A characteristic feature of the art of the Chinese theater actor is the game with imaginary objects, the allegorical use of theatrical props. For example, a table, depending on the situation, can depict an altar, a table, a mountain, an observation platform; a hat wrapped in a red cloth - a severed head; black flags - wind; red flags are fire. The stage space is divided into two parts. One - around the circle of the proscenium - indicates the scene of action outside the room. For example, the street.
The other is the inner square of the stage - a home or palace room. The hero takes a step - this means that he goes outside the house; climbs on the table - it turns out to be on a hill. A wave of the whip - and the audience understands that he is racing on a horse. The two actors try to find each other and miss on the illuminated stage - everyone guesses that the action is taking place in the dark.
The symbolism of the Chinese theater is fundamentally different from the European one. The acting is also very far from any real life plausibility. It is based on canonized, refined conditional methods of expressiveness, stylized movements and gestures. All the plays of the traditional repertoire are divided into two large groups - wenxi (plays on civil, secular subjects) and wuxi (plays on military, historical themes, in which the main place is occupied by battle scenes built on acrobatics and fencing).
In the traditional theater, the system of roles is still preserved. All characters are divided into four groups:
[wen] - civilians and [y] - military;
By age, the characters are divided into [laosheng] - old people and [xiaosheng] - young people.
Dan (female roles) are divided into [qingyi] - a positive married woman, [zhendan] - a positive heroine, most often young, [huadan] - a servant, a courtesan, [daomadan] - a female warrior, [guimendan] - an unmarried young girl from noble house. By age, female roles are divided into [laodan] - an old woman and [xiaodan] - a young girl.
Jin combines characteristic roles, both positive and negative. The performers of these roles have bright make-up, masks, the manner of their play is emphatically hyperbolic. Chow - comic roles (male and female). Strict complexes of visual techniques have been developed for each role.
Depending on the level of skill, actors were distinguished as brilliant, perfect (miao), divine (shen), beautiful, attractive (mei), skillful (nen).
Until the beginning of the 20th century, there were no mixed troupes in China. This was due to the fact that actresses were considered women of easy virtue and did not have the right to perform with men. Therefore, there were female troupes in which all the roles were played by women, and male ones. Interestingly, the Chinese believed that only a man is able to understand and express the female essence, the beauty of her soul and body.
The unique originality of the traditional Chinese theater is due to the fact that it lacked the differentiation into genres accepted by Europeans. The actor of such a theater had to equally master the art of stage speech and singing, gesture, pantomime, dance, elements of martial art. The absence of a box stage in such a theater gave rise to special techniques of stage expressiveness. Acting in an open area, the actor achieved close contact with the audience. The need to concentrate the attention of the audience to the utmost (in the old Chinese theater, the audience could drink tea during the performance), the vastness of the audience, the openness of the space gave rise to sharp accents in the performance, and the lack of scenery also required the actor to have great skill in playing with imaginary objects. An actor who played in any one role, having mastered the technique of performance to perfection, very rarely could switch to another role. Each group of roles has developed to the smallest detail, fixed by a century-old tradition, the techniques of stage expressiveness. The improvement and development of tradition was possible only within strictly defined boundaries. That is why it was so important to master the rhythmically organized speech in the traditional theater, the precise stage movement, when the actor conducts a dialogue with the help of “gesture language”.
In the Chinese theater, the movements of the actor's hands are worked out in detail - "denying" hands, "hiding" hands, "grabbing" hands, "crying" hands, "resting" hands, etc. restraint and stiffness of their movements. Folded female fingers symbolize femininity and grace.
The plastique of a traditional theater actor is almost statuary, perfected in poses. The movement of the hero is determined not so much by the circumstances of the play as it shows his character and even his social position. In the Chinese theatre, for example, the civic goodie, when walking, throws out his unbending legs to the sides and at the same time strokes his beard; the military positive hero walks with "tiger steps" - as if he glides and freezes in place, accelerating the pace of movement while leaving the stage; the “venerable matron” should not separate her legs from the stage when walking, the “seductive beauty” steps over, tightly squeezing her knees; "Comedian" has a hurried and crouching gait.
It is necessary to point out the special symbolism of the traditional Chinese theater. Symbols of color are widely used in make-up and costumes: emperors wear yellow suits, loyal, devoted and brave ministers and military leaders appear in red, evil and cruel people wear black, officials with a bad temper wear blue. Great importance is attached to a magnificent headdress. The symbolism of the make-up also spoke a lot to the audience: straightforward and persistent people have a red face; people of a violent nature - black, white in makeup means baseness, cruelty and all negative qualities. Demonic characters appear with a green face, while divine characters appear with a golden face. In addition to color designations, there are also drawings. For example, the monkey king has an image of a coconut on his forehead. If the actor has a coin on his temple, then the viewer is dealing with a money-lover.
In Chinese traditional theater, great attention was paid to the psychological development of the role. But the psychologism of the Eastern theater is also essentially different from that of the European theater. The actor of the Chinese theater must master the ways of external expression of feelings. Chinese traditional theater theory proposes eight psychological states or categories (pa-xing), each of which corresponds to a certain manner of behavior. In the treatise "The Mirror of the Enlightened Spirit" they are described as follows:
Noble - an impressive look, a straight look, a low voice, an important gait;
Poor - dejected look, motionless look, stooping, wet under the nose;
Low - good-natured look, looks askance, shoulders are raised, gait is fast;
· Stupid - kind of stupid, eyes bulging, mouth gaping, shaking his head;
Crazy - an angry look, a stopped look, screams and laughs, moves randomly;
The patient is exhausted, his eyes are watery, he breathes heavily, his body is shaking;
· Drunk - looking tired, cloudy eyes, limp body, unyielding legs.
There were four main emotions (si-zhuang) - joy, anger, sadness, fear.
Special skill was required for male actors to perform female roles. This skill was so great that women attended the theater in order to learn manners and femininity from male actors.
Training in the art of the actor was of a guild nature and began in early childhood - from 7-8 years. Performing traditions were passed down from generation to generation, the old experienced actor communicated his experience to his students, who were usually his children and grandchildren. All instructions were carried out by the students unquestioningly, and they spent most of their time in the classroom. In addition to full control of their bodies, they studied, for example, the art of painting in order to understand the meaning of the color and pattern of their costume and perform complex makeup.
Traditional Chinese theater is one of the developed types of Oriental art, in which, unlike European art, the principle of novelty has never been the main one. But this does not mean that the tradition does not know the slightest movement - just changes in it occur slowly, and in order to be accepted into the tradition, they go a long way, justifying the need for changes.
PEKING OPERA
The most widespread and most influential theatrical genre in China is the Beijing musical drama (Peking Opera) - jingxi. It was formed in the 18th century. Peking opera combines elements of singing, acrobatics and martial arts. Its features were a huge number of battle scenes and the clear rhythm that accompanied them, the intense development of the plot. Long performances running for several days in a row were very popular. Peking Opera is the national opera of China, one of the treasures of Chinese culture. The artistic school of Peking Opera divides the performance of opera into aria, recitative, gestures and acrobatics.
There are four categories of characters in Peking Opera: sheng, the hero; tribute - heroine; qing - a male character with a painted face; chow is a comic character. Depending on the nature of the role, the actor sang in a natural voice or falsetto. Traditionally, the female roles were played by men, these parts are sung in falsetto. The roles of young men - characters that came from the kunqu drama - are also performed in falsetto.
The costumes of the characters in the Beijing opera are borrowed from the wardrobe of the Chinese nobility during the Tang and Song, Ming and Qing dynasties. Mostly costumes from the period of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) are used, which, however, are not mechanically transferred to the stage, but made more colorful, their details are somewhat exaggerated. In most cases, the costumes are embroidered with bright patterned designs.
