Literary terminology. Preparation for the Unified State Examination and the OGE (literary terms)

Brief Dictionary of Literary Terms

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"A Brief Dictionary of Literary Terms / A Handbook for Secondary School Students": "UCHPEDGIZ"; Moscow; 1963

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“The Dictionary includes about 500 terms, covering basically the minimum range of theoretical concepts that high school students can meet and which, in their totality, constitute a well-known cycle of knowledge on literary theory.

The authors of the "Dictionary" sought to present theoretical concepts concisely and, as far as possible, accessible to students, provide them with examples, give them a certain assessment, and connect them with questions that arise in the study of modern Soviet literature. Using the "Dictionary" with the help of a teacher, students can expand the range of their theoretical knowledge.

L. I. Timofeev and N. Vengrov

A BRIEF GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS

Aid for secondary school students

FROM THE AUTHORS

“Without a theory of an object, there is no history of it.” These words of N. G. Chernyshevsky are directly related to the science of literature. All the wealth - cognitive and educational, which contains the fiction studied at school, can be fully assimilated only when the student has a certain level of culture for the perception of a literary work: an understanding of what constitutes artistic and literary creativity; what are its main features, its social significance; how a literary work is built and how it should be analyzed; how the literary process develops.

Only under such conditions will a work of art and literature be fully perceived by students.

Obviously, the significance of such a theoretical basis for the perception of fiction for the school, which not only provides students with a certain minimum of historical and literary knowledge, but, perhaps, this is the main thing, prepares them for independent perception of literature outside the school walls. It will be fruitful precisely when the school graduates a student with a developed artistic taste and knowledge that allows him to deeply understand fiction.

Meanwhile, at the present time our school has neither a course in the theory of literature nor the necessary textbook. The minimum literary and theoretical knowledge with which a student leaves school must be decisively increased.

The task of the Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms offered to the reader's attention is to fill this gap to a certain extent. It is clear that the dictionary in no way replaces course in literary theory, since he cannot give systems concepts, their relationship, their methodological understanding.

He should only expand the range of theoretical concepts of students, help them understand with the help of a teacher in terms that they encounter in critical articles and literary works, arouse their interest in questions of literary theory.

The "Dictionary" includes about 500 terms, covering basically the minimum range of theoretical concepts that high school students can meet and which, in their totality, constitute a well-known cycle of knowledge on literary theory.

The authors of the "Dictionary" sought to present theoretical concepts concisely and, as far as possible, accessible to students, provide them with examples, give them a certain assessment, and connect them with questions that arise in the study of modern Soviet literature. Using the "Dictionary" with the help of a teacher, students can expand the range of their theoretical knowledge.

Given the saturation of works on literary theory with foreign terminology, the authors tried either to explain the term, its meaning and origin, or to find unambiguous Russian terms; foreign terms (with a reference to their Russian designation) are left so that the reader, having encountered them in the literature, could find them in the Dictionary.

When reworking and supplementing the Dictionary, critical remarks and wishes expressed in reviews about it were taken into account. Add-ons belong P. F. Roshchin.

A

Abbreviation(from lat. brevis - short) - abbreviated words in writing, colloquial speech, works of art.

For example, V. Mayakovsky:

Appearing

V Tse Ka Ka

light years

over the gang

poetic

rvachey and burnout,

I will raise

like a Bolshevik membership card,

all one hundred volumes

party books.

("In a loud voice".)

Tse Ka Ka (CCC)- instead of Central Control Commission; membership card- instead of party card.
Paragraph(from German Absatz) - part of the text from one indent, red line, to the next. For example, two paragraph in the story of L. N. Tolstoy "Bone":
Vanya turned pale and said:

"No, I threw the bone out the window."

And everyone laughed, and Vanya began to cry.
Autobiography(from gr. 1 autos - myself, bios - life, graphō - I write) - a description of one's life by a person. In fiction autobiography called a work in which the writer describes his life.

Such autobiography is, for example, the work of V. V. Mayakovsky "I myself".

autobiographical call works of art in which the author used events from his personal life as material (for example, autobiographical stories by A. M. Gorky "Childhood", "In People", "My Universities").
Autograph(from Gr. autos - myself, graphō - I am writing) - a manuscript of a work written by the author himself, a letter, an inscription on a book, etc. Autographed also called the author's handwritten signature.

autographs great people (statesmen, scientists, writers) are carefully collected, studied and stored in scientific institutes, museums, state archival repositories.

Thus, at the Institute of Marxism-Leninism under the Central Committee of the CPSU, they collect, study and store autographs Marx, Engels, Lenin and publish the works of the classics of Marxism, verified with autographs.

autographs A. S. Pushkin are collected, studied and stored at the Institute of Russian Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; autographs A. M. Gorky - in the archive of A. M. Gorky at the Institute of World Literature named after A. M. Gorky of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Author's speech(from lat. au (c) tor - creator) - words that the author directly, from himself, characterizes his heroes, evaluates their actions, describes events, conditions, landscape.

Sometimes author's speech in the work is not connected with the characters and events of the narrative. Such copyright, or, otherwise, lyric, digressions the author expresses his thoughts, reports his feelings, explaining and supplementing his narrative.

Author's speech in the form of such lyrical digressions, full of deep feeling and thought, we meet with N. V. Gogol, for example, in his work “Dead Souls”: reflections on the appointment and fate of the writer (“Happy is the writer ...”), about the fate of Russia (“Not so Are you, Rus…”), etc. Known digressions in the novel by A. A. Fadeev "The Young Guard" with the author's reflections on the childhood of the "boy with an eagle heart", on friendship, on mother's hands, etc.

Thanks to author's speech the reader, along with the characters of the work, also imagines the image of the author, the narrator (see), which sometimes, as for example in Dead Souls, complements other images of the work, helps to better understand its content.

Adapted edition(from lat. adapto - adapt) - an abridged edition of a literary work. Adaptation literary text requires a deep insight into its meaning and features of the artistic skill (see) of the author, otherwise it can lead to an undesirable distortion of the content of the work and weaken its aesthetic impact on the reader. More often adapts literature for children, mainly by foreign authors. Such is, for example, adapted edition for children, books by the English writer Daniel Defoe "Robinson Crusoe",
Aitys- song contest of akyns (see) in oral Kazakh folk poetry, poetic tournament.
Acmeism(from Gr. akmē - peak) - a trend in Russian poetry that arose in Russia shortly before the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Acmeism, like symbolism (see), it was a phenomenon of noble-bourgeois culture in the era of its decay and decline, but unlike symbolism, it abandoned mysticism and strove for a concrete image of the material and natural world, simple human feelings, etc. However, extreme individualism Acmeism led to the fact that the poetic world of its representatives was very poor and limited, far from real life.

Speaking in their literary manifestos against symbolism (see), the acmeists were, like the symbolists, adherents of the theory of "art for art's sake" (see). Their individualistic creativity was also far from social life, alien and hostile to the people.

After the Great October Socialist Revolution, the group acmeists broke up.
Acrostic(from Gr. akrostichon - extreme line) - a poem in which the initial letters of the lines form the name or surname of a person, a word or a whole phrase. For example:
L azure day

At gas, faded.

H eye shadow

A X! hid us.
From the first letters of the poetic lines, the word is formed moon. This is how poetic riddles are sometimes written - the solution is in the first letters of the verses. Acrostic sometimes represents a dedication of a work to a person.
Act(from lat. actus - act, action) - in dramatic works and performances, the finished part of the work, a separate action of a drama or comedy.

They say: "four-act play", "three-act drama", etc.

accent verse(from lat. accentus - stress) or Tonic versification(from Gr. tonos - stress) - a system of versification based on a more or less equal number of rhythmic stresses in poetic lines, regardless of the number of syllables in a line and the number of unstressed syllables between stresses. This accent versification differs from other systems of versification based either on the same number of syllables in a verse (syllabic versification, see), or on the same arrangement and number of stressed and unstressed syllables in the feet that form a verse (syllabic-tonic versification, see).
Armyă prŏlӗtaryav, 2

get up, slender!

Hello,

joyfully and quickly!

This is the unity

vӗlikӑyă war

iz all,

who knew history.

(V. V. Mayakovsky, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin)

The rhythm of the verse, its regularity, is determined here only by the stresses; between stresses, as it is easy to count, then one, then two, then four unstressed syllables, but in each line there are four stresses.

If most lines have the same number of stresses accent(or tonic) poem allows fewer or more of them in separate lines, and sometimes gives a stable alternation of lines with a different number of stresses, for example, in V. V. Mayakovsky’s poem “Marxism is a weapon, a firearm method” (4–3-4-3).
Akyn- People's poet-singer of the Kazakh people. My poems akyns they read in a singsong voice to the sounds of a stringed instrument - dombra.

Outstanding akyn was Dzhambul Dzhabaev (1846–1945).

Alexandrian verse - in Russian poetry, a couplet of iambic six-foot (see) with a caesura (see) after the third foot. The poems are connected by an adjacent rhyme.

Such couplets were written in the XII century. French poem about Alexander the Great. Hence the name - Alexandrian verse.

Russian poets, including A. S. Pushkin, more than once turned to Alexandrian verse:
The gloomy watchman of the muses, || my old persecutor, 3

Today to reason || I thought with you.

Don't be afraid: I don't want to, || deceived by a false thought,

To vilify censorship || blasphemous careless...

(A. S. Pushkin, Message to the censor.)

Alcaic- cm. Antique versification.
Allegory(from gr. allegoria - allegory) - one of the types of tropes (see) - an allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon of reality with the help of a specific life image. The features and signs of this image, corresponding to the main features of the allegorically depicted concept or phenomenon, cause the idea about it that the writer wants to create.

So, justice allegorically depicted in the image of a woman with a blindfold and scales in her hands; allegory of hope- anchor; allegory of freedom- broken chains, etc. On the badges and appeals of hundreds of millions of working people fighting for peace, a white dove is depicted - allegory of world peace.

Allegory often used in fables and fairy tales, where cunning is allegorically depicted in the form of a fox, greed - in the guise of a wolf, deceit - in the form of a snake, etc.
Alliteration(from Latin ad - to, with lit(t)era - letter) - repetition in poetry or - less often - in prose of the same, consonant consonant sounds to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. Alliteration emphasizes the sound of individual words, highlighting them and giving them a particularly expressive meaning.
Not V A V Zdu V ala and re V ate,

TO from l ohm class O To eye and class having killed...
(A. S. Pushkin, Bronze Horseman.)

Alliteration, when it does not serve a specific expressive purpose, it leads to an empty, meaningless play of sounds, for example, in the symbolist poet:
H each h aram h black h eln…
Almanac(from Arabic al mana - time, measure) - so in the XIV-XV centuries. collections of calendar tables with astronomical calculations were called; later, from the 16th century, they were published annually, supplemented with various reference information, short stories, poems, jokes, etc.

Subsequently almanac began to be called a collection of literary and artistic works of various contents.

From Russian old almanacs known literary and artistic collection "Polar Star", published in 1823-1825. Decembrist writers A. A. Bestuzhev and K. F. Ryleev; in that almanac A. S. Pushkin, A. S. Griboyedov, V. A. Zhukovsky, I. A. Krylov and other prominent writers of that time took part.

On the initiative of A. M. Gorky, under the Soviet regime, they began to publish almanac, which was named after the current year of the Great October Socialist Revolution: "Year XXXI", "Year XXXIV". Later, this almanac began to bear the name "Literary Contemporary".

Amphibrachius(from Gr. amphibrachys - short on both sides) - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabo-tonic versification (see), in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed between two unstressed ones (ᴗ′ᴗ).

amphibrach- foot in which a long syllable is enclosed between two short ones (ᴗ-ᴗ).

Example amphibrach in Russian verse:
Last night | I'm cloudy | rӑssey̆n|nŏy storm!

One yoŭ | nӗshёshsyă | clearer | lazury.

(A. S. Pushkin, Cloud)

Scheme amphibrach:

Amphimacre- see Antique versification.
allusion(from lat. allusio - a hint) - a stylistic figure (see), consisting in the use of a catchphrase as a hint at the essence of a particular fact. For example, a victory that came at the cost of great sacrifices is usually referred to as a “Pyrrhic victory” (“One more such victory, and I will be left without an army” - this is how the Epirus commander Pyrrhus assessed one of his victories over the Romans in 279 BC) .

