Literary trends of the 20th century table. Literary direction

15.04.2019

The works of each era have similarities in figurative and thematic structure, repetition of plot moves, the unity of artistic thinking and the closeness of worldview views inherent only to them. Hence the main literary trends were formed.

Classicism

The name is given from the word "exemplary" in Latin. As an artistic style and literary movement, it appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century and dried up by the beginning of the nineteenth. Literary trends had no wider channel than this. Characteristics:

1. Appeal to antiquity - in images and forms - as an aesthetic standard.

2. Strict canons, harmony, logic: the inviolability of construction, like the universe.

3. Rationalism without individual signs and features, in the field of view only the eternal and unshakable.

4. Hierarchy: high and low genres (tragedy and comedy).

5. Unity of place, time and action, no side distracting lines.

Prominent representatives were Corneille, Lafontaine, Racine.

Romanticism

Literary trends usually grow out of each other, or a protest wave brings something new. The second is characteristic of the emergence at the end of the eighteenth century of romanticism, one of the largest movements in the history of literature. Romanticism was born in Europe and America almost simultaneously. Characteristic features: protest against the vulgarity of bourgeois life, for the poetry of everyday life and against prose, disappointment in the fruits of civilization. Cosmic pessimism and world sorrow. Confrontation between the individual and society, individualism. Separation of the real and ideal worlds, opposition. The romantic hero is highly spiritual, inspired and illuminated by the desire for the ideal. A new phenomenon appears in literature: local color, fairy tales, legends, beliefs flourish, the elements of nature are sung. The action often takes place in the most exotic places. Representatives: Byron, Keats, Schiller, Dumas père, Hugo, Lermontov, partly - Gogol.

Sentimentalism

In translation - "sensual". Literary trends consist of more or less noticeable currents. Sentimentalism is the essence of the current in line with pre-romanticism. It existed in Europe and America in the second half of the eighteenth century, ended by the middle of the nineteenth century. Not reason, but feeling extolled sentimentalism, not recognizing any rationalism, even enlightenment. Natural feeling and democracy are characteristic. For the first time there is an interest in the inner world of ordinary people. Unlike romanticism, sentimentalism rejected the irrational, it does not contain inconsistency, impulsiveness, impetuosity, inaccessible to rationalistic interpretation. He was strong in Russia and somewhat different from the Western one: the rational was nevertheless expressed quite clearly, moralizing and enlightening tendencies were present, the Russian language was improved and enriched through the use of vernacular. Favorite genres: message, epistolary novel, diaries - everything that helps confession. Representatives: Rousseau, young Goethe, Karamzin.

Naturalism

The literary currents that existed in Europe and North America during the last third of the nineteenth century include naturalism in their course. Characteristic features: objectivity, accurate depiction of the details and realities of human nature. Artistic and scientific knowledge were not separated in the methods of approach. Artistic text as a human document: the implementation of the act of cognition. Reality is a good teacher and without moralizing, there can be no bad plots and themes for a writer. Hence, in the works of naturalists, there are quite a lot of purely literary shortcomings, such as plotlessness, indifference to public interests. Representatives: Zola, Maupassant, Dode, Dreiser, Norris, London, from Russians - Boborykin, in some works - Kuprin, Bunin, Veresaev.

Realism

Eternal. Born at the end of the nineteenth century, alive to this day. In priorities: the truth of life as the truth of literature. Images correspond to the essence of phenomena, literature as a means of knowing both oneself and the world around. Typification of characters through attention to detail. Life-affirming beginning, reality in the development of new phenomena, relationships, psychological types. Representatives: Balzac, Stendhal, Twain, Dickens. Russians - almost all: Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Tolstoy, Shukshin and so on.

Literary trends and currents not considered in the article, but having great representatives: symbolism - Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, Rilke, Bryusov, Blok, Vyach. Ivanov; acmeism - Gumilyov, Gorodetsky, Mandelstam, Akhmatova, G. Ivanov; futurism - Mayakovsky, Khlebnikov, Burliuk, Severyanin, Shershenevich, Pasternak, Aseev; imagism - Yesenin, Klyuev.

2) Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion for the human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at approximately the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterbalance to the harsh classical theory that prevailed at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of the spiritual qualities of a person, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention, regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs

England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the environment, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P.K. de Chamblain de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. W. Goethe, J. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Lisa” by N.I. Karamzin.