The music of Peking Opera is predominantly orchestral, with percussion instruments providing a deeply rhythmic accompaniment. The main percussion instruments are gongs and drums of various sizes and types. Ratchets made of hardwood or bamboo are also used. The main string instrument is jinghu (Beijing violin). Erhu (second violin) plays along with her. The plucked instruments are yueqin (moon-shaped mandolin), pipa (four-stringed lute), and xianzi (three-stringed lute). Sometimes the sona trumpet and the Chinese flute are also used. The orchestra is led by a drummer who makes a variety of sounds with bamboo sticks - loud, excited, quiet, soft, sentimental - and expresses the feelings of the characters in strict accordance with the acting.
The vocal part of Peking opera consists of speech and singing. Speech, in turn, is divided into yunbai (recitative) and jing-bai (Beijing colloquial speech); recitative is used by serious characters, colloquial speech - by young heroines and comedians. The chant has two main motifs: erhuang (borrowed from the folk melodies of Anhui and Hubei) and xipi (from the melodies of Shaanxi). In addition, Peking opera inherited the melodies of the older southern kunqu opera and some northern folk songs.
The traditional repertoire of Peking opera includes more than a thousand stories, of which two hundred are presented on stage even today. For example, in the opera Cunning with an Empty Fortress, the wise strategist Zhuge Liang is depicted deftly defeating his opponent Sima Yi; in the Gathering of Heroes, the kingdoms of Wu and Shu are shown defeating the army of the kingdom of Wei at the Red Rock on the Yangtze River; the hero of the opera "Revenge of the Fisherman" Xiao En kills a corrupt official; in the Triple Fork, the young officer and the owner of the inn in the dark, not recognizing each other, began to fight, trying to protect the patriot general Chiao Tza-n; The plot of the opera "Debauchery in the Heavenly Palace" is based on the legend of how the Monkey King eats the peaches of immortality of the Jade Lord and defeats the heavenly host.
In the course of the development of Peking Opera, many talented actors have developed a refined technique of singing and gestures, perfecting the traditional skills they learned from their mentors and displaying their own abilities. Mei Lanfang (1894–1961) was an outstanding performer of female roles in the Peking Musical Drama Theater. He created new complexes of acting movements and facial expressions, in particular, expressive glances, movements of the hands. Based on the traditional laws of vocals, he created his own performing school, which has many followers. Mei Lanfang toured in many countries of the world, including the USSR. His art was highly appreciated by K.S. Stanislavsky. The Peking Opera was made famous by such actors as Chen Yanqiu, Zhou Xinfang, Ma Lianliang, Tan Fuying, Gai Chiao-tian, Xiao Changhua, Zhang Junqiu and Yuan Shihai. Many young outstanding actors appeared, selflessly devoted to their beloved art.
Peking Opera does not lose its traditions, although today it is undergoing a process of transformation. Some techniques are borrowed from local operas and local dialects are used, which gives the audience a sense of liveliness and novelty.
LOCAL OPERA GENRES
Pingju dates back to the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) and the beginning of the Republic. Descended from the folk opera of Hebei Province, known as Lianhualao, then adopted the technique of singing and gestures from the Hebei opera Ban Zi (“ratchet”), from the Beijing Opera, the shadow theater of the Luanzhou region. The action is accompanied by a small drum and other instruments. The pingju genre is also popular in Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei province in northeast China. His melodies, dialogues and gestures are borrowed from folk life, so they are easy to understand and appreciate. After the 1949 revolution, pingju plays focused on contemporary themes.
Yuju(Henan opera), or henan bangzi, originated in the Qing era from local folk performances that absorbed elements of Shanxi opera and Puzhou bangzi. This gave it a lively, simple, colloquial character. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Henan opera had spread to the cities and, under the influence of Peking opera, became a developed genre popular in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, and Anhui.
Yueju(Shaoxing Opera) first took its own form at the end of the Qing Dynasty based on the folk songs of Shengxian County, Zhejiang Province. Incorporated vocal and stage elements of local operas. Later, influenced by the new drama and the old kunqu opera, it became popular in Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. The soft, melodic music of the Shaoxing opera is most suitable for conveying tender feelings; the manner of acting is also graceful and refined.
qinqiang(Shenxi opera) appeared in the Ming era (1368-1644). The singing here is loud and clear, the rattles beat a clear rhythm, the movements are simple and energetic. The qinqiang genre was widely popular in the late Ming-early Qing era and influenced a number of other types of local opera. Now the Shaanxi Opera gathers a lot of spectators in the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu and Qinghai, its traditional repertoire includes over 2,000 works.
Kunqu(Kunshan Opera) originated in Kunshan County, Jiangsu Province as early as the end of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) – the beginning of the Ming. Kunqu has soft and clear vocals, her melodies are beautiful and refined, reminiscent of dance music. This genre has had a huge impact on other types of opera. Approximately by the middle of the Ming, it spread to the north of the country and gradually developed into a more energetic, severe type of opera called "northern". By the end of the 17th century, kunqu opera conquered the metropolitan audience and the emperor's court and gradually lost the mass audience, turning into an aristocratic art form.
Chuanju(Sichuan opera) is popular in Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces. It is the main form of local theater in southwestern China. It developed around the middle of the Qing era based on a combination of such local operatic forms as kunqu, gaoqiang, huqin, tanxi idengxi. Her most characteristic feature is singing in a high voice. The repertoire is very rich, including more than 2 thousand pieces. The texts are of high artistic value and humor. The movements are detailed and very expressive.
Hanju(Hubei Opera) is an old theatrical form that originated in Hubei province. It has more than three hundred years of history and has strongly influenced the formation of Peking, Sichuan and Henan operas. Very rich in vocal terms, has over 400 melodies. The repertoire is also very wide. The hanju genre is popular in the provinces of Hubei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Hunan.
Yueju(Guangzhou opera) appeared in the Qing era under the influence of kunqu and yangqiang (another ancient type of opera). Later, it absorbed elements of the Anhui, Hubei operas and folk melodies of the Guangdong province. With its rich orchestral composition, melodic diversity, and great ability to renew itself, it quickly became the main theater form in Guangdong and Guangxi, as well as among the Chinese of Southeast Asia and America.
Chaoju(Chaozhou opera) dates from the middle of the Ming era and retains elements of the Sung (960-1279) and Yuan nanxi - "southern dramas" that arose in the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang. The vocal style is rich and colorful. The chaoju genre makes extensive use of acrobatics, clowning, all kinds of dance moves, gestures, and plasticity. It attracts many spectators in the Chaozhou-Shantou District of Guangdong Province, the southern parts of Fuijian Province and in the Chinese communities of Southeast Asia.
Tibetan opera based on Tibetan folk songs and dances, originated at the end of the 14th century and developed into an operatic genre in the 17th century. Popular in the Tibetan communities of Tibet, Sichuan, Qinghai and South Gansu. Her libretto is based mainly on folk ballads, the melodies are fixed. They sing in the Tibetan opera loudly, with high voices, the choir sings along with the soloists. Some characters wear masks. Usually Tibetan opera is performed outdoors. Her traditional repertoire includes long pieces based on folk and Buddhist stories (for example, "Princess Wencheng", "Princess Norsan"), or short comic scenes with singing and dancing.
100 years ago in the Dongwang village of Zhejiang province, actresses performed for the first time on the opera stage. shaoxing opera. Gradually, it turned from one of the folk pop genres into a well-known type of local opera art in China. Shaoxing opera draws on Zhejiang's Shengzhou dialect and local folk melodies, while incorporating the best features of Peking opera, local kunqu opera, theater and cinematography. The images presented during the performance on stage are tender and touching, the performance is lyrical and beautiful. She has a gentle and lyrical style.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were 367 kinds of local operas in China. Today there are 267 of them, and only one group performs with some types of opera. In other words, 100 types of local opera have already ceased to exist, and many are on the verge of extinction. In this regard, the task of preserving cultural heritage by perpetuating it on audio and video media is becoming increasingly urgent. This work, by the way, is of great importance not only in terms of protecting cultural heritage, but also in terms of the continuation and development of opera art.
