988
10. Grigoryeva R. A., Belarus through my eyes, M., 1989
11. Grushevsky M . , History of Ukraine-Rus. vol. 1, second ed., Kyiv, 1989.
12. Gorlenko V.F., Notes on Ukraine, M., 1989.
13. Gennadyeva S., Culture of Bulgaria, Kharkov, 1989
14. Filioglo E., Yugoslavia. Essays, M., 1990.
15. Smirnov A.N., Ancient Slavs. M., 1990
16. Trofimovich K., Motorniy V., History of Lusatian Serb Literature, Lvov, 1995.
17. Kiselev N.A., Belousov V.N., Architecture of the end XIX XX centuries, M., 1997.
18. Niederle G., Slavic antiquities, M., 2001.
19. Sergeeva A.V. Russians: stereotypes of behavior, traditions, mentality, M., 2006.
20. www.czechtourism.com
21. www. wikipedia. en
22. www.narodru.ru
23. www.srpska.ru

The Slavs are the largest Indo-European language group in Europe at the moment. Within the common Slavic unity, Western Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Kashubians and Lusatians), Southern Slavs (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Slovenes, Montenegrins) and Eastern Slavs (Belarusians, Russians, Ukrainians, Rusyns) stand out.

The origin of the ethnonym Slavs.

There are several versions of the etymology of the term "Slavs".
1. The meaning of the ethnonym goes back to the word "word", i.e. Slavs are people with the gift of words, unlike foreign-speaking peoples. The version is based on the opposition of one's own - someone else's, which was widespread in antiquity among many peoples. (supporters - L. Niederle, T. Lehr-Splavinsky, R.O. Jacobson.)
2. B.A. Rybakov connects the Slavs with the tribes of the Wends of the Roman authors and interprets the term Slavs as “slavs” + “vene” (i.e. ambassadors of the Wends).
3. The etymology of the word goes back to the Indo-European root -kleu-, one of the meanings of which is “glory” in the concept of fame, celebrity, popularity.
4. The word "Slavs" is associated with a hydronym in the area of ​​​​settlement of one of the tribes and subsequently spread to all other tribes. The epithet r. Dnieper - Slavutych, r. Sluya, a tributary of the Vazuza, Polish. the names of the rivers Svava, Svawisa, the Serbian river Slavnica, etc.
5. The self-name is derived from the Indo-European word -slauos- people (supporters - S. B. Bernshtein, I. Yu. Mikkola).

Where did the Slavs come from?

Where did the Slavs come from When determining the territory of the Slavic ancestral home, data from linguistics, toponymy, paleobotany and paleozoology, historical linguistics, anthropology and archeology were used. It was found that the region of the ancestral home should be located in the foothills, where oak, beech and hornbeam grow, in the basin of rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea and should not go to the sea coast. The territory is roughly localized somewhere in the Northern Carpathian region. According to archeology, the first archaeological culture associated with the Slavs proper is the sub-klosh culture of the 5th - 2nd centuries. BC. The area of ​​distribution of this culture is southern Poland, the north of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the southeast of Germany and the Carpathians. This place is associated with the separation of the Slavic language from the Balto-Slavic linguistic community. In the north, the Slavs bordered on the Balts and Germans, in the east with the Iranian-speaking tribes of the Scythians and Sarmatians, in the south with the Illyrians and Thracians, and with the Celts in the west.
Slavs are sometimes identified with a part of the Scythian cultural region (the so-called Scythians-plowmen), as well as with the ethnonym Venedi. So the Finns still call Russia - Veneia, and the Estonians - Venemaa.

Settlement of the Slavs.