3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterweight to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated a departure from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it the bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure, the spiritual devastation of the individual was going on. Romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics were disappointed in the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly seen in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the entire work the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, and E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the work of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, E. P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
fantasy story

Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of ​​duality is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. Realism lacks this concept. The idea of ​​duality has two modifications:
escape to the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.

Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in a lyrical tone;
aesthetic purposefulness towards an unattainable ideal.

Psychological parallelism - the identity of the internal state of the hero to the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
ultimate expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
abundance of characters.

Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; romantics denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values ​​(home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.


4) Realism
Realism is a literary trend that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of the facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers put their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around influences the personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation", which is close to him in meaning. Realism then saw a resurgence during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the content motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.

Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who could fight with circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of the characters. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.

In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, while the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.

5) Modernism

Modernism is a collection of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. as a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared divergence from the theory and practice of realism;
orientation to an individual, not a social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, and not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form over content.
The major currents of modernism were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, the impression that some object or phenomenon has on the author is important, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed familiar images and words with mystical meaning. Art Nouveau promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially brightly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of the personality).

In literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imaginism.

The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, the Russian poets N. Gumilyov, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, the English writer O. Wilde, the American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.

6) Naturalism

Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. 19th century and especially widely deployed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical justification of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, which develops into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, to a high level of technology and increased exploitation, and on the other hand, to the growth of self-consciousness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific character, objectivity, apoliticality in the name of "universal truth". Literature must stand at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on that science which does not negate the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, which gives advantages to one over the other), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a series of reforms to be carried out in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers as naturalists. Zola attributed the French realists to the immediate predecessors of naturalism: O. Balzac and Stendhal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theoretician understood this trend. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was joined for a time by writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not the artistic method, but the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only a partial recognition of the set of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. So did the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belshe and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism began. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of the processes of capitalization creates more and more cadres of intelligentsia, who by no means always find a use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science penetrates into their midst. Gradually, hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are shattered.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is entirely a transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the German people" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. It usually centers on some problem, social or physiological, around which facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Shlyaf. Their basic principles are outlined in Goltz's pamphlet Art, where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes nature according to the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is occupied by a story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also replaced by a drama and a poem, which French naturalists treated extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptman, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies intensively developed action, gives only a catastrophe and fixation of the characters' experiences ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism has not received any development. The early works of F.I. Panferov and M.A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.

7) natural school

Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an epoch of ever more acute contradictions between the feudal system and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The very term "natural school" appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school, in the extended use of the term as it was used in the 1940s, does not denote a single direction, but is a concept to a large extent conditional. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers in terms of their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
The most common features on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school were the following: socially significant topics that captured a wider circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "low" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic expressions, who fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the "truth", and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school addresses itself not to ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude towards reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: it is to N. V. Gogol - the author of "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", "The Overcoat" - as the ancestor, the natural school was erected by V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers who belong to the natural school experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N.V. Gogol's work. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as C. Dickens, O. Balzac, and George Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of the nobility's reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor estate. Representatives of this current of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 1940s, infringed, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and, on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor people", "Double" and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "raznochintsy", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the most clear expression of the tendencies that contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) associated with the name of the natural school and opposed noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Tangled Case”) should be attributed to the same group.

8) Constructivism

Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was later adopted by functionalists and functionalist-constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), highlights the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art. and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the basic thesis of constructivism. So, in France and Holland, constructivism expressed itself in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), Corbusier's aestheticizing formalism (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, and I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal trend, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin departed from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class", in the construction of socialist culture. From here arises the constructivist attitude to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: "The intelligentsia in the revolution and construction." With particular attention to the image of an intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), the constructivists, first of all, put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific gravity and significance under construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is opposed by the incompetent communist Krol, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article by the main theorist of constructivism Kornely Zelinsky "Constructivism and socialism", where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era in transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being lived through. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period are replaced by Zelinsky by the struggle of man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous propositions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that nourishes constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the greatest poet of constructivism) of the first period, an image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly found.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and instead of it, the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), whose task is the gradual transition of writers-fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning former mistakes of constructivism, although retaining its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag progress of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here too. Selvinsky's poem "Declaration of the Poet's Rights" testifies to this. This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved its tasks.