After the formation of new China, two large-scale campaigns were carried out in the country to save, preserve and systematize opera art. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, thousands of traditional operas were immortalized. Thanks to this work, the general condition of the operatic heritage in China became known. The second campaign took place in the 80s-90s of the XX century, at the same time the Notes on Chinese Opera and the Collection of Chinese Opera Melodies were published.
Conclusion
2007 is the centenary year of Chinese drama theater.
Dramaturgy (huaju) appeared in China 100 years ago under the influence of foreign culture. Prior to this, drama in the Western sense was not familiar to the Chinese. Only Chinese traditional dramas were popular in the country, which belonged more to the musical than to the colloquial arts.
In 1907, several Chinese students studying in Japan created the Chunlyushe stage group, which staged fragments of Dumas son's Lady of the Camellias on the stages of Tokyo. In the same year, another stage group - "Chunyanshe" - was created in Shanghai. On Chinese stages, this group played the play "Uncle Tom's Cabin" based on the book by the American writer G. Beecher Stowe. This is how theater in the European sense of the word appeared in China.
In the 1920s, Chinese theater from abroad was influenced by realism and expressionism. In the 1930s, Cao Yu created a trilogy - "Thunderstorm", "Sunrise" and "Field", which is still on the Chinese stage today.
After Mao Zedong and the Communist Party came to power, propaganda theaters began to appear everywhere, and appropriate performances were staged. Therefore, traditional roles began to be replaced by new ones.
In 1952, the Beijing Folk Art Theater was created, staging realistic plays (for example, "Tea House" and "Ditch Longxuigou").
In the middle and late 80s of the twentieth century, dramaturgy was further developed, reforms were being carried out and searches were being made to update the content and artistic form.
Today, dramaturgy is developing rapidly, as is traditional Chinese opera. In 2006, more than 40 plays premiered on Beijing stages. Most of them tell about the real life of ordinary Chinese and touch upon the most important problems of Chinese society. Some directors have taken the path of combining traditional elements with modern ones. They immediately began to be called avant-garde directors. The representative of the avant-garde, for example, is director Meng Jinghui.
Bibliography
1. Borodycheva E.S. Chinese theater site "Secular club"
Traditional Chinese theater
Peking Opera is the most famous Chinese opera in the world. It was formed 200 years ago on the basis of the local opera "huidiao" of Anhui province. In 1790, by imperial decree, the 4 largest Huidiao opera troupes - Sanqing, Sixi, Chuntai and Hechun - were convened in Beijing to celebrate the 80th anniversary of Emperor Qianlong. The words of the opera parts "huidiao" were so easy to understand by ear that soon the opera became very popular with the capital's audience. In the next 50 years, the Huidiao absorbed the best from other opera schools in the country: the Beijing Jingqiang, the Kunqiang from Jiangsu Province, the Qinqiang from Shaanxi Province and many others, and, in the end, turned into what we are today. We call Peking Opera.
The stage in the Peking Opera does not take up much space, the scenery is the simplest. The characters are clearly defined. The female roles are called tribute, the male roles are called sheng, the comedian roles are called chow, and the hero with different masks is called jing. Among male roles, there are several roles: a young hero, an elderly man and a commander. Women are divided into "qingyi" (the role of a young woman or middle-aged woman), "huadan" (the role of a young woman), "laodan" (the role of an elderly woman), "daomadan" (the role of a female warrior) and "wudan" (the role of a military heroines). The hero "jing" can wear the masks "tongchui", "jiazi" and "wu". Comedy roles are divided into scientists and military. These four characters are the same for all schools of Peking Opera.
Another feature of the Chinese opera theater is makeup. For each role there is a special make-up. Traditionally, makeup is created according to certain principles. It emphasizes the features of a certain character - it can be easily determined from it whether an actor plays a positive or negative character, whether he is decent or a deceiver. In general, there are several types of makeup:
1. The red face symbolizes courage, honesty and loyalty. A typical character with a red face is Guan Yu, a commander of the Three Kingdoms era (220-280), famous for his devotion to Emperor Liu Bei.
2. Reddish-purple faces can also be seen on well-behaved and noble characters. Take, for example, Lian Po in the famous play The General Makes Up with the Chief Minister, in which the proud and quick-tempered general quarreled and then made peace with the minister.
3. Black faces indicate a bold, courageous and selfless character. Typical examples are General Zhang Fei in The Three Kingdoms, Li Kui in The Backwaters, and Wao Gong, the fearless, legendary and just Judge of the Song Dynasty.
4. Green faces indicate heroes who are stubborn, impulsive, and completely lacking self-control.
5. As a rule, white faces are characteristic of powerful villains. White also indicates all the negative aspects of human nature: deceit, deceit and treason. Typical characters with a white face are Cao Cao, a power-hungry and cruel minister in the Three Kingdoms era, and Qing Hui, a cunning minister of the Song Dynasty who killed the national hero Yue Fei.
All of the above roles belong to the category under the general name "jing" (an ampulla of a man with pronounced personal qualities). For comedy characters in the classical theater there is a special kind of makeup - "Xiaohualian". A small white spot on and around the nose indicates a narrow-minded and secretive character, such as Jiang Gan from The Three Kingdoms, who fawned over Cao Cao. Also, a similar make-up can be found in a witty and playful servant boy or commoner, whose presence enlivens the whole performance. Another role is jesters-acrobats "uchou". A small speck on their nose also indicates the cunning and wit of the hero. Similar characters can be seen in the novel "River Backwaters".
The history of masks and make-up begins with the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The simplest examples of make-up have been found on frescoes in tombs of this era. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the art of make-up developed fruitfully: colors improved, new, more complex ornaments appeared, which we can see in modern Peking opera. There are several different theories about the origin of makeup:
1. It is believed that primitive hunters painted their faces to scare away wild animals. Also in the past, robbers did this to intimidate the victim and remain unrecognized. Perhaps later, makeup began to be used in the theater.
2. According to the second theory, the origin of makeup is associated with masks. During the reign of the Northern Qi Dynasty (479-507), there was a magnificent commander Wang Lanling, but his handsome face did not inspire fear in the hearts of the soldiers of his army. Therefore, he began to wear a terrifying mask during the battle. Having proved his formidability, he became more successful in battles. Later, songs were composed about his victories, and after that a masked dance performance appeared, demonstrating the assault on the fortress of enemies. Apparently, in the theater, masks were replaced by make-up.
3. According to a third theory, makeup was used in traditional operas only because the performance was held in open areas for a large number of people who could not easily see the expression on the actor's face from a distance.
Chinese masks are an integral part of world art. The first masks appeared in China during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, that is, about 3500 years ago. They were an essential element of Chinese shamanism. Serving the deity who saved from the plague included dancing and singing spellcasters, which were unthinkable without masks. Even in our time, national minorities wear masks during religious rituals, weddings and funerals.
Chinese masks are mainly made of wood and are worn on the face or head. Although there are many masks of demons, evil spirits and mythical animals, each of them conveys a special meaning. Chinese masks can be divided into the following categories:
1. Masks of dancers-casters. These masks are used in sacrificial ceremonies among small ethnic groups to scare away evil spirits and pray to deities.
2. Holiday masks. Similar masks are worn during holidays and festivities. They are intended for prayers for longevity and a rich harvest. In many places, festive masks are worn during weddings.
3. Masks for newborns. They are used during the ceremony dedicated to the birth of a child.
4. Masks protecting the house. These masks, like those of the caster dancers, are used to ward off evil spirits. As a rule, they are hung on the walls of the house.