By the end of the II century. BC. to the west of the Carpathians, the Przeworsk archaeological culture is localized, and to the east of the Carpathians, the Zarubynets culture, some of whose carriers belong to the Slavs. Settlement of the Slavs Representatives of the Przeworsk culture migrated to the Dnieper, and there in the 2nd century the Chernyakhov archaeological culture was formed, which, along with the Slavs, also included the Iranian-speaking tribes of the Sarmatians.
From the 6th century AD Slavs actively participate in the Great Migration of Nations, reshaping the ethnic map of Europe in a new way. The Slavic stage of the ethnogenesis of Europe is coming. The settlement of the Slavs in Europe took place in three main directions: south to the Balkan Peninsula, north and east along the East European Plain and west to the Middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe.
Three directions of settlement determined the division of the Slavs into three branches: eastern, western and southern. The Tale of Bygone Years lists twelve East Slavic tribal unions inhabiting the territories between the Baltic and Black Seas. Among these tribal unions are Polans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Slovenes, Dulebs (later divided into Volynians and Buzhans), White Croats, Severians, Ulichs, Tivertsy.

Written testimonies about the Slavs.

Written evidence of the Slavs The earliest references to the Slavs are found in ancient authors of the 1st century BC. n. e (Pliny the Elder, Tacitus). They are the first to mention the Wends, who are usually identified with the Slavs. The Slavs themselves, under the name of the Slavs and Antes, are first spoken of in the middle of the 6th century AD. two authors - the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea and the Goth Jordanes. Below are the most informative testimonies about the Slavs of the two indicated authors.

These [Veneti], as we already told at the beginning of our presentation, precisely when listing the tribes, come from the same root and are now known under three names: Veneti, Antes, Sklavens. Although now, due to our sins, they rage everywhere, but then they all obeyed the power of Germanaric.

Procopius.

These tribes, Slavs and Antes, are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they have lived in the government of the people, and therefore they consider happiness and unhappiness in life to be a common thing. And in all other respects, both of these barbarian tribes have the same life and laws. They believe that only one god, the creator of lightning, is the lord over all, and bulls are sacrificed to him and other sacred rites are performed. They do not know fate and do not at all recognize that it has any power in relation to people, and when they are about to face death, whether they are stricken with illness, or in a war in a dangerous situation, they make a promise if they are saved, immediately offer God a sacrifice for your soul; having escaped death, they sacrifice what they promised, and think that their salvation is bought at the price of this sacrifice. They worship rivers, and nymphs, and all sorts of other deities, make sacrifices to all of them and, with the help of the victims, perform divination. They live in miserable huts, at a great distance from each other, and they all change places of residence frequently. Entering the battle, most of them go to the enemy with shields and darts in their hands, but they never wear shells; others do not wear shirts or cloaks, but only trousers, pulled up by a wide belt on the hips, and in this form they go to battle with enemies. Both have the same language, rather barbaric. And in appearance they do not differ from each other. Very tall and of great strength. The color of their skin and hair is white or golden and not quite black, but they are all dark red. Their way of life, like that of the Massagetae, is rough, without any conveniences, they are always covered with mud, but in essence they are not bad and not at all malicious, but they preserve the Hun morals in all their purity. In ancient times, both of these tribes were called disputes [scattered], I think because they lived, occupying the country "sporaden", "scattered", in separate villages. That is why they need a lot of land. They live, occupying most of the banks of the Istra, on the other side of the river. I consider sufficient what has been said about this people.
No less interesting are the data on the Slavs of the Byzantine emperor Mauritius the Strategist. The work of Mauritius "Strategikon" was for subsequent generations of Byzantine commanders a kind of textbook on military operations against the Slavs. The information relates mainly to military affairs. The author notes that they have a huge number of military tricks. So our ancestors could hide in a pond, breathing through reeds, or use a false retreat technique. Mauritius describes the Slavs as extremely freedom-loving, unpretentious and hardy people, who value hospitality most of all, which they have elevated almost to a cult element. On this occasion, the historian of the XIX century Petrushevsky A.F. wrote the following. The Slavs were of good character and very hospitable. Leaving the house, the Slav did not lock the door and left various food on the table, in case a stranger came in. For others, it was not even considered dishonorable if the owner, out of poverty, steals something for a guest. According to the author, Slavic women, after the death of their husband, could prefer death on his grave to the position of a widow. It is also noted that they have some features of patriarchal slavery, so having been a slave for some time, a person could move into the position of a free member of the community.