9)Postmodernism

Postmodernism literally means "that which follows modernism" in German. This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information richness of modernity.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective story, a thriller, a fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to the elite reader and to the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for their own works (a large number of quotations, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodernist works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism of mass culture. Postmodernism tries to blur the line between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented, and they only had to play with words, take ready-made (sometimes already invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it means a juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Yu. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly emerging text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotations. Quotational thinking is characteristic of modernism.
Intertextuality- the presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architextuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurry form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
take the hero into the shadow: the hero is not brought to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.

The prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barthes, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, J. Cortazar, M. Pavic, J. Joyce and others.

Literary trends and currents: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism)

Classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic trend in European art at the turn of the 17th-18th - early 19th century, formed in France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyaznin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique. In addition, the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of the mind and that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis) had a huge influence on the formation of classicism.

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creativity as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even Shakespeare's best plays were classified as "wrong". This was due to the fact that Shakespeare's characters combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny episodes into tragedy. In the high genres, “exemplary” heroes were depicted - monarchs, “commanders who could serve as an example to follow. In the low genres, characters were depicted covered by some kind of “passion”, that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Unity of place: classicist dramaturgy did not allow a change of scene, that is, during the entire play, the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not have exceeded several hours, or at least one day. Unity of action implies the presence of only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: "Try to measure my hours in the game for hours, so that I, forgetting, could believe you."

So, the characteristic features of literary classicism:

The purity of the genre (in the high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in the low genres, tragic and sublime ones);

- purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

- observance of the rule of "three unities";

- positive values ​​and the state ideal should be affirmed in the work.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not a person) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society. Russian classicists, inspired by the reforms of Peter the Great, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which seemed to them a rationally arranged organism. Sumarokov: "Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science." The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time lend themselves to education.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment

Feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his ability to deep feelings. Hence - the interest in the inner world of the hero, the image of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. They opposed the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the "natural", "natural" man, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity is also at the basis of the creative method of sentimentalism. If the classicists created generalized characters (a hypocrite, a braggart, a miser, a fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with an individual destiny. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The carriers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, raznochintsy, rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, higher spiritual ranks (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity in the works of sentimentalists often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicides).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of a commoner (the image of Liza in Karamzin's story "Poor Liza"). The main character of the works was an ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. The new content required a new form. The leading genres were the family novel, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, message.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism is an artistic trend in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for the emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism), the Great French Revolution, and German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary trend, as well as any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literatures. The French Revolution of 1789-1899 and the reassessment of the educational ideology associated with it had a decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe. As you know, the 18th century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a whole century, French enlighteners led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural (natural) equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: “Liberty, equality and fraternity. The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (it used to belong to the aristocracy, the highest nobility), while the rest were left "with nothing". Thus, the long-awaited "kingdom of reason" turned out to be an illusion, as well as the promised freedom, equality and fraternity. There was a general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, a deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because the basis of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge impact on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, so the French Revolution also shook Russia. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which clearly showed the greatness and strength of the common people. It was to the people that Russia owed its victory over Napoleon; the people were the true heroes of the war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What was previously perceived by the progressive people of that time as injustice, now began to seem like a flagrant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not abolish serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. Thus, the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term "romanticism" in relation to the literary movement is accidental and inaccurate. In this regard, from the very beginning of its inception, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word "roman", others - from knightly poetry created in countries that speak Romance languages. For the first time, the word "romanticism" as the name of a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

Very important for understanding the essence of romanticism is the concept of romantic duality.. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the outside world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” are antithesis (contrast), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised "here" is a modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. “There” is a kind of poetic reality that the romantics opposed to reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, ousted from public life, were still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of man, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their "there". For example, Zhukovsky was looking for "there" in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in the free life of uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", Cooper's novels about the life of Indians).