5. Masks for theatrical performances. In the theaters of small nationalities, masks are the most important element with which the image of the hero is created, therefore they are of great artistic importance.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHINA - Peking Opera, masks - Theater...
Peking Opera is the most famous Chinese opera in the world. She
was formed 200 years ago on the basis of the local opera Huidiao
provinces...
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These unique masks are the result of the work of Guizhou artisans. Masks are carved from wood and tree roots. Some masks are only a few centimeters high, while others reach up to two meters. The masks of the Miao people casters are a real gem of Chinese folk art.
Initially, witch masks appeared in central China. Once in Guizhou, the masks became popular with local shamans, who turned to the legendary Fu Xi and Nu Wa in their divination. The Chinese ruler Fu Xi taught people how to fish, hunt, and raise cattle. And the goddess Nu Wa created people and repaired the firmament.
In ancient times, people believed that all troubles and misfortunes are the machinations of evil spirits and demons. Therefore, during divination, they put on masks to appear larger and scare away evil forces. Ritual dances were also arranged to ward off demons. Over time, the function of dancing became more entertaining than religious. And religious chants went beyond the boundaries of Taoist and Buddhist temples, becoming part of folk culture.
Often in performances of traditional Chinese theater, long and predominantly white sleeves can be seen. As a rule, they reach a length of half a meter, but there are also samples over 1 m. From the auditorium, white silk sleeves look like flowing streams. Of course, even in ancient times, people did not wear clothes with such long sleeves.
On stage, long sleeves are a way to create an aesthetic effect. By waving such sleeves, you can distract the viewer's attention between games, convey the feelings of the hero and add color to his portrait. If the hero throws his sleeves forward, it means that he is angry. The shaking of the sleeves symbolizes the trembling of fear. If an actor throws up his sleeves to the sky, it means that a misfortune has just happened to his hero. If one hero flaps his sleeves, as if trying to shake off the dirt from the suit of another, he thus shows his respectful attitude. Changes in the inner world of the hero are reflected in the change of gestures. Long sleeve movements are among the basic skills of an actor in traditional Chinese theater.
Changing masks is a real trick in traditional Chinese theatre. Thus, a change in the mood of the hero is displayed. When panic turns to rage in the hero's heart, the actor must change his mask in a matter of seconds. This trick always delights the audience. The change of masks is most commonly used in Sichuan theatre. In the opera "Severing the bridge", for example, the main character Xiao Qing notices the traitor Xu Xian, rage flares up in her heart, but suddenly it is replaced by a feeling of hatred. At this time, her beautiful snow-white face first turns red, then green, and then black. The actress must deftly change masks with each turn, which is obtained only as a result of lengthy training. Sometimes several layers of masks are used, which are torn off one after another.
thai nation. From the point of view of the ancient history of the development of the nation, the protection of traditional aesthetic culture and the search for deep cultural expression in the forms of contemporary art seem to be vital. The study of the past is necessary in order to
present the future direction of development of Chinese lacquer art. Only a clear sense of the blood vessels of historical development can help to better understand the present, more consciously choose the path for the further development of lacquer art.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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4. Su Zidong. Causes of differences in approaches to the material in lacquer painting. Decor, 2005.
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1. Van Hu. Obzor lakovoj zhivopisi. Nankin: Tszjansuskoe izdatel "stvo" Izobraztel "noe iskusstvo", 1999.
2. In Cjuhua. Sovremennaja lakovaja zhivopis "Kitaja i materialy // Vestnik Nan" janskogo instituta. Usi, 2007. No. 12.
3. Li Fanhun. Issledovanie iskusstva lakovoj zhivopisi // Vestnik Fujanskogo pedagogicheskogo instituta. 2005. No. 4.
4. Su Tszydun. Prichiny otlichij v podhodah k materialu v lakovoj zhivopisi. Decor, 2005.
5.Cjao Shiguan. Talk about lake i zhivopisi. Narodnoe izdatel "stvo izobrazitel" nyh iskusstv, 2004.
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THE ROLE OF COSTUME AND MASK IN PEKING OPERA
The author tries to show the significance of clothes and make-up in the fine arts of Peking opera, analyze the content of spiritual culture and symbolic meaning reflected in form and color, and also tell the story and reveal the cultural manifestations of stage fine arts, thereby revealing in detail the symbolic meaning of make-up and costumes in Peking opera. opera.
Key words: Peking opera, mask, costume, artistic features.
The Role of Costume and Mask in Peking Opera
The article describes the function of artistic expression of mask and clothing in Peking opera, analyzes the cultural connotation and symbolic meanings reflected in their character
and color, and highlights the historical and cultural phenomena reflected by the visual art of Peking opera interpreting the artistic and symbolic meaning of mask and clothing.
Keywords: Peking opera, mask, costume, artistic feature.
Costume and make-up are important components of the image of a character in the traditional theater of the Chinese people and, in particular, in the Peking opera genre, being one of the main tools by which the actor conveys his mood to the audience. The use of bright colors, bizarre masks and complex costumes, where every detail, every shade has its own meaning, understandable to the viewer, is characteristic in creating an atmosphere corresponding to the plot, an artistic image and in its subsequent disclosure. The process of "reading" the character becomes possible due to the close centuries-old connection of the Chinese theater with the life of the people, with their customs and beliefs. Despite the fact that the study of this symbolism is of great theoretical and practical importance in the study of not only Peking opera as a separate genre in the theater, but also the characteristics of Chinese culture in general, there are very few monographs devoted to this issue both in China and abroad. outside of it. In this paper, based on the research of Chinese theater critics of different eras, we analyzed the influence of the cultural perception of the world of the Chinese people on the symbols involved in creating the image, on the different colors in the costume and masks, and also traced the relationship between the character's character, his social status, age and ways of conveying this information to the viewer.
The costumes of the characters of the Peking Opera absorbed and harmoniously combined the elements inherent in the clothing of all eras, during which this genre of Chinese folk drama took shape, the aesthetic preferences of all nationalities that had a cultural and creative influence on its formation. Suit functions can be
divided into four components: creating an image, complementing the character’s characteristics, dividing the action in place (street, indoors, etc.) and assisting in the performance of certain elements (for example, flowing flared sleeves, by manipulating which the actor complements the image he creates). The costume, together with the mask and hairstyle, create a single whole with the inner world and character of the character, his mood and the action he performs.
Significance of the character's costume and make-up Aesthetic function
a powerful artistic image, referring to the phenomena of the surrounding reality, familiar to the viewer. The transfer of the inner world of a character with the help of the features of his external appearance is carried out through a certain system of symbols fixed for centuries; in colorful, complex outfits, in bright, bizarre masks, the character, mood, and sometimes even the fate of the character are captured, without knowing which it is difficult to understand the development of the plot. Bright colors and an abundance of details, combined with symbolism, create a lively and recognizable image even before the action begins. The costumes and masks of the Peking Opera actors absorbed and harmoniously combined the elements inherent in the clothing of all eras during which this genre of Chinese folk drama took shape, the aesthetic preferences of all nationalities that had a cultural and creative influence on its formation, which makes them a model throughout history. not only in Chinese, but also in world theatrical art. For example, manpao, front ha-
armor embroidered with dragons, the origin of which dates back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The actors' play and the world they create can be as fictional as you like, but the costumes and objects used on the stage repeat their original prototypes in detail, which allows preserving the mysterious beauty of the stage image and delivering aesthetic pleasure to the viewer. The beauty of the dress is not only associated with bright colors and intricate embroidery, but also with the hidden meaning that these colors and embroidery carry, preserved for 500 years and passed on stage. Thus, the highest Chinese ranks wore robes of red, green, yellow, white and black, and the lower ones - purple, pink, blue, pale green and brown, which was strictly regulated, and in the theater it made it possible to immediately determine the social status of the character. Ornamentation could also give hints: a robe embroidered with dragons with five claws on each paw and with an open mouth spewing fire or water belonged to the emperor, while the robes of princes and commanders were decorated with dragons with four claws and a closed mouth, symbolizing humility. In addition, dragons were embroidered strictly canonically and had three main types, which also have a semantic load in the theater. The first type is dragons curled up in rings, their number on one robe can reach ten, and most often they indicate a calm and balanced character of the character. The second - dragons in motion, their head is raised or lowered, the body is elongated, sometimes they are depicted playing with a pearl. They are larger than the first type in size, their number most often does not exceed six on one dressing gown; a character whose robe is decorated with this embroidery is likely to have a noisy and domineering character. The largest embroidered dragon of the third type, the most detailed of all three types, has a characteristic and recognizable feature - abandoned on the forest.
the left shoulder of the robe with a tail. The last type of embroidery will indicate a ferocious and cruel character.