Literature.
Reader on the history of the USSR. T. I / Comp. V. Lebedev and others. M.: 1940
Rybakov B. A. Paganism of Ancient Rus'. M.: Publishing house "Nauka", 1987
Rybakov B. A. Paganism of the ancient Slavs M .: Publishing house "Nauka", 1981
Cornelius Tacitus. Works in two volumes. T.1. Annals. Small works. L.: Nauka, 1969
Sedov V.V. Origin and early history of the Slavs. M.: Publishing house "Science", 1979
Gimbutas M. Slavs. Sons of Perun. M.: 2001.

Blagorad,
Magazine Rodnoverie №1(1) 2009

There are many blank spots in the history of the Slavs, which makes it possible for numerous modern “researchers” to put forward the most fantastic theories about the origin and formation of the statehood of the Slavic peoples on the basis of conjectures and unproven facts. Often even the concept of "Slav" is misunderstood and is regarded as a synonym for the concept of "Russian". Moreover, there is an opinion that the Slav is a nationality. All these are delusions.

Who are the Slavs?

The Slavs constitute the largest ethno-linguistic community in Europe. Within it there are three main groups: (i.e. Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians), Western (Poles, Czechs, Lusatians and Slovaks) and South Slavs (among them we will name Bosnians, Serbs, Macedonians, Croats, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, Slovenes) . A Slav is not a nationality, since a nation is a narrower concept. Separate Slavic nations formed relatively late, while the Slavs (or rather, the Proto-Slavs) stood out from the Indo-European community one and a half thousand years BC. e. Several centuries passed, and ancient travelers learned about them. At the turn of the epochs, the Slavs were mentioned by Roman historians under the name of "Vendi": it is known from written sources that the Slavic tribes fought wars with the Germans.

It is believed that the homeland of the Slavs (more precisely, the place where they formed as a community) was the territory between the Oder and the Vistula (some authors argue that between the Oder and the middle course of the Dnieper).

Ethnonym

Here it makes sense to consider the question of the origin of the very concept of "Slav". In the old days, peoples were often called by the name of the river on the banks of which they lived. The Dnieper in ancient times was just called "Slavutich". The very root "glory" may go back to the common word for all Indo-Europeans kleu, meaning rumor or fame. There is another common version: "Slovak", "Tslovak" and, ultimately, "Slav" is simply "a person" or "a person who speaks our language." Representatives of the ancient tribes of all strangers who spoke an incomprehensible language were not considered people at all. The self-name of any people - for example, "Mansi" or "Nenets" - in most cases means "man" or "man".

Economy. social order

A Slav is a farmer. They learned to cultivate the land back in those days when all Indo-Europeans had a common language. In the northern territories, slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced, in the south - fallow. Millet, wheat, barley, rye, flax and hemp were grown. They knew garden crops: cabbage, beets, turnips. The Slavs lived in the forest and forest-steppe zones, so they were engaged in hunting, beekeeping, and also fishing. They also raised cattle. The Slavs made high-quality weapons, ceramics, and agricultural tools for those times.

In the early stages of development, the Slavs existed which gradually evolved into a neighboring one. As a result of military campaigns, nobility emerged from the community members; nobility received land, and the communal system was replaced by feudalism.

General in ancient times

In the north, the Slavs coexisted with the Baltic and in the west - with the Celts, in the east - with the Scythians and Sarmatians, and in the south - with the ancient Macedonians, Thracians, Illyrians. At the end of the 5th century A.D. e. they reached the Baltic and Black Seas, and by the 8th century they reached Lake Ladoga and mastered the Balkans. By the 10th century, the Slavs occupied lands from the Volga to the Elbe, from the Mediterranean to the Baltic. This migration activity was due to the invasions of nomads from Central Asia, the attacks of German neighbors, as well as climate change in Europe: individual tribes were forced to look for new lands.