Such is the stylistic role in speech and in a literary work of such well-known expressions as “I came, I saw, I conquered”, “What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say!” and so on.

amphibolia(from gr. amphibolia - ambiguity) - intentional or involuntarily admitted ambiguity, ambiguity of expression.

For example: " Mother(and not the father) loves the daughter" and "The mother loves daughter(and not son).

Anacreontic poetry- a type of ancient lyric poetry: poems-songs in which a cheerful, carefree life, feasts, wine, love were sung. This type of lyric poetry got its name from the name of the ancient Greek poet Anacreon (or Anacreon), the author of drinking songs, who lived in the 6th century. BC e. Fragments of his poems and a collection of poems of that time, written in the spirit of Anacreon, have come down to us. In the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries anacreontic verses often met in both Western and Russian poetry; they were written by M. V. Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin, K. N. Batyushkov and other poets.

In his youth, A. S. Pushkin wrote and translated several anacreontic poems- "Phial of Anacreon", "Coffin of Anacreon", etc.

Anapaest(from Gr. anapaistos; ana - back and paio - beat, chop, beaten back) - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabo-tonic versification (see), in which the stress falls on the third, last syllable (ᴗᴗ′).

In ancient versification (see) anapaest- foot, in which the first two syllables are short, the last one is long (ᴗᴗ-).

Examples anapesta in Russian verse:
Here is the next journey. | On the occasional | stvennnym days,

Ŏdӗrzhi|my̆y hŏlo|pskym nӗdu|gŏm…

(N. A. Nekrasov, Reflections at the front door

Scheme anapesta:

Anaphora(from gr. anaphora - bringing up) - see Monogamy.
Anachronism(from gr. ana - back and chronos - time) - deviation from historical accuracy in the depiction of any era, consisting in the fact that historical figures who lived in another time are displayed as actors of one era in the work; the heroes of the work use words or use concepts unknown in the depicted era; the life and situation characteristic of another historical period are described, etc. For example, in some epics, the heroes go to drink wine "in the tsar's tavern" - in those days there were no kings.

Anachronism also called a relic of antiquity, an outdated view, an obsolete custom.
Joke(from gr. anekdotos - unpublished) - a short story about a funny incident, a funny incident.

anecdotes for the first time called the "Secret History" of the Byzantine historian Procopius (VI century AD), which described cases from the personal life of Emperor Justinian and his courtiers. anecdote or anecdotal story they call a story or an episode in a work built on funny accidents. Such, for example, is one of the early stories of A.P. Chekhov "Horse Surname".
Annals(from lat. annus - year, annalis - annual) - a record of historical events by years among the ancient Romans. In ancient Rus', such a weather record was called chronicle(cm.).
Annotation(from lat. annotacio - note) - a brief note explaining the content of the book. Such annotations, sometimes with a critical assessment of the work, they are published in reference books of literature, catalogs of books, etc.
Anonymous(from Gr. annonymos - not having a name) - an untitled work, without indicating the name of the author. Anonymous also called the author of the work, who hid his name.

Anonymous are, for example, works of folk art - epics, songs, fairy tales (see), "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", etc.
Antibacchius- cm. Antique versification.
Antithesis(from Gr. antithesis - opposition) - one of the stylistic figures (see): a turn of poetic speech, in which, to enhance expressiveness, directly opposite concepts, thoughts, character traits of the characters are sharply opposed.
They agreed. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different...
(A. S. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin.)

Antique versification- a system of versification in ancient Greece, where it arose as early as the 8th century. BC e., and in ancient Rome, where in the III century. BC e. she came from Greece.

In the ancient world, poets did not read their poems, but sang; the poet was at the same time a singer, and he was portrayed with a musical instrument - a lyre (hence the name lyrics, cm.).

We can only approximately imagine the sound of ancient verses: their sound recording has not come down to us. But the surviving poetic works of the poets of the ancient world, the writings of the ancients on poetry, the reports of historians and writers of that time give us the opportunity to more or less definitely imagine the system ancient versification.

Antique versification also called metric(from lat. metron - measure).

Based on the meter ancient versification there are short and long syllables. The time it takes to pronounce a short syllable is called mora; the pronunciation of a long syllable took two pestilences. Long and short syllables were combined into feet. The repetition of such feet formed a verse - a poetic line. IN ancient versification no rhyme.

Marking a long syllable with a symbol ‾ and a short syllable with a symbol ̆, we bring the main stops into ancient versification:
disyllabic:
Yamb: ᴗ-

chorea or trocheus: -ᴗ

sponday: --
trisyllabic:
dactyl: -ᴗᴗ

amphibrach: ᴗ-ᴗ

anapaest: ᴗᴗ-

bakhii: --ᴗ

antibacchius: ᴗ--

amphimacar: -ᴗ-

four syllables:
peon first: -ᴗᴗᴗ

peon second: ᴗ-ᴗᴗ

third peon: ᴗᴗ-ᴗ

peon fourth: ᴗᴗᴗ-

In addition to poems of the same size, built on the repetition of a certain foot, in ancient versification there were mixed sizes made up of different feet.

Such, for example, are the verses in the alcaeus stanza, named after the ancient Greek lyricist Alcaeus, and the sapphic verse written by the ancient Greek poetess Sappho (or Sappho).

The Alcaean stanza consists of four verses, of which the first two verses in the stanza consist of eleven long and short syllables in the following alternation:
ᴗ-ᴗ--ǀǀ-ᴗᴗ-ᴗᴗ
the third is of nine syllables:
ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ
the fourth - of ten syllables:
-ᴗᴗ-ᴗ ǀǀ ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ
In Russian Alkey's stanza sounds something like this:
Barely resisting || the onslaught of evil waves,

Already overwhelmed || the deck is entirely water;

The sail is already shining through

All perforated. || The fasteners are loosened

(Alkey, Storm.)

We give an example of a sapphic stanza from the poem "The Swimmer" by K. Pavlova:

swaying || stormy ocean,

Heights of heaven covers || dusk gray.

The daring swimmer holds || the path is dangerous

With firm faith.

In Russian and Western European versification, the names of the feet of ancient versification have been preserved - iambic, trochee, dactyl, amphibrach, anapest, peon. Poems are now not sung, but pronounced and read; The basis of modern Russian versification is not long and short syllables, but stressed and unstressed syllables.
Anthology(from Gr. anthos - a flower and legō - I collect) - this is how collections of selected works of ancient poetry were called in ancient times. And currently an anthology called collections of selected works of individual poets or selected works of poetry of some people.

For example: "Anthology of Georgian poetry", "Anthology of Belarusian poetry".

Antonyms(from gr. anti - against and onoma - name) - words that are opposite in meaning.

Usage antonyms helps the writer to reveal with greater expressiveness the internal contradictions in the phenomenon, in character, etc., which the writer wants to emphasize, for example:

I'm rotting in the ashes,

I command the thunders with my mind,

I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god!
(G. R. Derzhavin, God.)

Intermission(from French entre - between and acte - action) - a break between individual acts or actions of a dramatic work.

In old times intermissions also called small skits - interludes (see), which were performed in between the actions of the play.

Apogee(from gr. apogeion - far from the earth) - the highest degree of development of something, the top.

We can say: in the novel "The Young Guard" the development of the heroic character of Oleg reaches apogee in the scene of his interrogation by the Nazis.

Apocrypha(from Gr. apokryphos - secret, forged) - ancient religious legends-tales that were presented as "sacred" scripture along with the Bible and the gospels, which are considered sacred by churchmen and believers.

Apocrypha generally referred to as a work falsely attributed to any author.
Apostrophe(from gr. apostrophē - deviation) - one of the stylistic figures (see): a turn of poetic speech, consisting in referring to an inanimate phenomenon, as to an animate, or to an absent person, as to a present one.
Farewell, free element! ..
(A. S. Pushkin, To sea.)
Alexander Sergeevich!

Let me introduce -

Mayakovsky.

Give me a hand!

(V. V. Mayakovsky, Anniversary.)

Apotheosis(from Gr. apotheōsis - deification) - this is how the celebration in honor of the victory, the glorification of the solemn end of the event, the praise of its heroes were called in the past.

In a play or play apotheosis- the final solemn picture.

So called, for example, the final picture of M. Glinka's opera "Ivan Susanin", depicting the triumph of the Russian people over foreign invaders.
Argotisms- cm. Jargon.
Arsis- in ancient versification (see) part of the foot (see), on which there is no rhythmic stress, in contrast to the thesis (see) - a strong part of the foot, on which rhythmic stress falls. The word "arsis" in Greek means "rise". Initially, it meant raising a leg in a dance. Over time, when verse and music separated from dance, the word "arsis" was fixed in metrical versification in a meaning directly opposite to the original one (decline, "lowering" of the rhythm).
Aruz(Arabic, pronunciation arud) is the Arabic-Persian metric system of versification. It is based on the alternation of long and short syllables (the presence of long and short vowels is a phonetic feature of the Arabic languages).

Dimensions aruza until the 20th century, the poetry of Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan also used it.

Archaism(from Gr. archaios - ancient) - an old word or turn of speech that has gone out of use in the modern national language, as well as remnants of antiquity in everyday life, in life. In works of art archaisms are used in the speech of characters, in the description of events, etc. for one or another artistic purpose, for example, for greater expressiveness when depicting a historical era that has passed into the past.

So, in the play "The Eagle and the Eaglet" A. N. Tolstoy uses archaisms in the speech of Ivan the Terrible and other characters:

Do you remember the golden words wise Ivashka Peresvetova:

“My nobles are leaving for the service colorful, and equestrian, and crowded, and they do not stand firmly for the fatherland and do not want to play a fierce mortal game against the enemy. The poor care about the fatherland, and the rich about the womb. Here is the truth.

Usage archaisms in poetic speech sometimes gives it a solemn, upbeat tone:
Arise, prophet, and see, And listen,

Fulfilled by my will

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.
(A. S. Pushkin, Prophet.)

Sometimes, on the contrary, archaisms are used with an ironic purpose and, inserted into everyday speech, give it a mocking character, as is often found in the anti-religious poems of D. Poor, the satires of V. V. Mayakovsky.

Architectonics(from Gr. architektonikē - construction art) - the construction of a work of art, the proportionality of its parts, chapters, episodes, etc. See also Composition.
Asyndeton(from gr. asyndeton - unrelated) - see Asyndeton.
Assonance(from lat. assonare - to resonate) - repetition in a line, phrase, stanza of homogeneous vowel sounds (for example: “ It's time! It's time! The horns are blowing"), as well as inexact rhyme, in which only some, mainly vowels, sounds are consonant. In Russian poetry assonance is built on the coincidence in rhyming words of only syllables that are stressed, or even only vowels in these syllables: si vaya - neuga si may, de glasses - ve fish, in ron - in in, mo le flax - ma Not vry, etc.
Crimson

shot up n ols me

Above the roar of the airfield,

And doves, as if goals e,

Rushed against the bluish background of thunder.
(L. Martynov, Pigeons.)

In contemporary Soviet poetry assonance has been very widespread.

Aphorism(from Gr. aphorismos - a short saying) - a complete thought, expressed in a concise, precise form. These are Russian folk proverbs. In Russian literature, there are often aphorisms, expressing a deep thought in a short, perfect poetic form:
Man - that sounds proud!
(M. Gorky, At the bottom.)
We say - Lenin,

we mean -

we say party,

we mean -

(V. V. Mayakovsky, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.)

Ashug(from Turk. aşik - in love) - a folk singer-poet among the peoples of the Caucasus. Composing my poems ashug reads them in a singsong voice to the sounds of a folk stringed instrument.

Songs and poems of the famous Dagestan ashuga Suleiman Stalsky is widely known in the Soviet Union.

GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND REFERENCE MATERIALS 1

ACCENT VERSE- a kind of tonic verse, in which only the number of stresses in a line is regulated, and the number of unstressed syllables fluctuates freely. For example, V. V. Mayakovsky:

monument in life
according to rank.

I would have laid
dynamite -
come on,
tease!

I hate

all sorts of dead things!

every life!

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - an artistic technique based on the image of an abstract idea, an abstract concept through a specific image, thought. The relationship between the image and its meaning is established by similarity. For example, an olive branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, the image of the goddess Themis (a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands) - an allegorical image of justice; a snake wrapping around a bowl is an allegory of medicine; a baby with a bow and arrows - Cupid - an allegory of love, etc.

In oral folk art, the images of some animals are allegorical. The fox is an analogue of cunning, the hare is cowardice, the lion is strength, the owl is wisdom, etc.