Let's take another example. Armor and chain mail -ga, related in appearance to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), on the stage largely repeat the originals, but the way they are worn (freely and without restricting movements) is far from the real historical one. Another attribute of a military character - in the Chinese theater - triangular flags (four, on the back of a commander in armor) - has an interesting origin story, imprinted in their appearance. They go back to the ancient credential flags used when passing orders through a liaison on the battlefield. Since it was inconvenient and dangerous to ride at full speed on an uneven road, driving with only one hand, they began to be worn on the belt, and in the theater, to emphasize the social affiliation of the character, on the back. The actor can, even standing still or with minimal movement, making certain movements with the help of flags, create a picture of the battle and convey the appropriate mood to the viewer.
Symbolism in costume and masks
The mask as a type of make-up exists only in the Chinese theater, representing a skillful combination of colors and lines that reveals the character's character to the viewer. The appearance of the mask dates back to the heyday of Peking opera during the reigns of the Tongzhi (1856-1875) and Guangxu (1871-1908) emperors, and the very first steps in this art can be seen in the paintings depicting the life of a generation of court actors who created the basis for the development of the genre Peking Opera - Xu Baocheng (? -1883), He Guishan, Mu Fengshan (1840-1912) and others. , which could not but affect the development of the mask as
expressive instrument: the technique of performance becomes more complicated, new combinations of colors are tried. The mask uses a certain symbolic system in creating the appearance and subsequent disclosure of the character's character, which can be understood only by sufficiently studying the culture of China, traditional ideas about moral virtues and values. On the one hand, this is how the mask, following tradition, identifies the inner and outer character, on the other hand, on the contrary, it separates the actor himself from the role he plays: after applying the makeup, there is a complete detachment and merging with the image.
The original function of the mask was to create a scenic atmosphere and colorfulness, but as the genre develops, it becomes an indicator of character, while being closely related to the cultural and ethical ideas of the Chinese people. For example, colors where red symbolizes loyalty and courage, black - virtue and decency, white - cruelty, deceit and ingratitude, etc. The abundance of bright colors in masks is also explained by the need to create an idealized, unrealistic image, where saturated colors in appearance indicate the predominance of certain qualities in the character. So the main color of the makeup of the eunuch Gao Qiu, a well-known intriguer and sycophant
White; he is opposed by the black mask of Bao Zheng (999-1062). The red color of Guan Yun's mask, combined with slanted eyes and arched eyebrows, gives the impression of an imperious and stern character.
The systematic use of certain colors consolidated the created system and eliminated the discrepancy between the internal and the external within the framework of creating a specific image, as well as the possibility of misunderstanding or unrecognition of the character by the viewer.
Features of the use and meaning of the color of the costume and masks
Features of use
The costumes of the Peking Opera actors are distinguished by an abundance of details, impressive splendor and luxury, which is explained by the need to create an expressive image with pronounced characteristic features. The character of the already mentioned commander Guan Yu, for example, looks like this: he himself is dressed in a green caftan, in the slits of which, when moving, an embroidered shirt and yellow trousers are visible, on his feet are boots in the color of a caftan, a yellow fabric stretched over his chest is thrown over his shoulder, with Two peach-colored silk tassels and two white embroidered ribbons hang on the head of the helmet, which, in combination with a red mask and a gray beard, creates an impressive image that is recognizable to the viewer. The main colors can be called red and green, all the rest are harmoniously combined and convey rigor and at the same time lightness, solidity and proud beauty.
The appearance of the famous kanshi character, dressed in rags, with a face covered with road dust, would seem to be incapable of delivering aesthetic pleasure to the audience. However, with a skillful combination of colors and the addition of details, we get an image that has the necessary features and, at the same time, pleasing to the eye with a harmonious outfit: a black net tied with a blue ribbon on the hair, a white caftan and green pants are girdled with a white scarf, a bag that is faded orange with belongings thrown on his back, and a dark red umbrella lies on his shoulder. The image combines modesty and expressiveness at the same time, and the bright color of the umbrella contrasts with the calm colors of the dress, symbolizing a long and difficult life path. It is noteworthy that when the character of the kanshi in the Bayan opera changed its social position, the costume masters no less successfully conveyed the changes in the external character, keeping the essence of the character unchanged. According to the plot, Kanshi's character becomes rich, which is not
it is necessary to show the viewer, however, the image is limited in appearance: the kanshi is now dressed in a brown jacket, a green cape and a vest, girded with a green cloth, a gray-haired head is decorated with brown threads and red velvet flowers, and a staff is in her hand. It is obvious that, despite the changes, she still leads a modest lifestyle and does not boast of acquired wealth.
The bright colors and methods of applying masks for female and male characters also have some differences: the faces of the actors playing female roles are heavily whitened, the eyelids are black, and the lips are bright red; in male, especially heroic and powerful characters, a red spot (qinjiang) or a crescent (guoqiao) is drawn above the eyebrows. The female image, in particular concubines or beauties of antiquity, often includes elegant jewelry made of crystal and jade: some frame the face and emphasize the mask, others support or complement a complex hairstyle.
A significant place is given to contrast, for example, in color combinations. In the opera Farewell My Concubine, the mask of General Xiang Yu is dominated by black, which is contrasted with the white face of his beloved Yu Ji.
In Dan Ma duanda, Yang Bajie is dressed in a white men's suit to distinguish her from the male characters, while in The Two Generals and The Triple Fork, the black and white colors of the two protagonists emphasize the difference in their inner make-up.
In addition to color, the appearance of a character can be either excessively luxurious, or, conversely, emphatically simple, most often to emphasize character. Thus, in the drama Zhameian, Qin Xiangliang is dressed in a black skirt with a white mourning belt, which, as the plot develops, only increases the viewer’s sympathy for her, while the heartless rich man Chen Shimei, dressed in a red embroidered robe, causes all the excitement.
growing dislike. In the final scene, retribution overtakes the latter: the executioner rips off his clothes. This can be seen as a metaphor: the false shell has been torn off and the true face has emerged, which, of course, cannot but please the viewer. In Douzhiji, the protagonist Mo Ji turns from a modest and honest scientist into an influential official who has lost his former modesty and decency, which is also reflected in the change of costume.
The bright colors of the costumes and masks not only helped to reveal the nature of the character, but also retained their main function: the creation of an artistic world that is attractive to the viewer with its realism and at the same time the impossibility, the creation of a separate universe. The well-known researcher of the Chinese theater Qi Ru-shan (1875-1962) noted in his research: “There is no sound in it that does not give rise to a song; there is no movement in it that does not create a dance. Also known is the saying of the art historian and theater critic Zhou Xinfang (1895-1975): "whatever the hieroglyph is a song, whatever the movement is a dance." It can be added that in Peking Opera, along with music and dance, in a costume and masks - whatever color, then - character. The complex colorful world of Peking Opera attracts the attention of the audience, the reading of the characters complements the acting, turning the works of this genre into an amazing phenomenon of Chinese traditional culture.