History of the Slavs of the East European Plain

Eastern Slavs (ancestors of modern Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians) by the 9th century AD e. occupied lands from the Carpathians to the middle reaches of the Oka and the Upper Don, from Ladoga to the Middle Dnieper. They actively interacted with the local Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts. Already from the 6th century, small tribes began to enter into alliances with each other, which marked the birth of statehood. At the head of each such union was a military leader.

The names of tribal unions are known to everyone from the school history course: these are the Drevlyans, and the Vyatichi, and the northerners, and the Krivichi. But the Polans and the Ilmen Slovenes were perhaps most famous. The former lived along the middle reaches of the Dnieper and founded Kyiv, the latter lived on the banks of Lake Ilmen and built Novgorod. The “path from the Varangians to the Greeks” that arose in the 9th century contributed to the rise and, subsequently, to the unification of these cities. Thus, in 882, the state of the Slavs of the East European Plain - Rus' - arose.

Supreme mythology

The Slavs cannot be named Unlike the Egyptians or the Indians, they did not have time to develop a developed mythological system. It is known that the Slavs (i.e. myths about the origin of the world) have much in common with the Finno-Ugric ones. They also contain an egg, from which the world is “born”, and two ducks, by order of the supreme god, bringing silt from the bottom of the ocean to create the earth's firmament. At first, the Slavs worshiped Rod and Rozhanitsy, later - the personified forces of nature (Perun, Svarog, Mokosh, Dazhdbog).

There were ideas about paradise - Iria (Vyria), (Oak). The religious ideas of the Slavs developed along the same lines as those of other peoples of Europe (after all, the ancient Slav is a European!): from the deification of natural phenomena to the recognition of the one God. It is known that in the 10th century A.D. e. Prince Vladimir tried to "unify" the pantheon, making Perun, the patron saint of warriors, the supreme deity. But the reform failed, and the prince had to pay attention to Christianity. Forced Christianization, however, could not completely destroy pagan ideas: they began to identify Elijah the Prophet with Perun, and they began to mention Christ and the Mother of God in the texts of magical conspiracies.

Inferior mythology

Alas, the myths of the Slavs about gods and heroes were not written down. On the other hand, these peoples created a developed lower mythology, the characters of which - goblin, mermaids, ghouls, mortgages, banniks, barnyards and half-days - are known to us from songs, epics, proverbs. As early as the beginning of the 20th century, peasants told ethnographers how to protect themselves from a werewolf and negotiate with a water man. Some remnants of paganism are still alive in the popular mind.

Slavic peoples occupy more space on earth than in history. The Italian historian Mavro Orbini, in his book “The Slavic Kingdom”, published back in 1601, wrote: “ The Slavic clan is older than the pyramids and so numerous that it inhabited half the world».

The written history of the Slavs BC says nothing. Traces of ancient civilizations in the Russian North is a scientific issue that has not been resolved by historians. The country is a utopia, described by the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Plato hyperborea - presumably the Arctic ancestral home of our civilization.

Hyperborea, also known as Daaria or Arctida, is the ancient name of the North. Judging by the chronicles, legends, myths and traditions that existed among different peoples of the world in antiquity, Hyperborea was located in the north of today's Russia. It is quite possible that it also affected Greenland, Scandinavia, or, as shown on medieval maps, was generally spread over the islands around the North Pole. That land was inhabited by people who are genetically related to us. The real existence of the mainland is evidenced by a map copied by the greatest cartographer of the 16th century G. Mercator in one of the Egyptian pyramids in Giza.

Gerhard Mercator's map published by his son Rudolf in 1535. The legendary Arctida is depicted in the center of the map. Cartographic materials of this kind before the Flood could only be obtained with the use of aircraft, highly developed technologies and with the powerful mathematical apparatus necessary to create specific projections.