As an allegory, allegory is most closely related to metaphor and is often viewed as a widespread metaphor, or as a series of metaphorical images combined into a closed whole, into a single complex image.

For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem "In the depths of the Siberian ores ..." created an allegorical image of freedom, which "will gladly accept at the entrance" the Decembrist convicts.

M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem "The Poet" found an allegorical image of "a blade covered with rust of contempt" to compare it with a poet who has lost his "appointment".

ALLITERATION(from lat. a1 - to, with and litera - letter) - the repetition of identical, homogeneous consonants, creating euphony, "musicality", intonational expressiveness.

For example, in the poem “Moisture” by K. Balmont, the sound effect is created due to the alliteration “l”:

The swan swam away in the semi-darkness,

In the distance, whitening under the moon,

The waves crash to the oar,

Lashes to the moisture of the lily.

One of the functions of alliteration is onomatopoeia. In a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Borodino" the sounds "z", "g", "h", "r", "s" convey the dynamics of the battle; buckshot whistling, core bursts, etc.:

You will not see such battles! ..

Worn banners like shadows

Fire gleamed in the smoke

Damask steel sounded, buckshot screeched,

The hand of the fighters is tired of stabbing,

And prevented the nuclei from flying
A mountain of bloody bodies.

AMPHIBRACHY- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the middle syllable is stressed (-  -) "reasonable". In Russian poetry, amphibrachs have been used since the beginning of the 19th century. For example, A. S. Pushkin used amphibrachs in the poem “I look like a madman at a black shawl ...”, in “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, N. A. Nekrasov in the song “In a moment of despondency, oh motherland! ..” from the poem “Who should live well in Rus'”, etc.

ANAPAEST- in syllabo-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the last syllable is stressed (   -): "Human". In Russian poetry, he first appeared in A.P. Sumarokov (ode "Against the villains"). Used, for example, by N.A. Nekrasov in the poems “Troika”, “You and I are stupid people ...”, A.A. Fet ("I won't tell you anything..."), A.T. Tvardovsky (“I was killed near Rzhev ...”), etc.

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - monotony, repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several stanzas, verses or half-verses. Anaphora, like any kind of repetition of individual words or expressions in general, gives the verse sharpness and expressiveness, emphasizing its important semantic points. So, in the stanza of A.A. block:

Again with age-old longing
Feathers bent down to the ground,

Again over the foggy river
You call me from afar.

Anaphoric "again" sets off the "eternity" of Russian melancholy
and the incessant voice that calls the poet somewhere.

In M. Tsvetaeva's poem, the anaphora sets the rhythm for the consistent semantization of the name "Block", "encrypted" in the system of comparisons:

Your name is a bird in your hand

Your name is ice on the tongue.

One single movement of the lips.

Your name is five letters.

ANIMALISM(from lat. animal - animal) - a direction in literature, which is based on the image of animals and the relationship between man and animal. The animal as an object of the image, along with other phenomena of the surrounding world, acquires a value-semantic and aesthetic characteristics. For example, in the animalistic poetry of S.A. Yesenin (“Cow”, “Song of the Dog”, “Fox”), the animal, while retaining objective, natural features, becomes an unconditional and full-fledged lyrical object of the work.

ANTAGONISTS- irreconcilable opponents. For example: Chatsky and Famusov (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov), Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev), Satin and Luka (“At the Bottom” by M. Gorky), Yuri Zhivago and Pavel Strelnikov (Doctor Zhivago by B.L. Pasternak) and others.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure consisting in a sharp opposition of concepts or images. Most often, the antithesis is expressed openly - through antonyms, emphasizing the contrast of the depicted phenomena. For example, in Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" it is said about the opposite characters of Onegin and Lensky:

They agreed.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

The figure of antithesis can serve as a construction principle for separate parts of works of art in verse and prose. For example, the story of the transformation of the landowner Plyushkin into a “hole in humanity” in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol shows how stinginess turns into extravagance.

The titles of many works are also built on the antithesis: “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Shield and Sword”, “Deceit and Love”, “Red and Black”, etc.

ASSONANCE(from lat. assonare) - repetition of the same vowels. Assonance is a vivid means of expressiveness of poetic language. An example of the use of assonance is an excerpt from a poem by A. S. Pushkin:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among the foolish youths,

I surrender to my dreams.

In this passage, the vowel "y" sounds, giving the verse a dull melodiousness.

ASSOCIATION- a special form of communication between several views, in which one of the views calls another. For example, Ranevskaya's remark: “Oh, my garden! After a dark, rainy autumn and a cold winter, you are young again, full of happiness, the angels of heaven have not left you ... ”- associatively generates the image of Eden - a flowering garden where a man who knows no sin was blissful.

ARCHAISMS- obsolete words, completely ousted from modern word usage or replaced by others denoting the same concepts. In fiction, they are used as an expressive technique to convey the color of the era, the speech characteristics of the character, to give speech solemnity or irony, etc. For example: “With one push to drive away the living boat ...” (A.A. Fet), “And the dark shelter of solitude ...”, “From the gaze of the hypocritical mob ...” (A.S. Pushkin).

APHORISM(Greek aphorismos - saying) - a saying that expresses some generalized thought, revealing the general and typical in reality, in a concise, artistically pointed form. Aphoristic manner of writing and speech means a concise, abrupt way of expression. Aphorisms are scattered in abundance in the play by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”: “I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to serve”, “Happy hours do not watch”, “Who is poor is not a couple for you”, etc.

BALLAD(from lat. ballo - I dance) - a genre of lyrical poetry, which is of a narrative nature. The ballad is based on an unusual case. The ballad received special development in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism. In Russian literature, the initiator of the ballad as a plot genre was V.A. Zhukovsky ("Lyudmila", "Svetlana", "Forest King", etc.). Following him, samples of Russian ballads were given by A.S. Pushkin (“The Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, etc.), M.Yu. Lermontov ("Borodino", "Dispute", "Tamara", etc.), I.Ya. Kozlov, A.K. Tolstoy, V.Ya. Bryusov and others.

The ballad genre in the poetry of the Soviet period is represented by the works of N.S. Tikhonova (“Ballad of the Blue Package”, “Ballad of Nails”), followed by S. Yesenin (“Ballad of Twenty-Six”), E.G. Bagritsky ("Watermelon", "Smugglers") and others.

FABLE- This is a short moralizing story in poetic form. The characters of an allegorical fable plot are often animals, inanimate objects, but often people. The structure of a fable involves a narrative and a conclusion from it, i.e. a certain provision (rule, advice, indication) attached to the narrative and often representing the final word of one of the characters. In Russian literature of the 18th - 19th centuries, the masters of the fable genre were A.I. Sumarokov, I.I. Dmitriev, I.A. Krylov. Of the modern fabulists, S.V. Mikhalkov.

BLANK VERSE- unrhymed verse. The name comes from the fact that the endings of the verse, where consonance (rhyme) is usually placed, remain unfilled (“white”) in terms of sound. Nevertheless, blank verse is organized intonationally and rhythmically. “The Sea” by V.A. was written in blank verse. Zhukovsky, "Again I visited ..." A.S. Pushkin, the poem "To whom it is good to live in Rus'" by N.A. Nekrasov.

VERLIBR - cm. FREE VERSE.

ETERNAL IMAGES- images, the generalizing artistic meaning of which goes far beyond their specific historical content and the era that gave rise to them. Eternal images capture the most general, essential aspects of human nature, express typical, constant, recurring conflicts and situations in the history of human society. Classic examples of eternal images are Don Quixote, Prometheus, Hamlet, Don Juan, Faust. In Russian literature, Molchalin, Khlestakov, Plyushkin, Yudushka Golovlev and similar images live for many years and even centuries in the minds of several generations, since they summarize typical, stable features of human characters.

ETERNAL THEMES- the themes of life and death, light and darkness, love, freedom, duty, etc., the most significant for mankind in all epochs and constantly repeated in all national literatures. For example, in the novel by M. A. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita" eternal themes the struggle between good and evil, cowardice, betrayal, mercy, love and creativity become the subject of reflections of the writer and his characters.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a stylistic figure, consisting in a clear exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon. Hyperbole can consist both in quantitative exaggeration (for example, “a thousand times”, “whole eternity”, etc.), and in figurative expression, combined with other stylistic devices, forming hyperbolic metaphors, comparisons, personifications, etc.

Hyperbole is often found in Russian songs and ditties. In the spirit of folk reception, N.A. uses hyperbole. Nekrasov:

I saw how she mows:

What a wave - then a mop is ready.

N. V. Gogol became famous for his hyperboles (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”), V. V. Mayakovsky (“... I tell you: the smallest speck of living is more valuable than everything that I will do and have done!”), etc.

Hyperbole is often used to indicate the exceptional properties or qualities of people, natural phenomena, events, things. For example, in M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Mtsyri”, a young man defeats a predatory leopard, not inferior to him in strength and dexterity:

And I was terrible at that moment;

Like a desert leopard, angry and wild,

I burned, squealed like him;

As if I myself was born
In the family of leopards and wolves
Under the fresh forest canopy.

GRADATION- a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase or decrease in their semantic or emotional significance. For example: “I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I shed tears, but you didn’t descend ...” (A. Blok) - an ascending gradation. “He brought mortal resin / Yes, a branch with withered leaves ...” (A.S. Pushkin) - descending gradation.

GROTESQUE(French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - the ultimate exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. The grotesque violates the boundaries of plausibility, gives the image a convention and takes the image beyond the limits of the probable, deforming it. The basis of the grotesque is the unthinkable, impossible, but necessary for the writer to achieve a certain artistic effect. The grotesque is fantastic hyperbole. Hyperbole is closer to reality, grotesque - to a nightmarish, fantastic dream, vision. For example, the dream of Tatyana Larina (A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") is filled with grotesque images of monsters:

One in horns with a dog's muzzle,

Another with a cock's head

Here is a witch with a goat's beard,

Here the skeleton is stiff and proud,

There is a dwarf with a ponytail, and here
Half crane and half cat.

Tatyana is horrified to see a fantastic dance in the “wretched hut”: “a crayfish riding a spider”, “a skull on a goose neck / Spinning in a red cap”, “the windmill dances squat / And cracks and waves its wings”.

In Russian literature, the satirical function of the grotesque is relevant: N.V. Gogol ("The Nose"), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (fairy tales, “The History of a City”), V. V. Mayakovsky repeatedly resorts to the grotesque (“Mystery-buff”, “Bedbug”, “Bath”, etc.). Uses the grotesque A.T. Tvardovsky (“Terkin in the next world”), A. A. Voznesensky (“Oza”),

DACTYL- in syllabo-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the first syllable is stressed (-  ): "tree". M. Yu. Lermontov's poem "Clouds" is written in dactyl: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

Steppe azure, pearl chain
You rush as if like me, exiles
From the sweet north to the south.

DECADENCE(from lat. decadentia - decline) - the general name of the crisis phenomena of culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by mysticism, belief in supernatural forces; extreme individualism and chanting of death, decay; the pursuit of external prettiness * pretentiousness of literary form. Separate decadent tendencies are reflected in the literature of modernism (in symbolism, futurism, Imagism, abstractionism, surrealism).

DIALOGUE(from Greek dialogos) - a form of oral speech, a conversation between two or more persons. In drama, dialogue is the main means of developing the action, the main way of depicting characters. In lyrics, dialogue is used to reveal the positions of the participants in the dispute, as, for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Conversation of a bookseller with a poet", N.A. Nekrasov "The Poet and the Citizen". This tradition is followed by O. Chukhontsev (“Poet and editor (in a certain way)”.

DISTICH(or couplet) - the simplest form of a stanza, consisting of two lines connected by a common rhyme (aa, cc, etc.). For example, in a poem by A.A. block:

Singing dream, blooming color,

Disappearing day, fading light.

Opening the window, I saw a lilac.

It was in the spring - on a departing day.

Flowers burst out - and on a dark cornice
The shadows of the jubilant robes moved.

Anguish was suffocating, the soul was engaged,

I opened the window, trembling and trembling.

And I don’t remember where I breathed in my face,

Singing, burning, she went up to the porch.

DIARY- a literary form in the form of regular records, kept in chronological order. A significant feature of the diary is its subjective form: the story of events is always conducted in the first person, the choice of topic always clearly depends on the personal interests of the author. In a work of art, the diary of a literary hero is sometimes used (for example, Pechorin's Diary in M.Yu. Lermontov's A Hero of Our Time, Dr. Bormenthal's diary in M.A. Bulgakov's Heart of a Dog). The form of the diary serves as a psychological disclosure of the inner world of the character or the author.