The symbolism of colors Thus, the colors in the Chinese theater
The language in which the actor communicates with the audience is an independent system that has several artistic functions. This is, firstly, decorative. The main task of color is to capture and hold the viewer's attention, give him pleasure with contrast, hide flaws and highlight advantages. So, for example, long white sleeves, which are used
dance, do not play any other role than to enhance the visual effect of dance movements. In makeup, too, often the reason for choosing a particular color is by no means the transmission of a hidden meaning. Female characters often use special leveling strips that are glued on both sides of the face and then covered with white paint, which made it possible to make the oval more elongated and graceful. In eye make-up, both male and female characters turn to black: the skillful application of shadows and mascara enlarges the eyes, makes them more expressive. A flat nose can be made taller and straighter by drawing red lines on both sides of the bridge of the nose.
Secondly, the colors of the costumes and sometimes the masks are determined by the social position of the character or his age. In Peking opera, there are four categories of characters: sheng (male character), dan (female character), jing (also male character, most often a hero) and chow (kind, comic characters or cunning, treacherous, but stupid villains), who, in turn, have several differences within each category. In accordance with the social status and age, the role of sheng is divided into laosheng - old and elderly people, military wusheng and xiaosheng - young guys, boys; the role of tribute includes qing, i.e., the role of calm, restrained women, huadan - direct, courageous girls, elderly women hua-dan, etc. In the make-up of the role of jiz, some specific color prevails, according to which differentiation is carried out.
Further, the division occurs on a social basis, where, in addition to color, style and material are also important. The emperor was given the yellow color, officials close to the Son of Heaven, depending on the rank, will wear red, green, black and white robes; lower rank - lilac, blue and black. In addition, the robes of the nobility are decorated with rich embroidery. Characters, rel.
those belonging to the class of scientists, merchants, soldiers and guards, to servants of various kinds, to clerks, will most often be dressed in a black robe of a simple cut, and peasants, fishermen, woodcutters, shepherds, etc. will have the simplest clothes.
But not everything is so simple. In the drama "The West Wing" in the scene where the main character Ying Ying arrives at a Buddhist monastery, her simple and discreet costume, for example, is not at all an indicator of social status, but a symbol of mourning for her father. In Do-ue's Resentment, the main character is dressed in red clothes on the day of execution, which only enhances the compassion of the audience. Often, the choice of color was influenced by the desire to observe color harmony. Thus, in the Yuan zaju, Guan Yu is dressed in a red suit, and in the Peking opera genre, in a green one, since the excessive abundance of red (the main color of this character's mask was red) made the image heavier.
In addition, the color of some details, and sometimes the entire attire, indicates the age of the heroes. Among the commoners, the color of the older generation is most often white, the middle age is black, and the youth will most likely be dressed in red and pink colors; nobility wears casual or ceremonial attire, where the colors brown and blue indicate the older generation. Warlords enter the battlefield in yellow if they are elderly, in pink or silver-white if they are younger. The color of the beard and mustache also has age differences, even within the same hero. Thus, in various dramas, the character of Liu Bei wears a black, gray and white beard, and Zhu Gelian in the opera "Cunning with an Empty Fortress" - gray, and in the work "Outpost of the Heavenly River" - white, which indicates age-related changes. A similar role is played by the choice of color in applying makeup: for young characters, the use of pink is typical, for mature ones - red and copper, older characters most often have a grayish tint.
And, finally, there is an evaluative function: reflection in the color of the costume and make-up of the inner world of the character. For example, the use of green and blue colors used to indicate pettiness and baseness, but gradually lost its negative semantics and now indicates a persistent character and directness of intentions.
Black color can tell the viewer about a courageous and majestic character, such as Judge Bao Zheng, Zhang Fei, the brave and loyal General Xiang Yu from the drama Farewell My Concubine, etc. At the same time, black sometimes indicates a hero , possessing qualities that are directly opposite - greed, deceit and cunning (negative characters in the operas "Boalyanden", "Suanliang"). You can accurately determine the character's character only by combining all the colors together - both makeup and costume. Suits of lilac and red are worn by valiant, adamant and faithful characters, for example, Guan Yu and Jiang Wei from "Three Kingdoms", Ying Kaoshu from "Fazidu" and Zhao Ku-anyin. Blue - most often used when indicating an assertive, violent character; it can be a robber or a leader of a gang, for example, Dou Erdun in Stealing a Horse. Intense green color
symbolizes the hero conquering evil (Cheng Yaojin or Guan Yu); yellow - hardheartedness, prudence and duplicity (Dian Wei) or, conversely, restraint and prudence (Lian Po); the combination of white with red or white with black is characteristic of a deceiver, vile and treacherous (Cao Cao and Xiang Yu). It is important to note that the red stripes on the bridge of the nose in combination with the white base of the makeup do not have such a meaning.
Symbols in costumes and masks played a special role during the development and formation of the Peking opera genre; the study of the system of symbols hidden in the outward appearance of the stage image can provide indispensable material in the study of Chinese theater in all its diversity. Without understanding this system, its principles, the influence of Chinese culture on it, it is difficult to imagine the study of the art of costume and mask, the role of colors used in them, the hidden semantics of details, and much more. Thus, one should thoroughly study the Peking opera genre as a whole as an independent phenomenon of Chinese culture, surprising in its aesthetic strength.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Go Weigeng. Makeup history. Shanghai: Literature and Art Publishing House, 1992, pp. 14-15.
2. Mei Lanfang. Stage art of Chinese Peking Opera. Beijing: Chinese National Theater Publishing House, 19b2. S. 2b.
3. Jiao Juyin. Contemporary Chinese Theatre. Beijing: Chinese National Theater Publishing House, 1985, p. 345.
1. Go Vjejgjen. Historija grima. Shanhaj: Izdatel "stvo "Literatura i iskusstvo", 1992. S. 14-15.
2. Mej Lanfan. Stsenicheskoe iskusstvo kitajskoj pekinskoj opery. Pekin: Publishing house "stvo" Kitajskij nacional "nyj teatr", 19b2. S. 2b.
3. Tszjao Tszjujin "Sovremennyj kitajskij teatr. Pekin: Izdatel" stvo "Kitajskij nacional" nyj teatr, 1985.
Since ancient times, all over the world, masks have played an important role in the theatrical tradition. They have become especially important in Eastern cultures. Their use in the theater has survived to this day, although they have undergone changes in form and means of expression. Like in Japanese theater = mask (nomen [能面] or omote [面])
The mask gives the appearance of the actor a mysterious attractiveness, charisma, turns his figure into a sculpture draped with beautiful clothes. Only the leading actor of the site and the accompanying tsure perform in the mask, if this character is a woman. Performing a role without a mask, the actor maintains a calm, detached expression on the stage; Japanese psychiatrists even use the term "mask no facial expression" to describe a patient's pathological problems with facial expressions. As a rule, an actor owns several masks of the same kind. Make-up is not used in the theater.
Like other things in medieval Japan, the mask (along with a mirror, an amulet, a sword) was endowed with magical properties; the actor still continues to treat the mask as a sacred object: the actor's dressing room always has its own altar with ancient masks, and the performer will never step over the omote. Modern actors play in masks-copies and very rarely, on especially solemn occasions, in ancient ones.
The masks may not completely cover the face of the actor. The size of female masks is on average 21.1 cm high, 13.6 cm wide and 6.8 cm in profile, which corresponds to the tastes of the time of their appearance: a small head with a large physique was considered by the Japanese as a beautiful feature of appearance. In some masks, another fashion of the past was also recorded: in order to emphasize the height of the forehead, women shaved off their eyebrows and drew their line almost at the root of the hair.