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. This is a fundamentally new hero, like him did not know the old literature. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual, restless person, most often lonely and with a tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism(from the Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative setting) or a literary movement that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge of man and the world. Often the term "realism" is used in two senses: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a trend that emerged in the 19th century. Both classicism, and romanticism, and symbolism strive for the knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by the rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, and not display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, referring to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself in this way: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling to portray him the way I would like to see. Thus, we can say that the realists represent the real, and the romantics - the desired.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is enlightenment realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man "from the bottom" (for example, Figaro in Beaumarchais's plays "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro"). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: "fantastic" (Gogol, Dostoevsky), "grotesque" (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and "critical" realism associated with the activities of the "natural school".

The main requirements of realism: observance of the principles of nationality, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, the image of life in its development. Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, religious ideas of the heroes on social conditions, and paid much attention to the social aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between plausibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible depiction of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The credibility of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of "little man" (Vyrin, Bashmachki n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of "extra person" (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

Modernism(from the French modern - the latest, modern) - a philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

This term has various interpretations:

1) designates a number of non-realistic trends in art and literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imaginism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;

2) is used as a symbol for the aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic trends;

3) denotes a complex set of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist trends proper, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism- a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s in the poetic works of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarme. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and dramaturgy, but also with other forms of art. The French writer C. Baudelaire is considered the ancestor, founder, "father" of symbolism.

At the heart of the worldview of symbolist artists is the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of a person and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only "tool" for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not to depict the real world, which they considered secondary, but to convey a "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, the true essence of things is revealed. The Symbolists developed a new poetic language that does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, color scheme, free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of the modernist movements that arose in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature”, published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the "new art": mystical content, symbolization and "expansion of artistic impressionability."

Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or currents:

1) "senior" symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub

and others), who debuted in the 1890s;

2) "younger" symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the "senior" and "junior" symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in attitudes and the direction of creativity.

The Symbolists believed that art is, first of all, “comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways” (Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality operates only in the lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The Symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​"absolute ideas" in Plato's terms or "world soul", according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and the images-symbols with their infinite ambiguity are able to reflect the entire complexity of the world universe. The Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, higher reality is given only to the elect, who, in moments of inspired insights, are able to comprehend the “higher” truth, absolute truth.

The image-symbol was considered by the symbolists as more effective than an artistic image, a tool that helps to “break through” through the cover of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. The symbol differs from the realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of the phenomenon, but the poet's own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, the symbol, as the Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, an image that requires the reader to respond creatively. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution produced by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings. This trait of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov); “A symbol is a window to infinity” (F. Sologub).

Acmeism(from the Greek act - the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov. The aesthetic program was formulated in Gumilyov's articles "The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism", Gorodetsky's "Some Currents in Modern Russian Poetry" and Mandelstam's "Morning of Acmeism".

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations for the “unknowable”: “Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable similarities with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word. Symbolism is based on the rejection of reality, and the acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of accurate and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

Actually, the acmeist current was small, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the "Workshop of Poets". The "Workshop of Poets" was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (not all of them later became involved in acmeism). This organization was much more cohesive than the disparate symbolist groups. At the meetings of the "Workshop" poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, and methods for analyzing works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself did not enter the "Workshop". In his article “On Beautiful Clarity”, Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of acmeism appeared. From this moment, the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed “beautiful clarity” as the task of literature, or clarism (from Latin clarus - clear). Acmeists called their current Adamism, linking the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world with the biblical Adam. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects, declare their love for objectivity. So, Gumilyov urged to look not for “unsteady words”, but for words “with a more stable content”. This principle was most consistently realized in Akhmatova's lyrics.

Futurism- one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which was most developed in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the Futurist Manifesto. The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. As the main elements of futuristic poetry, Marinetti calls "courage, audacity, rebellion." In 1912, the Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste". They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experiments, sought to find new means of speech expressiveness (proclaiming a new free rhythm, loosening syntax, destroying punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“what is important is not what, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous direction. Within its framework, four main groups or currents can be distinguished:

1) "Hilea", which united cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Krucheny

2) "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);

3) "Mezzanine of poetry" (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);

4) "Centrifuge" (S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was the "Gilea": in fact, it was she who determined the face of Russian futurism. Its participants released many collections: "The Garden of Judges" (1910), "Slap in the Face of Public Taste" (1912), "Dead Moon * (1913)," Took "(1915).