DOLNIK- a poetic meter that preserves the rhythmic picture of a three-syllable meter, however, the number of unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables fluctuates (unstressed syllables “fall out”). A group of syllables united by one stroke is called a share, and depending on the number of such shares, this dolnik is called a two-part, three-part, etc. The use of a dolnik was first noted in the 19th century (M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Fet). Dolnik entered into active circulation at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries in the works of A.A. Blok, A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely and others.

For example, A. A. Blok:

In the thick grass you will disappear with your head,

You will enter a quiet house without knocking...

DRAMA(from Greek drama - action) - 1. One of the genres of fiction (along with epic and lyrics). Drama is meant to be staged. The main element of a dramatic work is the depicted action, sometimes the action-act expressed in remarks, sometimes the action-word. The only means of depicting the characters in the drama is their own speech (dialogues, monologues, replicas). The actual author's commentary on the play (description of the situation, atmosphere of the action, behavior, gestures of the characters) is limited, as a rule, to remarks. The nature of the plot of the drama is peculiar - it has much narrower limits than the epic (in terms of the number of characters, the coverage of time, etc.).

2. Dramatic genre, which is a play with a sharp conflict, which finds its own, but by no means tragic or comedic resolution in the finale. Drama as a genre combines tragic and comic beginnings, which is why it is often called the middle genre. Allocate everyday, psychological, symbolic, heroic, romantic, socio-philosophical drama. An example of drama in Russian literature can be A.N. Ostrovsky, "At the bottom" by M. Gorky.

GENRE(from the French genre - genus, type) - a historically established and developing type of work of art. In modern literary criticism, the term is used to refer to the literary types into which the genus is divided. For example, epic genres - novel, story, short story, short story, essay, etc. Lyrical genres include ode, friendly message, epigram, elegy, satire, sonnet, etc. Dramatic - tragedy, comedy, drama, melodrama, vaudeville, etc. In the classification of genres, an important role is played by the historical development of literature, which manifested itself in literary trends. So, for classicism and romanticism, a strict ordering of genres is characteristic, and within the realistic direction, rigid genre systems practically do not exist (for example, a novel in verse, a poem in prose, a poem in prose as synthetic forms).

STRING- the beginning of a contradiction (conflict), which forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the subsequent deployment of the action of a work of art. Usually the plot is given at the beginning of the work, but can be introduced elsewhere. For example, the decision of Chichikov (N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls") to buy up the souls of dead peasants is reported at the end of the first volume of the poem.

TITLE (TITLE OF THE WORK)- the most important component of the work, located outside its main part, but occupying the strongest position in it; the first element with which the reader's acquaintance with the text begins.

The main functions of titles are:

Nominative (naming) - historically established initial function of titles. Naming the text, the author distinguishes it from other works;

Informative - a universal function, since any title in one way or another carries information about the text and reflects the content of the work;

Retrospective - the title requires a return to it after reading the work, since the title not only expresses the content of the literary work, but should also interest and intrigue the reader;

Expressive-appellative - the title can reveal the author's position, as well as psychologically prepare the reader for the perception of the text.

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work:

Expresses the main theme, outlines the main storylines, defines the main conflict (“Who should live well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Requiem » A. A. Akhmatova);

Names the main character of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov);

Highlights the through character of the text (“A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Old Woman Izergil” by M. Gorky);

Indicates the time of action (“October 19” by A.S. Pushkin, “Noon” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Evening” by A.A. Fet, “Winter Night” by B.L. Pasternak, “In August forty-fourth .. .” V. O. Bogomolov);

Designates the main spatial coordinates (“I go out alone on the road ...” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “In the restaurant” by A.A. Blok, “Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov);

Creates the effect of expectation (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

Titles are built according to certain structural models, which are based on general linguistic syntactic patterns, but at the same time have their own specific features that are unique to titles.

Titles can be submitted:

In a word (“Thunderstorm” by A.N. Ostrovsky, “Gooseberry” by A.P. Chekhov);

A compositional combination of words (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov);

A subordinating phrase (“The Man in the Case” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Gentleman from San Francisco” by I.A. Bunin);

Proposal (“An extraordinary adventure that was with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Somewhere the war is thundering” by V. Astafiev).

The title can be a trope (“A Cloud in Pants” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy), a reminiscence (“Summer of the Lord” by I.S. Shmelev, “Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District” by N.S. Leskov), etc.

SOUND- a system of sound repetitions of certain elements of the sound composition of the language: consonants and vowels, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, various types of intonations, etc.

Alliterations, assonances, and onomatopoeia play an important role in the sound writing system.

For example, in a poem by A. Voznesensky:

We are opponents of the dim,

We are accustomed to the width -

Whether the Tula samovar
Or Tu-104.

ZOOMORPHIC TRANSFORMATIONS(from the Greek zoon - animal, morphe - form) - the transformation of a person into an animal or the appearance of any characteristic zoological signs in him. For example, Prince Vseslav Polotsky, who is famous as a sorcerer, the hero of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, turning into a wolf, managed to overcome huge distances from Kiev to Tmutorokan in one night, competing in his swift run with the pagan god of the sun Khors himself.

IDEOLOGIST- an exponent or defender of the ideology of any social class, socio-political system or direction.

A peculiar idea of ​​the hero-ideologist is formed by M.M. Bakhtin, analyzing the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky. The character of the hero-ideologist is determined not so much by the influence of the social environment as by the essence of the idea professed by a person. For Dostoevsky, the reason for the crime of Raskolnikov (“Crime and Punishment”) is in his theory, and not in his poverty (although the latter is not discounted, and the theory itself has social origins).

The hero-ideologist in Dostoevsky's novels occupies a very special place. To the self-development / character characteristic of the character of a realistic work, freedom and completeness in expressing an idea are also added.

IDEA(Greek idea - concept, representation) - the main idea of ​​a work of art, expressing the attitude of the author to reality. The idea of ​​a work can be understood only in the totality and interaction of all the artistic images of the work. For example, the main idea of ​​A. S. Pushkin's poem "Arion" is the fidelity of the lyrical hero to the ideals of Decembrism.

IMAGINISM(from the French image - image) - a trend in Russian decadence. The Imagists asserted the priority of the self-valuable image, form over meaning, idea. Adherents of Imagism saw the task of creativity in inventing previously unprecedented images and words. At one time, S. A. Yesenin joined the Imagists.

INVERSION(from lat. inversion - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the generally accepted word order. For example, in "Eugene Onegin" A.S. Pushkin:

Doorman past he's an arrow
Soared up the marble steps...

Inversion allows you to update the meaning of a word, giving speech a special expressiveness.

INTERPRETATION - cognitive and creative development of the artistic content of the work, the result of which is the comprehension of its semantic and aesthetic integrity.

The interpretation of a literary work involves:

Attitude to the text as an integrity, artistically reproducing reality;

Recognition of the possibility of a variable interpretation of the text based on the ambiguity of the artistic image;

The need for dialogic relations with the author of the interpreted text, based on the principles of trust and criticality;

The inclusion of mechanisms of emotional-figurative and logical-conceptual comprehension of the text.

For example, B.M. Gasparov interprets the content and structure of A. Blok's poem "The Twelve" in the light of M.M. Bakhtin. The action of the work, as the researcher reveals, takes place on the days of Christmas. According to B.M. Gasparov, the possibility of the appearance of the image of Christ in the poem about the revolution. Everything that happens on the streets of the winter city, as the interpreter believes, resembles a theatrical performance. Among the characters, generalized popular prints stand out - “long-haired”, bourgeois, a lady in astrakhan fur, and a writer-vitia. Their movements (sliding, falling, hobbling) resemble the mechanical movements of puppets in a farcical performance. The atmosphere of a carnival performance is created by "voices" from the street (the cries of prostitutes, the cries of a patrol, gunfire, etc.). The element of the folk theater is given in parallel with the organized stage action and creates the effect of destroying the boundaries between "literary" and "real" life. The leitmotif of the poem (“They go far with a sovereign step”) is organized according to the principle of a procession of mummers, in the finale it turns into an apotheosis parade with a lubok-decorative figure of Christ, in whose hands, like an Easter banner, a blood-red flag flutters. The procession following Christ is perceived as his "retinue", consisting of God's "angels", or the twelve apostles. B. M. Gasparov points to the apocalyptic nature of the carnival: “the end of the world” is a denial, the destruction of the familiar world, but this is a “fun” destruction.

Modern researchers Peter Weil and Alexander Genis offer their interpretation of the main conflict of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". The main ideological opponents, in their opinion, are the "civilizer" Bazarov and the "guardian of traditions" Kirsanov. Bazarov believes that somewhere there is a "formula for well-being and happiness" that needs to be found and offered to humanity, and for this "it is worth sacrificing some insignificant little things." "Civilizer" does not intend to create something anew, it plans to destroy what already exists. The world, “reduced to a formula, turns into chaos,” and Bazarov becomes the carrier of this chaos. The uniqueness of the Bazarov "formula" is opposed by the "diversity of the system", which is personified by Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. This hero of Turgenev is convinced that well-being and happiness lie in something else - accumulation, summation, preservation. According to the interpreters, the main conflict of the work lies in the collision of the “civilizing impulse with the order of culture”. Since the pathos of destruction and reorganization turned out to be unacceptable for Turgenev, he makes Bazarov "lose".

INTERIOR(French interieur - internal) - the internal space of a building or a room in a building; in a work of art - the image of the environment of the premises in which the characters live and act. The interior can be saturated with a variety of details and subject details.

Such, for example, is the interior of Manilov's house (N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls"): "beautiful furniture covered with smart silk fabric", "a smart candlestick made of dark bronze with three antique graces, with a mother-of-pearl smart shield"; “the walls were painted with some kind of blue paint like gray, four chairs, one armchair, a table on which lay a book with a bookmark,” etc.

IRONY(from the Greek. eironeia - pretense, mockery) - one of the ways of the author's assessment of the depicted, an allegory expressing mockery. Irony is not laughter, but mockery, and the narrator can be outwardly serious. Innocently expressed irony turns into a joke, evil irony - into sarcasm.

For example: “... he, apparently, was born into the world already completely ready, in a uniform and with a bald head on his head” (N.V. Gogol), “... and with immensely wide and thick, blond whiskers with gray hair , of which each would be three beards ”(I.A. Goncharov).

A.S. Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin" with the help of an ironic phrase characterizes one of the guests at Tatyana Larina's name day:

Gvozdin, an excellent host,

Owner of poor men.

In the novel "Fathers and Sons" I.S. Turgenev characterizes the servant of the Kirsanovs, Peter, as "a man of the latest improved generation", ironically over the views of the "children". N.V. Gogol in "Dead Souls" calls the prosecutor "the father and benefactor of the whole city", although it immediately turns out that he is a bribe-taker and a grabber.

"ART FOR ART" ("PURE ART")- the general name of aesthetic concepts that affirm the self-sufficiency of artistic creativity and the independence of art from socio-political circumstances and conditions. For example:

Not for worldly excitement,

Not for self-interest, not for battles,

We are born to inspire

For sweet sounds and prayers.

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Poet and the Crowd”)

KATRAIN (QUATRALINE)- a stanza consisting of four lines connected by common rhymes, having a complete meaning. The quatrain uses various types of rhyme: abba, abab, aabb. The most common is cross (abab).

For example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Winter Road" consists of seven quatrains-quatrains:

Through the wavy mists
The moon is creeping

To sad glades

She pours a sad light.

On the winter road, boring
Troika greyhound runs

Bell is monophonic
Tiring noise...

CLASSICISM(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction and style in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civil themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules (for example, the rules of the "three unities": time, place , actions), a reflection of life in ideal images, as well as an appeal to the ancient heritage as the norm. Representatives of classicism in Russian literature were V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin.

CONTEXT- the speech or situational environment of the entire work or part of it, within which the meaning and meaning of a word, phrase, etc. is most accurately revealed. For example: about the uniqueness of the metaphorical image of a dagger in the poem of the same name by A.S. Pushkin can be judged by considering him in the general context of the motifs of the dagger in Russian poetry (“Dagger” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Dagger” by V.Ya. Bryusov, etc.).