泥眼 / Deigan
Three photographs of a female mask showing the change in facial expression depending on the angle of the mask in relation to the observer (pictures taken with fixed lighting falling on the mask fixed on the wall)
喝食 | Kasshiki (Young) 
童子 | Doji - represents a little boy who symbolizes eternal youth as the incarnation of God. The word doji literally means "child" in Japanese, but in Noh it refers to being divine. This mask projects a sense of noble and graceful beauty.
中将 | Chujo - This mask bears the name of an early Heian poet, Ariwara no Narihira. He was a man born a nobleman and a lieutenant general (chujo) of the fifth grade. He was also called “one of the six famous poets” during that period. This mask was modeled on him.
痩男 / Yase-otoko - means a thin person literally in Japanese. This is the spirit of the dead. The old look is shown with sunken cheeks, sunken eyes and a depressed open mouth.
橋姫 / Hashihime - or "Princess of the Bridge", are characters in the novel The Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari. They are the daughters of the disgraced prince
一角仙人 | Ikkaku Sennin - an immortal person, also known as the immortal Xi'an; superior; gin; wizard; jdinn; sage; hermit
景清 | Kagekiyo - Modeled after the brave Haike commander, Akushichibyu Kagekiyo, who was exiled to Miyazaki in Kyushu. He gouged out his eyes to be blind because he didn't want to see a world ruled by the opposite clan, the Genji. This is the mask of a worthy warrior.
笑尉 | Warai-jo - The name of this mask "Warai" means smile in Japanese. This mask looks like most of the common man in all Jo-masks. A gentle smile around her eyes and mouth gives a serene and peaceful atmosphere. This mask is used for an old fisherman
朝倉尉 | Asakura-jo is the mask of Lord Asakura's clan who ruled Echizen (Fukui Prefecture), or the Noh song “Asakura” in Noh play “Yashima”. This mask has prominent cheekbones and upper and lower teeth in an open mouth. These features make this mask look friendly and good-natured.
山姥 / Yamanba - Mountain witch, character, about the same as our Baba Yaga
姥 | Uba is the mask of an aged woman in Japanese. This mask has sunken cheeks, some wrinkles on her forehead and cheeks, and gray hair.
般若 | Hannya - a mask, which is a terrible grin of a jealous woman, a demon or a snake, in its direct position. However, if the mask is tilted slightly, the slanted brows give the appearance of an inconsolably sobbing face. The mask has two sharp bull horns, metallic eyes, and a half-open mouth from ear to ear. The mask depicts the soul of a woman who has turned into a demon due to possession or jealousy. The spirit of a woman abandoned by her lover for the sake of another or deceived by him comes in this form to take revenge on her rival; Hannya's distinctive and intimidating appearance makes her one of the most recognizable Noh masks.
One tradition claims that the mask is named after the artist, the monk Hannya-bo (般若坊), who is said to have perfected its appearance. Another explanation is that the perfect wisdom of the sutras and their variations was thought to be especially effective on female demons.
Hannya comes in different colors: a white mask indicates a woman of an aristocratic position (for example, the lady Rokujo in the second part of Aoi no Ue), a red mask depicts a woman from the lower classes, and a burgundy, dark red mask depicts the demons themselves who have moved into the female body .
蛇 / Jya
平方般若 / Hirakata Hannya
小獅子 | Kojishi
小飛出 | Ko-tobide - This mask is used for a god-sent spirit or ghost.
小べし見 | Ko-beshimi
釣眼 | Tsurimanako
翁 | Okina - may be a "storyteller", now a term for adult fans of an anime, manga or series that is originally aimed at children.
空吹 | Usobuki - They feed on the life force of small creatures, and often take the form of butterflies in winter and flowers in spring.
小猿 | Kozaru
不動 | Fudou
Until the 17th century, no masks were carved by the actors themselves, monks or sculptors; Since the 17th century, families have been specialized in their manufacture, passing down craftsmanship from generation to generation. Masks created before the Edo period are called hommen (本面, "original masks"), after - utsushi (写し, "copies").
Utsushi are carved according to ancient patterns from Japanese cypress or (more rarely) paulownia. Wood is used 10-12 years after felling: it is kept in water for 5-6 years, and then dried for several years. The master begins his work with sharpening tools. On the front side (closest to the core) of the source material - a bar - with horizontal lines, he marks the proportions of the face. This is followed by the konashi stage (“rough carving”): with chisels using a hammer, the master cuts out the main planes of the workpiece. In the next stage of kozukuri (“detailing”), cutters and knives of various shapes are used. Then the master, using a curved magarinomi chisel, processes the inside of the mask, smoothes the front and back sides, varnishes the inside. Next, the master proceeds to priming and painting the front side of the mask. The soil, which includes crushed seashells, is laid in 15 layers, with every third being polished with sandpaper. For painting, a mixture of fine-grained chalk and paint is used; layers are applied five times. After tinting, the mask is given an old look (the so-called koshoku): it is smoked under the smoke generated from the burning of pine chocks. Then the front side is painted in detail: eyes are drawn, lips are tinted, hair and eyebrows are drawn.
S. P. Shkolnikov
The theater has come a long and difficult path of development. The origins of the theater go back to cult rituals.
The first iconic masks
Iroquois Mask - Alien / False Face (left and right)
Ancient people believed that a person who puts on a mask receives the property of the creature that the mask depicts. Animal masks, as well as masks of spirits and the dead, were especially widespread among primitive peoples. Totemic games and dances are already an element of theatrical art. In totemic dance, attempts are made to create an artistic and aesthetic image in the dance. 
In North America, Indian totemic dances in masks, which were of a cult nature, suggested a kind of artistic costume and a decorative mask, crumbled with symbolic ornament. The dancers also made for themselves double masks of a complex device, depicting the dual nature of the totem - a man was hiding under the animal appearance. These masks, thanks to a special device, quickly opened up, and the dancers were transformed.
The further development of animal masks led to the creation of a theatrical mask, vaguely resembling a human face, with hair, beard and mustache, i.e., to the so-called anthropozoomorphic mask, and then to a mask with a purely human appearance.
Before the mask became an attribute of the classical theater, it went through a long evolution. Animal skulls during hunting dances were replaced by decorative masks, then portrait masks of funeral ceremonies appeared, which gradually turned into fantastic masks of "zoomysteries"; all this was reflected in the Mongolian "Tsam", the Javanese "Barongan" and in the Japanese theater "No".
Topeng theater masks
Topeng theater mask (left and right)
It is known that the mask theater in Indonesia, called Topeng, grew out of the cult of the dead. The word "topeng" means "tightly pressed, closely fitting", or "mask of the deceased." 
The masks that are characteristic of the Malay theater are extremely simple. They are oval wooden planks with cut holes for the eyes and mouth. On these boards, the desired image is drawn. The mask was tied with twine around the head. In some places (near the nose, eyes, chin and mouth), the wooden base of the mask was hollowed out, which gave the impression of volume.
The mask for pantomime had a special device: a loop was attached to its inner side, which the actor clamped in his teeth. In the future, as the theater developed and was transformed into a professional one, the actors began to play without a mask, richly painting their faces.
antique masks
Tragic mask of the ancient theater in Greece (left and right)
In ancient Greek classical theater, masks were borrowed from priests who used them in ritual images of the gods. At first, faces were simply painted with bunches of grape pomace, then voluminous masks became an indispensable attribute of folk entertainment, and later an essential component of the ancient Greek theater. 
Both in Greece and in Rome they played in masks with a special mouth shape, in the form of a funnel - a mouthpiece. This device strengthened the voice of the actor and made it possible for many thousands of spectators of the amphitheater to hear his speech. Antique masks were made from popular prints and plastered linen, and later from leather and wax. The mouth of the mask was usually framed in metal, and sometimes the entire mask inside was lined with copper or silver to enhance resonance. Masks were made in accordance with the character of this or that character; portrait masks were also made. In Greek and Roman masks, the eye sockets were deepened, the characteristic features of the type were emphasized by sharp strokes.