In the calendars of the Egyptians, Assyrians and Maya, the catastrophe that destroyed Hyperborea dates back to 11542 BC. e. Climate change and the Flood 112 thousand years ago forced our Ancestors to leave their ancestral home Daaria and migrate through the only isthmus of the Arctic Ocean (the Ural Mountains).

“... the whole world turned upside down, and the stars fell from the sky. This happened because a huge planet fell to Earth ... at that moment "the heart of Leo reached the first minute of the head of Cancer." The great Arctic civilization was destroyed by a planetary catastrophe.

As a result of the impact of an asteroid 13659 years ago, the Earth made a "jump in time". The jump affected not only the astrological clock, which began to show a different time, but also the planetary energy clock, which sets the life-giving rhythm for all life on Earth.

The ancestral home of the peoples of the White race of clans did not completely sink.

From the vast territory of the north of the Eurasian Plateau, which was once land, today only Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya and the New Siberian Islands are visible above the water.

Astronomers and astrophysicists who study the problems of asteroid safety claim that every hundred years the Earth collides with cosmic bodies less than a hundred meters in size. More than a hundred meters - every 5000 years. Impacts of asteroids with a diameter of one kilometer are possible once every 300 thousand years. Once in a million years, collisions with bodies with a diameter of more than five kilometers are not ruled out.

The surviving ancient historical chronicles and research show that over the past 16,000 years, large asteroids, whose dimensions exceeded tens of kilometers in diameter, hit the Earth twice: 13,659 years ago and 2,500 years before.

If there are no scientific texts, material monuments are hidden under the Arctic ice or are not recognized, the reconstruction of the language comes to the rescue. Tribes, settling, turned into peoples, and marks remained on their chromosome sets. Such marks remained on Aryan words, and they can be recognized in any Western European language. Mutations of words coincide with mutations of chromosomes! Daaria or Arctida, called Hyperborea by the Greeks, is the ancestral home of all Aryan peoples and representatives of the racial type of white people in Europe and Asia.

Two branches of the Aryan peoples are evident. Approximately 10 thousand years BC. one spread to the east, and the other moved from the territory of the Russian Plain to Europe. DNA genealogy shows that these two branches sprouted from the same root from the depths of millennia, from ten to twenty thousand years BC, it is much older than the one that today's scientists write about, suggesting that the Aryans spread from the south. Indeed, the movement of the Aryans in the south existed, but it was much later. At first, there was a migration of people from north to south and to the center of the mainland, where the future Europeans appeared, that is, representatives of the white race. Even before moving to the south, these tribes lived together in the territories adjacent to the Southern Urals.

The fact that the predecessors of the Aryans lived on the territory of Russia in ancient times and there was a developed civilization is confirmed by one of the oldest cities discovered in the Urals in 1987, the city - an observatory, which already existed at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e... Named after the nearby village of Arkaim. Arkaim (XVIII-XVI centuries BC) is a contemporary of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, the Cretan-Mycenaean culture and Babylon. Calculations show that Arkaim is older than the Egyptian pyramids, its age is at least five thousand years, like Stonehenge.

According to the type of burials in Arkaim, it can be argued that proto-Aryans lived in the city. Our ancestors, who lived on the land of Russia, already 18 thousand years ago had the most accurate lunisolar calendar, solar-stellar observatories of amazing accuracy, ancient temple cities; they gave mankind perfect tools of labor and laid the foundation for animal husbandry.

To date, the Aryans can be distinguished

1. by language - Indo-Iranian, Dardic, Nuristani groups
2. Y-chromosome - carriers of some R1a subclades in Eurasia
3. 3) anthropologically - the proto-Indo-Iranians (Aryans) were carriers of the Cro-Magnoid ancient Eurasian type, which is not represented in the modern population.

The search for modern "Aryans" encounters a number of similar difficulties - it is impossible to reduce these 3 points to one meaning.