ENDING- the final component of the whole work or any part of it. In poetry - the final line, often aphoristic. For example: “And, bypassing the seas and lands, / Burn the hearts of people with the verb!” (A.S. Pushkin. "The Prophet"); “To live life is not to cross a field” (B. Pasternak. “Hamlet”), in dramaturgy - a replica of the hero “before the curtain” at the end of any act or the entire play. For example: “Famusov. "Oh! My God! What will he say / Princess Marya Aleksevna! (A.S. Griboedov. “Woe from Wit”), “Satin (quietly). "Eh ... ruined the song ... fool-cancer!" (M. Gorky. "At the bottom"), In prose - the final maxim, landscape, etc. I covered her old body and myself lay down on the ground next to her. The steppe was quiet and dark. Clouds were crawling across the sky, slowly, boringly ... The sea was noisy deaf and sad ”(M. Gorky.“ Old Woman Izergil ”).

COMEDY(Greek coraoidia, from coraos - a cheerful crowd and oide - a song) - one of the main types (genres) of drama as a kind of literature, depicting such life situations and characters that cause laughter. Comedy forms a negative attitude to the aspirations, passions of the characters or to the methods of their struggle. Comedy as a special form of the comic most accurately captures and conveys its most important shades - humor, irony, sarcasm, satire. Vivid examples of comedy in Russian literature are "Undergrowth" by D.I. Fonvizina, "Inspector" N.V. Gogol; A.S. Griboyedov (“Woe from Wit”) and A.P. called their plays comedies. Chekhov ("The Cherry Orchard"),

COMPOSITION(lat. compositio - compilation, binding) - a set of techniques and tools used by the author to build a work, reveal and organize images, their connections and relationships.

The composition includes the arrangement of characters; the order of reporting events in the plot (plot composition); alternation of plot and extra-plot components of the narrative, change of narrative techniques (author's speech, first-person narrative, dialogues and monologues of characters, various types of descriptions: landscapes, portraits, interiors), as well as the ratio of chapters, parts, stanzas, speech turns.

Particularly significant in a work of art can be chronological permutations of individual events (M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"). Important for understanding the author's intent and idea of ​​the work may be such compositional techniques as silence or recognition, delayed exposure, lack of exposure or denouement.

The following types of composition are distinguished: vertex (“Gypsies” by A. S. Pushkin); mirror (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin); ring ("Troika" N. A. Nekrasov); open (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov); concentric (“Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev).

CONFLICT(from lat. conflictus - clash) - clash, struggle, on which the development of the plot in a work of art is built. In drama, conflict is the main force, the spring driving the development of dramatic action, and the main means of revealing characters. In works of art, there is often a combination of an "external" conflict - the hero's struggle with the forces opposing him - with "internal", psychological conflicts - the hero's struggle with himself, with his delusions, weaknesses. So, Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") comes into conflict with the noble environment and provincial landowners, with other characters - Lensky, Tatyana Larina; finally, with himself, trying to get rid of the blues, internal discontent.

WINGED WORDS- widely used apt figurative sayings of historical figures, literary characters, etc. For example: “We make noise, brother, we make noise ...” (A.S. Griboyedov). “Lightness in thoughts is extraordinary ...” (N.V. Gogol). Winged words often take the form of aphorisms. For example: “Inspiration is not for sale, but you can sell the manuscript” (A.S. Pushkin); "Man - that sounds proud!" (M. Gorky).

CULMINATION(from lat. oilmen - peak) - the moment of the highest tension in the development of the action, aggravating the artistic conflict as much as possible. So, in M. Sholokhov's story "The Fate of a Man", the culminating episodes are those in which the hero learns about the death of his family.

There can be several climaxes in a literary work. For example, in the novel by I.S. Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" in the storyline Evgeny Bazarov - Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov culminates in the duel scene. In the Bazarov-Odintsov storyline, the climax is the scene when the hero confesses his love to Anna Sergeevna and rushes to her in a fit of passion. In the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time" and in the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin" each chapter has its own climax.

LEGEND(from lat. legenda - what should be read or recommended for reading) - a term used in several meanings. In a broad sense - an unreliable narration about the facts of reality, containing elements of heroism and fantasy, in a narrower sense - a prose genre of folklore; a narrative of miraculous persons and events, perceived, however, as reliable.

Sometimes writers and poets include folkloric or fictional legends in their writings. So, the legend of ataman Kudeyar is included in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who should live well in Rus'”, and the legend of the Grand Inquisitor - in the novel “The Brothers Karamazov” by F.M. Dostoevsky. The legends about Larra and Danko are included in M. Gorky's story "Old Woman Izergil".

LYRICS(from the Greek. lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of a lyre) - one of the three types of fiction (along with the epic and drama). This is a kind of poetic creativity that expresses feelings and feelings about an event or fact, while the epic tells, fixes external reality, events and facts in the word, and the drama does the same, but not on behalf of the author, but by direct conversation, the dialogue of themselves actors. Lyrics reflect individual states of character at certain moments of life, the author's own "I"; the speech form of lyrics is an internal monologue, mostly poetic.

LYRICAL HERO- the hero of a lyrical work, the experiences, thoughts and feelings of which it reflects. The image of the lyrical hero is not identical to the image of the author, although it covers the entire range of lyrical works created by the poet; based on the image of the lyrical hero, a holistic view of the poet's work is created. However, in most of his works, A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Feg are lyrics without a lyrical hero. The author's image in their lyrical works is, as it were, merged with a real personality - the personality of the poet himself. For example, in the poem "I visited again ..." Pushkin, and not a lyrical hero, expresses an idea about the future, about "a young, unfamiliar tribe." Yu. Tynyanov singled out three poets in whom the author's "I" is embodied in the image of a lyrical hero - M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky.

One should talk about a lyrical hero when, in a poem written in the first person, the lyrical subject differs to one degree or another from the poet, the author of the poem. The poet, as it were, gets used to someone else's role, puts on a "lyrical mask". For example, "Prisoner" A.S. Pushkin, "The Prophet" M.Yu. Lermontov and others.

LYRICAL DIRECTION (Author's Digression)- the form of the author's speech; the word of the author-narrator, digressing from the plot description of events for commenting and evaluating them, or for other reasons not directly related to the action of the work. Lyrical digressions are typical for lyrical epic works, digressions in epic works are called author's digressions. For example, there are lyrical digressions in "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin, "Dead Souls" N.V. Gogol, copyright - in "War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy, "Vasily Terkina" by A.T. Tvardovsky.

LYROEPIC GENRE- a type of literary work that combines the features of epic and lyric poetry: a narrative narrative about events is combined with emotional lyrical digressions. Most often, the work is clothed in a poetic form (“Svetlana” by V.A. Zhukovsky, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who should live well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasova, “ A Cloud in Pants" by V. V. Mayakovsky, "Requiem" by A. A. Akhmatova and others). There are the following genres of lyre-epic: epic, ballad, poem.

LITERARY DIRECTION- a concept that characterizes the unity of the most significant creative features of the artists of the word in a certain historical period. This unity arises and develops usually on the basis of a common artistic position, worldview, aesthetic views, ways of reflecting life. Literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism.

"EXTRA PERSON"- the conditional name of a number of heterogeneous heroes, endowed with the consciousness of their own uselessness, suffering from the lack of a clear goal in life, aware of their "social uselessness".

The “superfluous person” in Russian literature of the 19th century is presented as a nationally peculiar phenomenon of great social significance. The creators of this type gave it a multifaceted characterization, revealed its contradictory essence, pointed out its positive and negative meaning, determined the ideological meaning and aesthetic significance of this "sign" literary phenomenon.

It is traditionally believed that "superfluous people" in Russian literature are represented by two groups of characters: the first includes heroes of the 20-30s. XIX century - Onegin ("Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin), Pechorin ("A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov) and some others, to the second - the heroes of the 40-50s. XIX century - Beltov ("Who is to blame?" A.I. Herzen), Agarin ("Sasha" N.A. Nekrasov), Rudin ("Rudin" I.S. Turgenev) and some others.

A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov synthesized in his characters the features of the “extra person” of all previous Russian literature (the first contours of heroes of this type were outlined in N.M. Karamzin’s “Knight for an Hour”, M.V. Sushkov’s “Russian Werther”, “Theon and Aeskhine” in A. Zhukovsky, K. F. Ryleev’s “Eccentric”, V. F. Odoevsky’s “Strange Man”, K. N. Batyushkov’s “Wanderer and Homebody” and others) and outlined the main vectors for the further development of this type.

In the 20-30s. 19th century the meaning and content of the image of the “superfluous person” consists in a forced, historically determined refusal from activity. The "superfluous people" of this period, having an outstanding mind and energy, cannot act due to objective reasons, therefore their forces are wasted on satisfying individualistic desires. The trouble with Onegin and Pechorin is not in the inability, but in the impossibility to fulfill their “high purpose”. However, their positive significance is not in real activity, but in the level and quality of their consciousness and self-consciousness in comparison with the environment. The rejection of the existing conditions of life, the protest in the form of non-participation in any form of activity, in the era of noble revolutionism and the subsequent reaction, determine the special position of the “superfluous person” in Russian society.

In the 40-50s. 19th century with the change in the socio-historical conditions of life, the type of "extra person" also changes. After a seven-year reaction, broader opportunities for activity appear, the goals and tasks of the struggle become clearer. Opens a gallery of "superfluous people" of the 40-50s. Beltov. This is a hero with a "painful need for action", noble, gifted, but capable only of "multilateral inaction" and "active laziness". Then the "extra person" becomes an "ideologist" - he promotes advanced ideas, influences the minds of people. The honorable role of the "sower" is assigned to Agarin - his noble ideas fall on fertile ground, and young Sasha will no longer stop only at the "proclamation" of her views, but will go further. Rudin's special place among the "superfluous people" of that time is determined by the fact that his aspirations are aimed not at the personal, but at the common good. Rising to the denial of evil and injustice, he, by the power of his sincere word, affects the hearts of those who are young, full of strength and ready to join the fight. His word is his historical deed.

60s The 19th century brought fundamental changes to the hierarchy of literary heroes. The birth and appearance on the historical arena of a new social force - the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia - clarify the aspects and directions of the individual's activity. A necessary condition for "usefulness" is the inclusion of the individual in real social practice. This requirement was reflected in a number of programmatic publications of the "sixties" (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, etc.). Noting the numerous weaknesses and shortcomings of the "superfluous man" of Russian literature of the 19th century, the revolutionary democrats of the 60s. paid tribute to all the positive that these heroes carried in themselves.

Other modifications of this type (I.A. Goncharova Oblomov, F.M. Dostoevsky’s “paradoxologist”, A.P. Chekhov’s Likharev and Laevsky) cannot be considered “classical” due to the incommensurability of social significance and the nature of their influence on public consciousness.

"SMALL MAN"- the conditional name of a number of heterogeneous heroes occupying the lower niche in the system of social hierarchy and united by a common psychological and behavioral traits (wounded pride combined with awareness of their own humiliation, understanding of the injustice of the social structure, an acute sense of personal insecurity). The main plot of works about "little people" usually becomes the story of resentment or insult of the hero by the powerful of this world, the main opposition is the opposition "little man" - "significant person".

The first sketch of the image of the "little man" appeared in Russian literature in the 13th century. Daniil Zatochnik (“The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”), protesting against the tendency to evaluate a person by his wealth and class, complains that he lives in need and sorrow, suffers under the “work yoke” of a master who constantly humiliates him. In the prayer of the hero addressed to the prince, one hears the voice of a man who has experienced all the vicissitudes of fate and passionately longs for justice.

The gallery of classic “little people” is opened by Samson Vyrin (“The Stationmaster” by A.S. Pushkin). "A real martyr of the fourteenth grade", insulted and humiliated, he dies due to the inability to defend his father's rights, his human dignity.

In the 30-50s. XIX century, the theme of the "little man" was developed mainly in line with the story of a poor official. The humble and unrequited Akaki Akakievich (“The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol) is “a creature protected by no one, dear to no one, not interesting to anyone.” He not only suffers from a despotic, indifferent and disrespectful attitude towards himself, but also tries to protest. The theft of a new overcoat, the wall of indifference on the part of those who, on duty, had to help the hero, cause a kind of rebellion - in a state of unconsciousness, Bashmachkin addresses the “most terrible words” to the “significant person”, and after death triumphs over the offender.