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the Futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which through the creative will of man creates "a new world, today's, iron ..." (Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Based on a living colloquial language, the futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of the main features of creativity, formed and repeated in a certain historical period in the development of art.

At the same time, the features of this trend can be traced in the authors who worked in the eras that preceded the formation of the trend itself (features of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"), as well as in subsequent eras (features of romanticism in Gorky).

There are four main literary directions:CLASSICISM, ROMANTISM, REALISM, MODERNISM.

LITERARY TREND- finer division compared to the direction; currents either represent ramifications of one direction (German romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise during the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).

MAIN LITERARY TRENDS (METHODS) AND TRENDS

1. CLASSICISM

The main literary movement in Russia in the 18th century.

Main features

  1. Imitation of samples of ancient culture.
  2. Strict rules for the construction of works of art. Chapter II. Literary trends (methods) and currents 9
  3. Strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
  4. Rigid boundaries between genera and genres.
  5. Creation of an ideal scheme of social life and ideal images of members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).

The main genres in poetry

Ode, satire, historical poem.

The main rules for constructing dramatic works

  1. The rule of "three unities": place, time, action.
  2. Division into positive and negative characters.
  3. The presence of a reasoning hero (a character expressing the author's position).
  4. Traditional roles: reasoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingenue, soubrette, deceived father, etc.
  5. Traditional denouement: the triumph of virtue and the punishment of vice.
  6. Five actions.
  7. Speaking names.
  8. Long moralizing monologues.

Main Representatives

Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; fabulist Lafontaine; poet Parny (France).

Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (the comedies Brigadier, 1769 and Undergrowth, 1782).

Traditions of classicism in the literature of the nineteenth century

Krylov . Genre traditions of classicism in fables.

Griboyedov . Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

The main literary trend in Russia in the 1st third of the 19th century.

Main features

  1. Creation of an ideal world of dreams, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
  2. In the center of the image is the human personality, its inner world, its relation to the surrounding reality.
  3. The portrayal of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
  4. Rejection of all the rules of classicism.
  5. The use of fantasy, symbolism, the absence of everyday and historical motivations.

Main genres

Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.

The main genres in Russian poetry

Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.

Main Representatives

Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).

Russia - Zhukovsky.

The Traditions of Romanticism in the Literature of the 19th-20th Centuries

Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sophia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sofia's dream) in the comedy Woe from Wit.

Pushkin . Romantic period of creativity (1813-1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and reasoning about romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel "Dubrovsky".

Lermontov . Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in the poems of the mature period (1837-1841); romantic motives in the poems "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov", "Mtsyri", "Demon", in the novel "A Hero of Our Time"; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "Death of the Poet".

The main literary trend of the 2nd half of the 19th-20th centuries.

Main features

  1. Creation of typical (regular) characters.
  2. These characters act in a typical everyday and historical setting.
  3. Life-like plausibility, fidelity to details (combined with conditional forms of artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).

In Russia, the formation of realism begins in the 1820s:

Krylov. Fables.

Griboyedov . Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822-1824).

Pushkin . Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem "Copper rider" (1833), the story "The Captain's Daughter" (1833-1836); late lyrics.

Lermontov . The period of mature creativity (1837-1841): the novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1839-1841), late lyrics.

Gogol . "Petersburg Tales" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), the comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), the poem "Dead Souls" (1st volume: 1835-1842).

Tyutchev, Fet . Features of realism in lyrics.

In 1839-1847, Russian realism formed into a special literary trend, called the "natural school" or "Gogol's trend". The natural school became the first stage in the development of a new trend in realism - Russian critical realism.

Program works of writers of critical realism

Prose

Goncharov . The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).

Turgenev . The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).

Dostoevsky . The novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).

Lev Tolstoy . The epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).

Saltykov-Shchedrin . "History of a city" (1869-1870), "Tales" (1869-1886).

Leskov . The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).

Dramaturgy

Ostrovsky . Drama "Thunderstorm" (1859), comedy "Forest" (1870).

Poetry

Nekrasov . Lyrics, poems "Peasant Children" (1861), "Who Lives Well in Rus'" (1863-1877).

The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century:

Chekhov . The stories "The Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberries", "About Love" , "Darling" (all 1898), "The Lady with the Dog" (1899), the comedy "The Cherry Orchard" (1904).