In Russia, interest in the search for Hyperborea has been for a long time, starting with Catherine II and her envoys to the north. With the help of Lomonosov, she organized two expeditions. On May 4, 1764, the Empress signed a secret decree.

The Cheka and personally Dzerzhinsky also showed interest in the search for Hyperborea. Everyone was interested in the secret of the Absolute weapon, which is similar in strength to nuclear weapons. XX century expedition

under the leadership of Alexander Barchenko, she was looking for him. Even the Nazi expedition, which consisted of members of the Ahnenerbe organization, visited the territories of the Russian North.

Doctor of Philosophical Sciences Valery Demin, defending the concept of the polar ancestral home of mankind, gives versatile arguments in favor of the theory according to which a highly developed Hyperborean civilization existed in the North in the distant past: the roots of Slavic culture go into it.

Slavs, like all modern peoples, arose as a result of complex ethnic processes and are a mixture of previous heterogeneous ethnic groups. The history of the Slavs is inextricably linked with the history of the emergence and settlement of the Indo-European tribes. Four thousand years ago, a single Indo-European community begins to disintegrate. The formation of the Slavic tribes took place in the process of separating them from among the numerous tribes of a large Indo-European family. In Central and Eastern Europe, a language group is separated, which, as shown by genetic data, included the ancestors of the Germans, Balts and Slavs. They occupied a vast territory: from the Vistula to the Dnieper, individual tribes reached the Volga, crowding out the Finno-Ugric peoples. In the 2nd millennium BC. The Germano-Balto-Slavic language group also experienced fragmentation processes: the Germanic tribes went to the West, beyond the Elbe, while the Balts and Slavs remained in Eastern Europe.

From the middle of the II millennium BC. over large areas from the Alps to the Dnieper, Slavic or Slavic speech prevails. But other tribes continue to be in this territory, and some of them leave these territories, others appear from non-contiguous regions. Several waves from the south, and then the Celtic invasion, prompted the Slavs and their kindred tribes to leave to the north and northeast. Apparently, this was often accompanied by a certain decrease in the level of culture, and hindered development. So the Baltoslavs and the separated Slavic tribes turned out to be excluded from the cultural and historical community, which was formed at that time on the basis of the synthesis of the Mediterranean civilization and the cultures of the newcomer barbarian tribes.

In modern science, the views according to which the Slavic ethnic community initially developed in the area either between the Oder (Odra) and the Vistula (Oder-Vistula theory), or between the Oder and the Middle Dnieper (Oder-Dnieper theory) have received the greatest recognition. The ethnogenesis of the Slavs developed in stages: the Proto-Slavs, the Proto-Slavs and the early Slavic ethno-linguistic community, which subsequently broke up into several groups:

• Romanesque - the French, Italians, Spaniards, Romanians, Moldavians will come from it;
• German - Germans, British, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians; Iranian - Tajiks, Afghans, Ossetians;
• Baltic - Latvians, Lithuanians;
• Greek - Greeks;
• Slavic - Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians.

The assumption of the existence of the ancestral home of the Slavs, Balts, Celts, Germans is rather controversial. Craniological materials do not contradict the hypothesis that the ancestral home of the Proto-Slavs was located in the interfluve of the Vistula and the Danube, the Western Dvina and the Dniester. Nestor considered the Danube lowlands to be the ancestral home of the Slavs. Anthropology could provide much for the study of ethnogenesis. The Slavs during the 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD burned the dead, so researchers do not have such material at their disposal. And genetic and other studies are the business of the future. Taken separately, various information about the Slavs in the ancient period - both historical data, and archeological data, and toponymic data, and data of language contacts - cannot provide reliable grounds for determining the ancestral home of the Slavs.