The writers of the natural school developed two directions in the image of the "little man" - accusatory-satirical and compassionate-sympathetic. They saw the psychological split of this type, characterized the phenomenon, later called the "ideological underground". In the works of the natural school, close attention is paid to the motives of honor, pride, "ambition" of the "little man". These tendencies culminate in F.M. Dostoevsky. Makar Devushkin is able to rise to the understanding that "he is a man in his heart and thoughts." He protests against identifying himself with Gogol's grroy, his awareness of the injustice of the social order gives rise to a painful and contradictory combination of humility and rebellion in his soul.

In the 60s. XIX century, the "little man" begins to lose its generic characteristics and gradually exhausts its original content. Democratic writers waged an active struggle for the right of the individual to independently control his own destiny, and the “little man” in their works manifests himself as a person who is ready to fight for his happiness, to actively resist circumstances.

By the 80s. the destructuring of the image of the “little man” was continued in the work of A.P. Chekhov ("The Death of an Official", "Thick and Thin", "On a Nail", etc.). His characters are no longer “small”, but “small people” and do not evoke sympathy in the reader.

In a broad sense, the "little man" continued to exist in the literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. But the heroes of A. Kuprin, L. Andreev, I. Shmelev, A. Serafimovich, S. Skitalets are capable of a conscious protest against the humiliation of their human dignity, they are ready to make an independent moral choice, to abandon the fate of the “little man” prepared for them. Therefore, due to the exhaustion of species characteristics, the term “little man” cannot be used in relation to these characters.

MEDITATION LYRICS(from Latin meditatio - in-depth and purposeful reflection) - a special genre-thematic variety of poetry, representing in-depth reflection, individualized contemplation, aimed at comprehending the innermost patterns of being. Meditative lyrics are related to philosophical ones, but do not merge with them. For example: “Do I wander along the noisy streets ...” (A. S. Pushkin), “I go out alone on the road ...” (M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​“On a haystack at southern night ...” (A .A. Fet). Samples of meditative lyrics are found in A.A. Blok, I.F. Annensky, N.A. Zabolotsky.

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a type of trail, which is based on the transfer of a name by similarity or by analogy. Similar features can be color, shape, character of movement, any individual properties of an object: “a fire that never burns unimaginable love” (V.V. Mayakovsky), “the fire of the dawn” (A.A. Blok).

In language and in artistic speech, there are two main models according to which metaphors are formed. The first is based on animation, or personification (the clock is running, the year has flown by, feelings are fading), the second is based on reification (iron will, deep sadness, flames, the finger of fate). Poem F.I. Tyutchev "There is in the original autumn ..." is built on the alternation of metaphors:

Where a peppy sickle walked and an ear fell,

Now everything is empty - space is everywhere, -

Only cobwebs of thin hair
Shines on an idle furrow ...

Metaphors can become the basis for creating symbolic images. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Sail" metaphors are the basis of the symbolic image of the sail:

What is he looking for in a distant country?

What did he throw in his native land? ..

Alas! he is not looking for happiness
And not from happiness runs!

And he, rebellious, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms!

If the metaphor is revealed over a large segment of the text or the whole work, then it is called expanded. In Mayakovsky's poem "A Cloud in Pants" the well-known metaphor "nerves diverged" is deployed:

like a sick person out of bed
nerve jumped.

And so, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran
excited,
clear.

Now he and the new two
rush about in a desperate tap-dance.

When a metaphorical expression is taken in the literal sense, a new understanding of it arises. This phenomenon is called the realization of a metaphor. On this technique, the ending of V. V. Mayakovsky’s poem “The Sitting Ones” is built, in which the everyday metaphor “it is torn to pieces” is implemented.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - a type of trail, which is based on the transfer of the name by adjacency.

Unlike metaphor, which is formed as a result of similarity, metonymy is based on a real connection, on real relationships between objects. These relations, which make two objects of thought logically adjacent to each other, can be of different categories. In the novel "Eugene Onegin" A. S. Pushkin used metonymic allegory: "I read Apuleius willingly, / I did not read Cicero" (the author and his work), "The Language of Petrarch and Love" (signs of the subject and the subject itself), "Parterre and armchairs - everything boils" (object and person), "Everything that for a plentiful whim / Trades scrupulous London" (object and space).

MONOLOGUE (from the Greek monos - one and logos - word, speech) - a type of artistic speech. In a literary work, a monologue is a speech of a character addressed to himself or others, but, unlike a dialogue, does not depend on their replicas. In plays and epic works, monologues are a form of utterance by characters. In A. S. Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", the main characters - Chatsky and Famusov - utter monologues that reflect their worldview ("Who are the judges? ..", "There is an insignificant meeting in that room ...", "That's it - then, you are all proud! .. ”, etc.). Most lyric poems are lyrical monologues.

MOTIVE(from the Greek moveo - move, set in motion) - the simplest unit of plot development. Any plot is an interweaving of closely related motifs. Motive is a recurring set of feelings and ideas of the author. Traditional in literature are the motives of the road, death, exile, flight, etc. For example, the main motive of the lyrics of M. Yu. Lermontov is the motive of loneliness (“Sail”, “Clouds”, “And it’s boring and sad ...”, “I go out alone on the road ...”, etc.).

NATURAL SCHOOL- the conditional name of one of the stages in the development of critical realism in Russian literature (40s of the XIX century). It is characterized by a focus on the "natural", i.e. strictly truthful, artless depiction of reality. The natural school united many talented writers of that time - N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharova, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.A. Nekrasov and others - and played an important role in the formation and development of Russian literature.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- philosophy of nature, a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety. For example: the poetry of F. I. Tyutchev is characterized by a special philosophy of nature, or natural philosophy, since the poet makes the entire universe the subject of artistic representation, correlates every moment of life with eternity, invades the limits of philosophy and the forbidden spheres of higher knowledge.

NEOLOGISMS(Greek neos - new and logos - word) - words, phrases or expressions created to denote a new object or phenomenon, as well as new meanings of old words. It is necessary to distinguish between linguistic (general) and individual author neologisms, i.e. those that have entered the language as a result of socio-political, scientific, cultural changes, and those created by the authors in order to enhance the impact of the literary word on the reader. The poems of V.V. are rich in individual author neologisms. Mayakovsky: “the third class is black from a negro”, “his preposterousness” (capital), “a hundred thousand cavalry”, “dragonism” (about a ballerina), etc.

NOVELLA(Italian novella - story) - an epic genre, a kind of story. It features a sharp, exciting plot and an unexpected ending. Sometimes a short story is called a chapter from a novel, because it has an extraordinary semantic capacity, the desire to reveal the fate of the hero in a concise form. These are the "Ionych" A.P. Chekhov, "The Gentleman from San Francisco", "Clean Monday" by I.A. Bunin, "The Fate of Man" M.A. Sholokhov.

"NEW PEOPLE"- the conditional name of the heroes who became the embodiment of a new type of public figure that appeared in Russia in the 60s. 19th century among the diverse intelligentsia. This term was introduced into literary use by N.G. Chernyshevsky. Dmitry Lopukhov, Alexander Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna, Katya Polozova, the Mertsalovs and many other heroes of the novel What Is To Be Done? in no way similar to their literary predecessors - "superfluous" and "small" people.

Geroev N.G. Chernyshevsky, who received labor education, is distinguished by a craving for knowledge, they are most interested in the natural sciences. Materialists and socialists, they have a program for the reorganization of society on new, reasonable principles, they own the economic theory of the organization of collective labor (social labor and everyday communes without exploitation on the basis of equality).

New moral and ethical standards determine their relationship with other characters in the novel. The basis of the actions of the "new man" is a correctly understood expediency, their actions are regulated by the theory of "reasonable egoism" or, as it is also called, the theory of benefit and benefit. People of moral perfection, heroes of N.G. Chernyshevsky embody the life "norm" to which every "ordinary" person should strive.

Since the "new people" are the embodiment of "reasonable" ideas about life, the concept of personality, presented in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, was called "rationalist".

Having shown the reader a new “hero of time”, the author partly answered the question posed in the title of the work: in order to live with dignity in the present and bring a happy future closer, one must be a “new person”.

It is believed that the modifications of the "new man" are the heroes of other works of the 60s. (“Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve” by I.S. Turgenev, “Hard Time” by V.A. Sleptsov, etc.). Like the classic "new people", the characters of these novels are characterized by a heightened sense of self-worth, a desire to deny the existing order, high intelligence, political and social certainty of ideals. The main content of the life of the "new man" of the 60s. becomes work for the benefit of the future, animated by willpower. However, Turgenev’s Bazarov no longer has a clear program for creating the future (“First, you need to clear the place ...”), and the Bulgarian Insarov is fighting against external enemies for the freedom of his own homeland. Therefore, the question of who will fight the "internal Turks" in these works remains open.

It is difficult to trace the further literary fate of the “new man”: his species-specific features are blurred so much that the heroes of works-parodies on the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, and the heroes of the famous "anti-nihilistic" novels, and the heroes of the literature of socialist realism. Therefore, it is traditionally believed that the “classical” representatives of this literary type are the raznochintsy of the 60s, ideologists and practitioners who seek to radically change the life order of Russian society.

OH YEAH(from the Greek ode - song) - a lyrical work dedicated to the depiction of major historical events or persons, touching on significant topics of religious and philosophical content, saturated with a solemn tone, pathetic enthusiasm of the author. The ode used high, bookish vocabulary, archaisms, allegories. This genre of poetry reached its true heyday in the 18th century. - in the era of classicism - in the work of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin ("Monument"). In the XIX - XX centuries. The ode genre has undergone significant changes in both content and style. A.S. also addressed the ode. Pushkin ("Liberty"), V.V. Mayakovsky ("Ode to the Revolution"), O.E. Mandelstam ("Twilight of Freedom"), etc.

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty stupidity) - a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate combination of definitions and concepts that are incompatible in meaning. This is a verbal antithesis, as a result of which unexpected images arise. “Eloquent silence”, “get out of the water” are oxymorons of everyday speech. In lyrics, oxymorons reflect the complexity of the emotional world of the lyrical hero or the inconsistency of the phenomena of reality. For example, “I love the lush nature of withering ...” (A.S. Pushkin), “the wretched luxury of the outfit” (N.A. Nekrasov), “it’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova). The title of a literary work is often built on an oxymoron - “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, "Hot Snow" Yu.V. Bondarev, etc.

PERSONALIZATION- a kind of trail, denoting the image of an inanimate or abstract object as animated (able to think, feel, speak). For example, a vivid image-personification was created by A.S. Pushkin in the poem "To the Sea". In the image of the poet, the sea is a living being capable of being sad, angry, and wayward. Therefore, it is so natural to compare the sea with Byron - the singer of the sea and the man created by his "spirit". The inner spiritual kinship connects the poet himself with the sea: the sea is a “friend”, sad with him, his “reviews”, “deaf sounds” and “voice abysses” are understandable to the poet.

FEATURE ARTICLE- a "small" epic genre, based not on the depiction of a conflict, as a genre of a story, but on a descriptive depiction of some socially or morally significant phenomenon or event. Allocate travel, documentary, portrait, "physiological", psychological essay.

PARALLELISM SYNTACTICAL(from the Greek parallesmos - walking side by side) - a similar syntactic construction of two (or more) sentences or other fragments of text. Parallelism is used in works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” N.A. Nekrasov, "Vasily Terkin" by A.T. Tvardovsky). Parallelism as a compositional technique is widespread in lyrics:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him.

So the temple left - all the temple,

Idol defeated - everything is God!

(M. Lermontov)

When horses die, they breathe

When grasses die, they dry

When the suns die, they go out

When people die, they sing songs.

(V. Khlebnikov)

PARONYMY(Greek raga - near, with, outside and onima - name) - a technique of artistic speech, which consists in establishing links between similar-sounding words that sharpen poetic associations. Paronyms create expressive consonances, emphasizing the originality of semantic relationships between words. For example: “Siberians! Rumor does not lie, - / Even from the forest, from the pine people, / Even though he is a team, but selective ... ”(A.T. Tvardovsky).

PATHOS(from the Greek pathos - passion, feeling) - the ideological and emotional mood of a work of art or all creativity; passion that permeates the work and gives it a single stylistic coloring. Allocate heroic, civil, lyrical, tragic and other types of pathos.

For example, in a poem by A.A. Block "Russia" the fate of the country is comprehended as tragic. The corresponding pathos permeates the lines:

Russia, impoverished Russia,

I have your gray huts,

Your songs are windy for me -

Like the first tears of love!