Bitter . The essay "Former People" (1897), the story "Ice Drift" (1912), the play "At the Bottom" (1902).

Bunin . The stories "Anton's Apples" (1900), "The Gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).

Kuprin . The stories "Olesya" (1898), "Garnet Bracelet" (1910).

After the October Revolution, the term "socialist realism" appears. However, the work of the best writers of the post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this trend and retains the traditional features of Russian realism:

Sholokhov . The novel "Quiet Flows the Don" (1925-1940), the story "The Fate of a Man" (1956).

Bulgakov . The story "The Heart of a Dog" (1925), the novels "The White Guard" (1922-1924), "The Master and Margarita" (1929-1940), the play "Days of the Turbins" (1925-1926).

Zamyatin . The dystopian novel "We" (1929).

Platonov . The story "Pit" (1930).

Tvardovsky . Poems, poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).

Parsnip . Late lyrics, novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945-1955).

Solzhenitsyn . The story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", the story "Matryona Dvor" (1959).

Shalamov . Cycle "Kolyma stories" (1954--1973).

Astafiev . The story "The Shepherd and the Shepherdess" (1967-1989).

Trifonov . The story "The Old Man" (1978).

Shukshin. Stories.

Rasputin . The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).

5. MODERNISM

Modernism - a literary trend that unites various trends in the art of the late 19th-20th centuries, which were engaged in experiments with the form of works of art (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-gardism, abstractionism, etc.).

IMAGINISM (imago - image) - a literary trend in Russian poetry of І919-1925, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is a metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the current is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. Fame for the Imagist group was brought by Sergei Yesenin, who was a member of it.

POSTMODERNISM - various trends in the art of the 2nd half of the 20th - early 21st centuries (conceptualism, pop art, social art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which put the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels at the forefront. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.


Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

The main features of literary movements :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in certain genres;

· are distinguished by the style of artistic speech;

· put forward certain vital and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

A trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on samples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national-patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Petrine era.

Distinctive features:

· the significance of themes and plots;

· violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· contrived images, schematic characters;

· edification of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· the use of a language little understood by the common people;

· appeal to lofty heroic moral ideals;

· nationwide, civic orientation;

· the establishment of a hierarchy of genres: "high" (odes and tragedies), "medium" (elegies, historical writings, friendly letters) and "low" (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of the "three unities": time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille - the tragedy "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna";

· J. Racine - the tragedy "Phaedra", "Midridat";

· Voltaire - the tragedy "Brutus", "Tancred";

· Molière - comedies "Tartuffe", "The tradesman in the nobility";

· N. Boileau - a treatise in verse "Poetic Art";

· J. Lafontaine - "Fables".

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - the poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747";

· G. Derzhavin - ode to "Felitsa";

· A. Sumarokov - the tragedy "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor";

· Y. Knyazhnin - the tragedy "Dido", "Rosslav";

· D. Fonvizin - comedies "Foreman", "Undergrowth".

Sentimentalism

Direction in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant "human nature" was not reason, but feeling, and he sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings.

Distinctive features:

· disclosure of human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed the highest value;

· interest in the common man, in the world of his feelings, in nature, in everyday life;

· idealization of reality, subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (the narrator is the author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Representatives of sentimentalism

· S. Richardson - the novel "Clarissa Harlow";

· - the novel "Julia, or New Eloise";

· - the novel "The suffering of young Werther".

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - the story "Poor Lisa" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, "Bornholm Island";

· I. Bogdanovich - the poem "Darling";

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers attribute his work to sentimentalism, it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).

Romanticism

A trend in art and literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist's desire to oppose reality and dream.

Distinctive features:

· unusual, exotic in the depiction of events, landscape, people;

· rejection of the prosaic nature of real life; expression of the worldview, which is characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, the cult of freedom;

· striving for the ideal, perfection;

· strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;

· the image of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in the mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", "Corsair";

· - drama "Egmont";

· I. Schiller - dramas "Robbers", "Cunning and Love";

· E. Hoffman - fantastic story "The Golden Pot"; fairy tales "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of Fleas";

· P. Merimee - short story "Carmen";

· V. Hugo - historical novel "Notre Dame Cathedral";

· W. Scott - historical novel "Ivanhoe".

Russian literature



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