Built mask
Sometimes the masks were doubled and even tripled. Actors moved such a mask in all directions and quickly transformed into certain heroes, and sometimes into specific persons, contemporaries.
Over time, portrait masks were banned and, in order to avoid even the slightest casual resemblance to high-ranking officials (especially Macedonian kings), they began to be made ugly.
Half masks were also known, but they were very rarely used on the Greek stage. Following the mask, a wig appeared on the stage, which was attached to the mask, and then a headdress - “onkos”. A mask with a wig disproportionately increased the head, so the actors put on cothurns and increased the volume of their bodies with the help of thicknesses - “kolpoms”.
Roman actors in ancient times either did not use masks at all, or used half masks that did not cover the entire face. Only from the 1st c. BC e. they began to use Greek-type masks to enhance the sound of the voice.
Along with the development of the theatrical mask, theatrical makeup also appears. The custom of painting the body and face goes back to ritual actions in ancient China and Thailand. To intimidate the enemy, the warriors, going on a raid, put on make-up, painting their faces and bodies with vegetable and mineral paints, and in certain cases with colored ink. Then this custom passed to folk ideas.
Makeup in classical Chinese theater
Make-up in the traditional classical theater of China dates back to the 7th century. BC e. The Chinese theater is distinguished by a peculiar centuries-old theatrical culture. The system of conditional representation of the psychological state of the image in the Chinese theater was achieved through the traditional symbolic painting of masks. This or that color denoted feelings, as well as the character's belonging to a certain social group. So, red meant joy, white - mourning, black - an honest way of life, yellow - the imperial family or Buddhist monks, blue - honesty, simplicity, pink - frivolity, green was intended for maids. The combination of colors indicated various psychological combinations, shades of the hero's behavior. Asymmetric and symmetrical coloring had a certain meaning: the first was typical for the image of negative types, the second - for positive ones.
The Chinese theater also used wigs, mustaches, and beards. The latter were made from sarlych animal hair (buffalo). The beards were of five colors: black, white, yellow, red and purple. They also had a conditional character: a beard covering the mouth testified to heroism and wealth; the beard, divided into several parts, expressed sophistication and culture. The beard was made on a wire frame and attached behind the ears with hooks coming from the frame.
For make-up, harmless dry paints of all colors were used, which were diluted in water with the addition of a few drops of vegetable oil to obtain a shiny surface of the face. The general tone was applied with fingers and palms. For painting, liner lips, eyes and eyebrows, long pointed sticks were used. Each paint had its own wand, which Chinese artists worked masterfully.
Women's make-up was characterized by a bright general tone (white), on top of which cheeks and eyelids were blushed, lips were painted, eyes and eyebrows were brought up with black paint.
It is not possible to establish the number of varieties of makeup in the Chinese classical theater; according to inaccurate data, there were up to 60 of them.
Mask in the theater "No"
No Theater Mask
The performances of the Japanese theater "No", which is one of the oldest theaters in the world, can be seen today. According to the canons of the No theater, masks were assigned to one leading actor in all the two hundred canonical plays in the repertoire and formed a whole branch of art in this theater. The rest of the actors did not use masks and performed their roles without wigs and makeup.
The masks belonged to the following types: boys, youths, spirits of the dead, warriors, old men, old women, gods, girls, demons, half-animals, birds, etc.
Makeup at the Kabuki Theater
Makeup at the Kabuki theater
The classical theater of Japan "Kabuki" is one of the oldest theaters in the world. Its origin dates back to 1603. On the stage of the Kabuki theater, as in other Japanese theaters, all the roles were played by men.
Make-up in the Kabuki theater is mask-like. The makeup is symbolic. So, for example, an actor, making up for a heroic role, puts red lines on the general white tone of his face; playing the role of a villain on a white current draws blue or brown lines; playing a sorcerer on a green tone of the face applies black lines, etc.
In the Japanese theater, there are very peculiar bizarre features of wrinkles, eyebrows, lips, chin, cheeks, etc. The make-up technique and technique are the same as those of Chinese actors.
Beards are also stylized. They are distinguished by bizarre sharp broken lines and are made according to the Chinese principle.
Mystery theater
As the ritual performances turn into spectacles, performances acquire more and more specific themes, which depend on the social and political conditions of the era.
In Europe, the ancient world was replaced by the gloomy Middle Ages. The pressure of church obscurantism on all forms of public life forces the theater to turn to religious subjects. This is how the Mystery Theater appeared, which lasted for about three centuries. The actors in these theaters were townspeople-artisans, and this introduced into the performances the folk-everyday motives: the "divine" action was interrupted by cheerful interludes, clowning. Gradually, the interlude begins to crowd out the main action, which caused the church to persecute this theater. Mystery theater was especially popular in France.
During the Renaissance (from about 1545) professional theaters appeared in France. Wandering comedians united in troupes, which were acting artels.
The actors of these theaters specialized mainly in comic, farcical repertoire and therefore were called farcers. Female roles in farcical performances were performed by young men.
Teatro dell'arte
Theatreta dell'arte character: Harlequin
In the 30s of the XVI century. Teatro dell'arte appears in Italy. The performances of the Italian comedians dell'arte differed from the performances of the French actors not only in a higher level of acting technique, but also in the culture of mask and make-up design.
The first performances of dell'arte took place in Florence, and the actors played in masks. Sometimes the mask was replaced with a glued nose. Characteristically, only the performers of the roles of two old men and two servants wore masks.
Commedia dell'arte masks originated in folk carnivals. Then they gradually migrated to the stage.
Commedia dell'arte masks were made of cardboard, leather and oilcloth. Actors usually played in one, specifically established mask. The plays changed, but the masks remained the same.
Mostly comedic characters played in masks. There were also such roles for which, instead of a mask, it was supposed to be made up with flour and paint a beard, mustache and eyebrows with charcoal. According to tradition, the actors playing lovers did not perform in masks, but decorated their faces with makeup. .jpg)
Theater dell'arte character: Coviello
Figurative masks began to be assigned to certain performers who played the same role.
The masks of the commedia dell'arte were very diverse (there were more than a hundred masks in the theater of the commedia dell'arte). Some masks consisted only of a nose and forehead. They were painted black (for example, at the doctor's); the rest of the face, not covered by a mask, was made up. Other masks provided for a certain coloring of the wig, beard and mustache. Masks were used as a means to emphasize the expressiveness of the intended type. They were made of all kinds of characters and painted in relation to the types of performance. In general, the masks of the commedia dell'arte were divided into two groups: folk-comedy masks of servants (Zani); satirical masks of gentlemen (buffoon core - Pantalone, doctor, captain, Tartaglia).
In some performances of the commedia dell'arte, the actors skillfully transformed in front of the audience, replacing one mask with another.
Initially, masks, in imitation of the ancient ones, were made with an open mouth, later, in an effort to bring the masks closer to a natural face, they began to make mouths closed (the latter was also caused by the fact that in pantomimes the mouthpiece becomes unnecessary). Even later, they began to cover only half of the actor's face. This contributed to the further development of the mimic game. Commedia dell'arte has always striven for a realistic portrayal of the image, not only in the social and psychological appearance of masks, but also in speech, movement, etc.
XVII-XVIII centuries in Europe - the era of classicism. This was reflected in the restructuring of the theater. In the classical theater, makeup and wigs were the same as in everyday life. The presentations were conditional. Playing in the plays of Corneille and Racine, dedicated to ancient times, the actors outwardly continued to be people of the 17th-18th centuries. Make-up at that time was due to the whole system of life of the French court, which was imitated by the theater. This period is characterized by the dominance of flies. It was believed that flies give a languid expression to the eyes and decorate the face.
Shkolnikov S.P. Minsk: Higher School, 1969. Pp. 45-55.