SCENERY(French paysage, from pays - country, area) - an image of pictures of nature that performs various functions in a work of art, depending on the style and artistic position of the writer. There are the following types of landscape: lyrical, romantic, symbolic, psychological. Depending on the type of literature, a landscape can carry a different semantic load. So, in the lyrics, pictures of nature reflect the moods and experiences of the lyrical hero. For example, the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Clouds" set off "clouds of heaven, eternal wanderers", and the joyful mood of the lyrical hero in the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Winter Morning" is associated with the following landscape:

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets.

Shining in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river under the ice glitters.

In epic works, nature is often an independent object of the image. Nature affects not only the actions of people, but also their psychological state. For example, the landscape, placed in the chapter "Oblomov's Dream" (I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"), shows the state of peace, tranquility and harmony of the protagonist, immersed in the sensations of his childhood.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE)(from the Greek. pariphrasis - retelling) - a trope denoting the replacement of the direct name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their essential features. For example: "the king of beasts" instead of a lion; "pea coat" instead of detective; Foggy Albion instead of England. Instead of saying that Onegin settled in his uncle's room, A.S. Pushkin in his novel "Eugene Onegin" writes:

He settled in that peace,

Where is the village old-timer
For forty years I quarreled with the housekeeper,

He looked out the window and crushed flies.

CHARACTER(French personnage, from lat. persona - personality, person) - the protagonist of a work of art or stage performance. In any work, the characters are divided into central (main), secondary and episodic.

Animals (fables, fairy tales), inanimate objects and fantastic creatures can also act as characters - if they reveal the traits of a person's character.

The central characters are depicted in more detail, they are the main participants in the events, often the idea of ​​​​the work is associated with them. The depiction of secondary characters is more concise, their characteristics are less detailed, and their role in the plot of the work is limited to participation in a small number of events. Episodic characters often serve to create a background, an environment for action. They can be outlined with just a few strokes. So, in the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "Master and Margarita" the central characters are Pontius Pilate, Yeshua Ha-Nozri, Master, Margarita, Woland. Secondary characters - Kaifa, Varenukha, Rimsky, Styopa Likhodeev, episodic - Annushka, accountant Sokov, Baron Meigel, etc.

In dramatic works, off-stage characters are also distinguished - those people who are not on the stage and therefore are not characters in the literal sense. However, they are mentioned in conversations or remarks, they are spoken of with approval or condemnation. For example, off-stage characters in A.S. Griboedov "Woe from Wit" are the nephew of Princess Tugoukhovskaya, Skalozub's brother, Maxim Petrovich, Princess Marya Aleksevna, etc.

SONG- a small lyrical work intended for singing; usually couplet (strophic). It is necessary to distinguish between a folk song and a song as a genre of written poetry. In oral folk art, the following varieties of song genres have developed: lyrical, historical, comic, love, dance, ritual and calendar (podblyuchnaya, Shrovetide, stonefly, reaping, etc.), etc. A literary work may include either actually folklore songs ("Song of the Girls" in the third chapter of "Eugene Onegin") or - more often - pastiche of folk songs (songs in N.A. Nekrasov's poem "Who Lives Well in Russia"). Ancient Cossack songs are organically included in the structure of the novel by M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don", symbolizing the common destinies of the Cossacks of all times. .

STORY- the "medium" genre of the epic in terms of volume and coverage of vital material (along with the "large" genre of the novel and the "small" genre of the story). The leading genre feature of the story is moral descriptiveness, that is, the writers' primary attention to depicting the life and customs of a certain social environment. For example, "Overcoat" N.V. Gogol, "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" by A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

REPEAT- repetition of compositional elements, words, phrases and other text fragments in a work of art. There are sound repetitions (assonance and alliteration, rhyme), anaphora, epiphora, refrain, chorus, etc. Repetition can emphasize the key meaning of a particular word to characterize a person’s state or his attitude to something, emotionally highlighting or strengthening it. For example, in the poem "Railway" N.A. Nekrasov emphasizes the strength and patience of the Russian people with the anaphorically repeated verb “carried out”:
The Russian people carried enough

Carried out this railroad -

Will endure whatever the Lord sends...

SUBTINT- a hidden meaning different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context. In the theater, the subtext can be revealed with the help of silence, intonation, irony, gesture, facial expressions. Subtext is more characteristic of realistic works based on psychologism.

Subtext is of great importance in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky, M. Gorky. The system of subtext meanings in the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov is especially developed.

PORTRAIT(from the French portrait - image, portrait) - the image of the hero's appearance (facial features, figure, posture, facial expressions, gesture, clothing) as one of the means of characterizing him; kind of description. The portrait gives the writer ample opportunities to characterize not only the appearance, but also the inner world of a person, since in the appearance of a person his views on life, character, and psychological characteristics are always manifested to a greater or lesser extent.

The history of the literary portrait is rooted in antiquity and reflects the process of the artist's knowledge of the world, the search for ways to create an individual human character.

In the early stages of the development of literature, the personal principle in the portrait was unexpressed. Folklore heroes were endowed with a conditionally symbolic appearance: “red” girls, “good fellows”, “powerful” heroes, etc.

In the literature of Ancient Rus', a generalized abstract portrait performed an evaluative function, indicating, as a rule, the social status of the hero.

The classicists created two stereotypes: an "idealizing" portrait of a noble hero and a portrait of a hero of low birth.

The portrait of sentimentalists is already psychological, it is designed to help to see in the hero, first of all, a “sensitive” soul.

The romantics have an exotic-colorful portrait, conveying the contrasting qualities of a bright, independent, chosen personality: “... his wide forehead was yellow like the forehead of a scientist, gloomy like a cloud covering the sun on a storm day, thin, pale lips, were stretched and squeezed by how with a convulsive movement, and a whole future shone in the eyes ... ”(M.Yu. Lermontov.“ Vadim ”).

In realistic literature, the portrait is characterological: the appearance of the hero reflects the traits of his character, individual social, family, age and other traits.

The portrait gives an idea of ​​the writer's aesthetic ideal and reveals the author's understanding of the category of beauty.

A portrait can be a one-time description or consist of several descriptions with varying degrees of distance from each other. Concentrated portraits are characteristic of episodic characters, dispersed - the main ones.

The structure of a portrait can be simple or complex. Portraits of a simple structure include portraits-details, consisting of a description of one portrait feature, and portraits-sketches, consisting of a description of several details. In portraits of a complex structure, portrait components are presented in a complex, for example: “She was a young woman of about twenty-three, all white and soft, with dark hair and eyes, with red, childishly plump lips and delicate hands. She was wearing a neat cotton dress; a blue new scarf easily lay on her rounded shoulders ”(I.S. Turgenev. “Fathers and Sons”).

A more complex view is a portrait-comparison. The author resorts to this type of portraiture in those cases when he needs to evoke certain associations in the reader. In the story of N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”, the narrator introduces the main character, Ivan Severyanovich Flyagin: “... he was in the full sense of the word a hero, and at the same time a typical simple-hearted, kind Russian hero, reminiscent of grandfather Ilya Muromets in the beautiful picture of Vereshchagin and in the poem of Count A. TO. Tolstoy".

An even more complex form is the impression portrait. With an almost complete absence of portrait details, it leaves a vivid impression on the reader and encourages him to think about the image created by the author of the text. Such is the portrait created by A.A. Fetom:

You are all on fire. Your lightning
And I am decorated with sparkles;

Under the shadow of gentle eyelashes
Heavenly fire is not afraid of me.

But I'm afraid of such heights

What is given to me by your soul?

At the first acquaintance of the reader with the hero, an expositional portrait is usually given. F.M. Dostoevsky, clearly wanting to win over the reader to his hero, introduces Rodion Raskolnikov: “By the way, he was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark Russian, taller than average, thin and slender.”

In the leitmotif portrait, some individualized detail is assigned to the character, which is repeated throughout the entire story. For example, the leitmotif in the portrait sketches of Matryona (“Matryonin Dvor” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) becomes a “radiant”, “kind” smile. The portrait of the "enlightened" Magryona becomes a means of revealing the inner world of the heroine, in which peace, peace and goodness reign.

The psychological portrait expresses this or that state of the character. In Marmeladov (F.M. Dostoevsky. “Crime and Punishment”) there was something “... very strange; in his eyes, it was as if even enthusiasm shone - perhaps there was both sense and intelligence - but at the same time, it was as if madness flickered.

There are two types of psychological portrait:

1) a portrait that emphasizes the conformity of the hero's appearance with his inner world; 2) a portrait that contrasts with the inner world of the hero. For example, in the novel "A Hero of Our Time" a discrepancy between Pechorin's external appearance (feigned indifference, coldness, calmness) is revealed with his true spiritual qualities, the passion of his nature. Often the portrait contains the author's assessment of the character (for example, the portrait of Olga in "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin or Helen in "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy).

MESSAGE- a work written in the form of a letter or appeal to a person (persons). For example, the messages of A.S. Pushkin “To a poet friend”, “To Chaadaev”, “I.I. Pushchin"; messages from S.A. Yesenin "Letter to mother", "Letter to a woman", "Letter to grandfather", "Letter to sister", etc.

POEM(from the Greek poiem - to create, poiema - creation) - a lyric-epic work with a narrative or lyrical plot. The originality of the poem is based on a combination of the narrative characteristics of characters, events, etc., and their disclosure through the perception and evaluation of the lyrical hero, the narrator, who plays an active role in the poem.

Depending on the artistic position of the author and artistic techniques, heroic, romantic, lyrical-psychological, philosophical, historical and other poems are distinguished (“The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, "To whom it is good to live in Russia" by N.A. Nekrasov, "The Twelve" by A.A. Blok, "Requiem" by A.A. Akhmatova).

POETICS(from the Greek poietike - poetic art) - a section of literary theory that studies the structure of literary works and the system of figurative and expressive means used in them. The term "poetics" also denotes a system of artistic means characteristic of the writer, certain genres, and the literary direction of the era.

RECEPTION- the constructive principle of organizing a literary work: plot-compositional, genre, stylistic.

For example, techniques in the field of composition: the introduction of extra-plot elements, a change of points of view; stylistic devices: metaphors, inversions, repetitions, etc.

PARABLE- moral teaching in allegorical form. By its nature, the parable is close to a fable, but the meaning of the parable is always deeper, more philosophical. The legends about Larra and Danko (“Old Woman Izergid” by A.M. Gorky) are of a parable character, in which the author touches upon the philosophical problem of an extraordinary human personality and its place in society.

PROLOGUE(from the Greek prologos - preface) - the introductory part of a work of art, which outlines the events that precede the events of the plot in time. The prologue episodes are not part of the plot action, but are necessary for its understanding. In addition, detailed characteristics of the characters can be given in the prologue, their past is shown, and the author's position is expressed.

For example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" opens with a prologue in which the poet creates a multifaceted image of St. Petersburg, expresses the author's attitude to the "city of Peter".

SPACE AND TIME- conditional forms of comprehension of life. They are the most important characteristics of the picture of the world created by the author, determine the rhythm and pace of the text, and provide a holistic perception of it by the reader.

Various forms of organizing space and time in a work are provided by the specifics of the artistic direction, the genre features of the text, the way the plot is constructed, etc.

In folklore, space and time are universal: the depicted events occur "everywhere" and at the same time "nowhere", "always" and at the same time "never".

Classicism requires adherence to the unity of time, place and action, strict regulation of spatio-temporal relations.

The romantic worldview that gave rise to the idea of ​​"two worlds" significantly expanded the possibilities of this category. Since the object of close attention of romantics is not so much the external as the inner world of the individual, it is he who becomes the center of spatio-temporal coordinates.

In realistic art, the concept of linear time has become a priority, according to which time for everyone equally moves in a straight line from the past through the present to the future.

The "Copernican coup" was carried out by the authors of the "great" novels of the 19th century. The main characteristics of artistic time are duration or brevity, static or dynamic, discontinuity or continuity, etc. Artistic space is determined by closedness or unlimitedness, proportionality or deformation, integrity or fragmentation, etc.

Depending on the degree of artistic convention, space and time can be abstract or concrete. The action in fairy tales takes place “in a certain kingdom”, “in a certain state”, and in fables - in general “in the world” (“For me, those talents are worthless, / In which there is no use for the Light, / Although the Light sometimes marvels at them”) and “always” (“How many times have they told the world, / That flattery is vile, harmful; but only it’s not for the future, / And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner”).