Hypothetical ethnogenesis of proto-peoples around 1000 BC e. (Proto-Slavs are highlighted in yellow)

Ethnogenetic processes were accompanied by migrations, differentiation and integration of peoples, assimilation phenomena, in which various, both Slavic and non-Slavic ethnic groups took part. Contact zones emerged and changed. Further settlement of the Slavs, especially intensive in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, took place in three main directions: to the south (to the Balkan Peninsula), to the west (to the region of the Middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe) and to the northeast along the East European plain. Written sources did not help scientists determine the boundaries of the distribution of the Slavs. Archaeologists came to the rescue. But when studying possible archaeological cultures, it was impossible to single out the Slavic one. Cultures were superimposed on each other, which spoke of their parallel existence, constant movement, wars and cooperation, mixing.

The Indo-European linguistic community developed among the population, individual groups of which were in direct communication with each other. Such communication was possible only in a relatively limited and compact area. There were quite extensive zones within which related languages ​​developed. In many areas, multilingual tribes lived in stripes, and this situation could also persist for centuries. Their languages ​​converged, but the addition of a relatively single language could only be realized under the conditions of the state. Tribal migrations were seen as a natural cause of the disintegration of the community. So the once closest "relatives" - the Germans became Germans for the Slavs, literally "dumb", "speaking in an incomprehensible language." The migration wave threw out this or that people, crowding, destroying, assimilating other peoples. As for the ancestors of the modern Slavs and the ancestors of the modern Baltic peoples (Lithuanians and Latvians), they constituted a single nationality for one and a half thousand years. During this period, the northeastern (mainly Baltic) components increased in the composition of the Slavs, which brought changes both in the anthropological appearance and in certain elements of culture.

Byzantine writer of the 6th century Procopius of Caesarea described the Slavs as people of very tall stature and great strength, with white skin and hair. Entering the battle, they went to the enemies with shields and darts in their hands, but they never put on shells. The Slavs used wooden bows and small arrows dipped in a special poison. Having no head over them and being at enmity with each other, they did not recognize the military system, were unable to fight in the right battle and never showed up on open and level places. If it happened that they dared to go into battle, then with a cry they all together slowly moved forward, and if the enemy could not withstand their cry and onslaught, then they actively advanced; otherwise, they took to flight, slowly measuring their strength with the enemy in hand-to-hand combat. Using the forests as cover, they rushed towards them, because only among the gorges they knew how to fight well. Often, the Slavs abandoned the captured prey, allegedly under the influence of confusion, and fled into the forests, and then, when the enemies tried to take possession of it, they unexpectedly struck. Some of them did not wear shirts or cloaks, but only trousers, pulled up by a wide belt on the hips, and in this form they went to fight the enemy. They preferred to fight the enemy in places overgrown with dense forests, in gorges, on cliffs; they suddenly attacked day and night, profitably used ambushes, tricks, inventing many ingenious ways to unexpectedly hit the enemy. They easily crossed the rivers, courageously withstanding their stay in the water.

The Slavs did not keep captives in slavery for an unlimited time, like other tribes, but after a certain time they offered them a choice: for a ransom, return home or stay where they were, in the position of free people and friends.

The Indo-European language family is one of the largest. The language of the Slavs retained the archaic forms of the once common Indo-European language and began to take shape in the middle of the 1st millennium. By this time, a group of tribes had already formed. the actual Slavic dialectal features, which sufficiently distinguished them from the Balts, formed the language formation that is commonly called Proto-Slavic. The settlement of the Slavs in the vast expanses of Europe, their interaction and miscegenation (mixed ancestry) with other ethnic groups disrupted the common Slavic processes and laid the foundations for the formation of individual Slavic languages ​​and ethnic groups. Slavic languages ​​fall into a number of dialects.

The word "Slavs" did not exist in those ancient times. The people were, but differently named. One of the names - Wends, comes from the Celtic vindos, which means "white." This word is still preserved in the Estonian language. Ptolemy and Jordanes believe that Wends is the oldest collective name of all the Slavs who lived at that time between the Elbe and the Don. The earliest news about the Slavs under the name of the Wends belong to the 1st - 3rd centuries AD and belong to the Roman and Greek writers - Pliny the Elder, Publius Cornelius Tacitus and Ptolemy Claudius.According to these authors, the Wends lived along the Baltic coast between the Stetinsky Gulf, where the Odra, and the Gulf of Danzing, into which the Vistula empties, along the Vistula from its headwaters in the Carpathian Mountains to the coast of the Baltic Sea. Their neighbors were the Ingevonian Germans, who may have given them such a name. Such Latin authors as Pliny the Elder and Tacitus they are also singled out as a special ethnic community with the name “Veneds.” Half a century later, Tacitus, noting the ethnic difference between the Germanic, Slavic and Sarmatian worlds, allotted the Wends a vast territory between the Baltic coast and the Carpathians.

Wends inhabited Europe already in the 3rd millennium BC.

Venedi withVcenturies occupied part of the territory of modern Germany between the Elbe and the Oder. INVIIcentury, the Wends invaded Thuringia and Bavaria, where they defeated the Franks. The raids on Germany continued until the startXcentury, when Emperor Henry I launched an offensive against the Wends, putting forward their adoption of Christianity as one of the conditions for concluding peace. The conquered Wends often rebelled, but each time they were defeated, after which an increasing part of their lands passed to the winners. The campaign against the Wends in 1147 was accompanied by the mass destruction of the Slavic population, and henceforth the Wends did not offer any stubborn resistance to the German conquerors. German settlers came to the once Slavic lands, and the new cities founded began to play an important role in the economic development of northern Germany. From about 1500, the area of ​​distribution of the Slavic language was reduced almost exclusively to the Lusatian margraviates - Upper and Lower, later included, respectively, in Saxony and Prussia, and adjacent territories. Here, in the area of ​​​​the cities of Cottbus and Bautzen, the modern descendants of the Wends live, of which approx. 60,000 (mostly Catholic). In Russian literature, they are usually called Lusatians (the name of one of the tribes that were part of the Wends group) or Lusatian Serbs, although they themselves call themselves Serbja or Serbski Lud, and their modern German name is Sorben (formerly also Wenden). Since 1991, the Foundation for Lusatian Affairs has been in charge of preserving the language and culture of this people in Germany.

In the IV century, the ancient Slavs finally stand apart and appear on the historical arena as a separate ethnic group. And under two names. This is “Slovene” and the second name is “Antes”. In the VI century. the historian Jordanes, who wrote in Latin in his essay “On the Origin and Deeds of the Getae”, reports reliable information about the Slavs: “Starting from the birthplace of the Vistula River, a large tribe of Veneti settled in immense spaces. Although their names are now changing according to different clans and localities, yet they are predominantly called Sclaveni and Antes.The Sclaveni live from the city of Novietuna and the lake called Mursian to Danastra, and north to Viskla; Danastra to Danapra, where the Pontic Sea forms a bend". These groups spoke the same language. At the beginning of the 7th century, the name "Antes" ceased to be used. Apparently, because during the migration movements a certain tribal union, which was called In ancient (Roman and Byzantine) literary monuments, the name of the Slavs looks like “Sklavins”, in Arabic sources as “Sakaliba”, sometimes the self-name of one of the groups of Scythians “Schilos” is brought together with the Slavs.

The Slavs finally stood out as an independent people not earlier than the 4th century AD. when the "Great Migration of Nations" "torn" the Balto-Slavic community. Under their own name, "Slavs" appeared in the annals in the VI century. From the 6th century information about the Slavs appears in many sources, which undoubtedly indicates their significant strength by this time, the entry of the Slavs into the historical arena in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, their clashes and alliances with the Byzantines, Germans and other peoples who inhabited at that time Eastern and Central Europe. By this time they occupied vast territories, their language retained archaic forms of the once common Indo-European language. Linguistic science determined the boundaries of the origin of the Slavs from the 18th century BC. until the VI century. AD The first news about the Slavic tribal world appears already on the eve of the Great Migration of Nations.