The concrete space connects the depicted world with toponyms (from the Greek topos - place and entanglement - name, title) of the real world. The concretization of space is used to create generalized images of the "world", "city", "village", "estate", etc. Spatial coordinates placed in the text of the story by I.A. Bunin's "Clean Monday" (Ordynka, Krasnye Vorota, Griboyedovsky Lane, Okhotny Ryad, "Prague", "Hermitage", Rogozhskoye Cemetery, Novodevichy Convent, Marfo-Mariinsky Convent, etc.), contribute to the creation of the image of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century. Expanding the spatio-temporal framework of the work, they inscribe the specific space of Moscow into the general space of Russian History.

The degree of specificity of time in different works is different. Depending on the ratio of real and artistic time, eventless, or "zero" time (author's descriptions of the interior, landscape, portrait of heroes) and eventful time are distinguished. Event time can be chronicle-household (recurring events of the same type many times over time: from year to year, day after day) and event-plot (the passage of time determines the most important changes in the lives of heroes).

The ideological and artistic function of chronicle-everyday time is the reproduction of stable forms of being (for example, the noble cultural and domestic and family way of life in the novels by I. A. Goncharov "Oblomov" and I. S. Turgenev "The Noble Nest"). The event-plot time allows us to show the life of the hero as a “self-manifestation” of an individual personality in space (the ideological and moral searches of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov; traced from childhood to spiritual “growing up” the life of Ivan Flyagin, the protagonist of N. S. Leskov’s story “The Enchanted Wanderer " etc.).

In the literature of the 20th century, the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world becomes more complicated. Along with the traditional types of organization of time and space (“Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov), new ones appear: A single state in the anti-utopia of E.I. Zamyatin "We", Chevengur in the novel of the same name by A.P. Platonova, Yershalaim in The Master and Margarita by M.A. Bulgakov, "absurd", "internal" space, which became the realities of the text, and not reality in the "School of Fools" by S. Sokolov, "Moscow - Petushki" by V.V. Erofeev.

Other concepts are also used to denote the connection between space and time - the chronotope and the space-time continuum.

DENOUNCING- an element of the plot, suggesting the outcome of events, the solution of contradictions (conflict) between the characters. Usually the denouement is located at the end of the work, but sometimes, in accordance with the author's intention, in the middle and even at the beginning (for example, in I.A. Bunin's story "Light Breath"). In comedy A.S. Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit" the denouement is the scene after the ball in Famusov's house, in which Chatsky's conflict with Famusov's society ends (although not resolved).

Sometimes the denouement indicates the insolubility of the main conflict, in this case they talk about the open ending of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov, “Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, etc.) .

SIZE POETRY- a way of organizing the sound composition of a poetic work. It is determined by the number of syllables (in syllabic versification), the number of stresses in a line (in tonic versification), the number of stressed syllables (in syllabic-tonic versification). In syllabo-tonic versification, two-syllable (trochee, iambic) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapaest, amphibrach) poetic meters are distinguished.

STORY- "small" epic genre, characterized by a small volume and conciseness of the image of the phenomena of life. As a result - a small number of characters, the short duration of events, a simple composition (in the center of the work there is only one episode from the life of the protagonist). The stories are such works as “Student”, “Man in a Case”, “Death of an Official” by A.P. Chekhov, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, "The Fate of Man" M.A. Sholokhov.

REALISM(from late Latin realis - material, real) - an artistic method (and literary direction), following which the writer objectively, reliably depicts life in typical characters acting in typical circumstances. The main task of a realist writer is to study the social ties of man and society. In a work of art, a historically specific depiction of characters and circumstances in their interdependence. The most important stages in the development of realism as an artistic method: educational (D.I. Fonvizin, I.A. Krylov), critical (N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and others), socialist (M. Gorky, M.A. Sholokhov and others).

REALIA- a word denoting an object, concept or phenomenon characteristic of the history, culture, life of a particular people or country. For example: “throne” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”), “gorenka” (“Who should live well in Rus'”), “clerk chief” (“Overcoat”), “camp”, “rations” (“One day of Ivan Denisovich” ),

RESONER- an artistic character prone to constant declarations (official or solemn policy statements) and recitations. For example, the reasoners are Pravdin in the play by D.I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth", Chatsky in the comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", Kuligin in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm".

REMARK(from French remarque - remark, note) - explanations with which the playwright precedes or accompanies the course of action in the play. The remarks contain indications of the place and time of the action, movements, gestures, facial expressions, intonations of the characters. For example, in A.P. Chekhov's play "The Cherry Orchard":

F and r s (goes to the door, touches the handle). Locked up. They left... (Sits down on the sofa.) They forgot about me... Nothing... I'll sit here... But Leonid Andreevich, I suppose, didn't put on a fur coat, he went in a coat... (Sighs with concern.) I didn't look... Young-green! (He mutters something that is impossible to understand.) Life has passed, as if he had not lived ... (Lies down.) I'll lie down ... You don't have Silushka, there's nothing left, nothing ... Oh, you. ..stupid! (Lies motionless.)

From the end of the 19th century, remarks in the dramas of A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky and others play an increasingly important role, revealing the author's assessment of a character or episode.

REMINISCIONS- present in literary texts "references" to previous cultural and historical facts, works or their authors. As a reproduction of a fragment of an "alien text" at any level (plot, figurative, quotation, metric, etc.), reminiscences can be switched on consciously or arise independently of the author's will, involuntarily.

Reminiscences can be quotations or their retelling; titles of works, often used in the meaning of art centers; the names of the characters that have become symbols; events that perform the functions of a visual means; borrowings in which the plot scheme, the arrangement of characters, their features and characters are subtly changed by the author.

For example, in the poem “There is melodiousness in the sea waves ...” F.I. Tyutchev used the image of a “thinking reed” belonging to B. Pascal (“Thoughts”). For B. Pascal, this metaphor is a sign of the necessary presence of man in the natural world. For F. I. Tyutchev, this image helps to explain the tragedy of being a “discord” between a person and nature, as a result of which the “thinking reed” can only bitterly complain and protest: “And the thinking reed grumbles ...”.

In the work of A.A. Blok used the biblical reminiscence "carry your cross". Its introduction into the figurative system of the poem "Kite" allows the author to shade the traditional meaning of "submission to fate": "Grow, submit, bear the cross." In the poem “Russia”, this image leads to the appearance of other shades (“And I carefully bear my cross”), which contributes to the emergence of a new, symbolic meaning of the text: the suffering prepared for the lyrical hero is not only initially inevitable, but also holy. He is ready to consciously accept them and “carefully” endure them.

Connections of several reminiscences form "reminiscence nests". So, for example, the second line of the poem by O.E. Mandelstam: “I read the list of ships to the middle ...” (“Insomnia. Homer. Tight sails ...”) - refers the reader to the second song of the Iliad (“Dream of Boeotia, or the list of ships”). The list given by Homer contains the names of 1186 ships marching on Troy. This explains the appearance in the text of O.E. Mandelstam of images associated with the category of time and movement (the gaze of the lyrical hero, who is in a state of insomnia, glides over the lines of the Iliad, and they appear to him as a brood of cranes, a wedge, a train floating in the sky). The images of cranes give rise to a second layer of reminiscences (“foreign land”, “wedding train”). The purpose of the campaign is reported in the third stanza: “If it were not for Elena, / What is Troy for you, Achaean men?”. The whole reminiscent nest allows us to clarify the main idea of ​​the text - everything in the world is “moved by love”, and this universal law should be obeyed, as the proud and courageous Achaeans once obeyed it.

"Polygenetic Reminiscences" refers the reader to not one, but to a number of sources. For example, lines from a poem by M.I. Tsvetaeva “Who is created from stone, who is created from clay...” evoke associations in the reader related to the content of some myths about the creation of man from earth and clay, apocryphal legends about the creation of Adam, introduce biblical motifs of baptism with water.

REPLICA(from the French replique - objection) - the dialogic form of the character's statement; the response phrase of the interlocutor, followed by the speech of another character.

RHYTHM(from Greek rhythmos - tact, proportion) - periodic repetition of any elements of the text at regular intervals. In literary works, rhythm is created by the repetition of phonetic elements: sounds, pauses, stresses, syllables, combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables, as well as words, rows of words, syntactic constructions.

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures; such a construction of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not imply an answer, it only enhances the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement.

For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Death of a Poet"
Killed!., why sob now,

Empty praise unnecessary choir
And the pathetic babble of excuses?

Fate's verdict has come true!

Didn't you at first so viciously persecuted
His free, bold gift
And for fun inflated
Slightly hidden fire?

RHYME(from Greek rhythmos - proportionality) - repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes that connect the endings of two or more lines. Individual sounds can be repeated in the lines (“love is blood”), words (“young is a hammer”) are a simple rhyme, and groups of words are a compound rhyme. Rhymes are divided into exact (with the coincidence of all sounds) and inexact (with phonetic coincidence or similarity of individual sounds). Depending on the location of stresses in rhyming words, rhymes are masculine (with emphasis on the last syllable: deceit - fog), feminine (with emphasis on the penultimate syllable: fame - fun), dactylic (with emphasis on the third syllable from the end of the line: boys - fingers ), hyperdactylic (with an accent on the fourth syllable from the end of the line: opal - pinning).

rhyme- the arrangement of rhyming lines in a verse. There are three main types of rhyme: paired (adjacent) - aabb, cross - abab and ring (girdle) - abba.

NOVEL(French romans - narration) - an epic genre, a prose work of a large form, revealing the history of several, sometimes many human destinies over a long period of time. This is one of the freest literary forms, involving a huge number of modifications: a historical novel, picaresque, chivalrous, love, psychological, philosophical, adventure, detective, fantastic, etc. The novel is able to synthesize a variety of genre trends and even entire genres. For example, a "novel in verse", a chronicle novel, an autobiographical novel, a novel in letters, an epic novel, etc.

The most significant works in the genre of the novel were created in the 19th century - "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin, "A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov, "Fathers and Sons" by I.S. Turgenev, "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky”, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov, etc.

ROMANTICISM(French romantisme) - an artistic method and literary trend that developed in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Romantics, rejecting the everyday life of their civilized society as boring and colorless, strove for everything unusual - mysticism, fantasy, mystery. They contrasted base practicality with lofty feelings and passions, a rich spiritual life (art, philosophy, religion), and the pursuit of an ideal. For romantics, a person is a small universe, a microcosm, a bright individuality. The hero of the works of romanticism is a strong, free person who struggles with the routine, an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances. Russian romantics turned to oral folk art, used folklore images, plots, means of artistic depiction (V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana", M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"), Features of romanticism are noticeable in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.M. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, the early stories of M. Gorky, etc.

ROMAN EPIC- a genre of epic that combines the features of the novel and the epic. Such a work with special completeness covers one or another historical era in a multi-layered plot. The fate of the personality in its individual moral quest (a feature of the novel) is closely connected with the fate of the country and the people (a feature of the epic); characters are formed and evolve under the influence of major historical events. Among the works of this genre are “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, "Quiet Flows the Don" by M.A. Sholokhov, "Walking through the torments" by A.N. Tolstoy.

SARCASM(from the Greek sarkasmos - mockery) - angry, caustic, open mockery of the depicted, the highest degree of irony. Such, for example, is the epigram of A. S. Pushkin “On Arakcheev”:
The oppressor of all Russia,

Governors tormentor
And he is a teacher of the Council,

And he is a friend and brother to the king.

Full of malice, full of revenge

Without mind, without feelings, without honor,

Who is he? Devotee without flattery

Gross soldier.

SATIRE(from lat. satira - a crowded dish, a hodgepodge) - 1. Kind of comic: merciless ridicule of socially harmful phenomena and human vices. Satirical laughter has a lot of shades, and the range of satirical works is unusually wide: from N.V. Gogol ("Inspector General", "Dead Souls") and A.N. Ostrovsky ("Thunderstorm") to the political satire of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“History of one city”, fairy tales). Behind satirical laughter, there is always a certain position of the writer, an understanding of what the ridiculed object should be like if it were devoid of comic contradictions. The author's position is expressed through criticism, denial of the very subject of the image or its individual properties. Satire defines the specifics of many literary genres: fables, epigrams, pamphlets, feuilleton, comedies.

2. The genre of lyric poetry, which arose in antiquity. The main genre feature of satire is the ridicule of a wide variety of life phenomena. Genre features of satire are found in the final 16 lines of the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "The Death of a Poet", in the poem by V. V. Mayakovsky "The Sitting Ones".

FREE VERSE, or VERS LIBRE(French vers iibre) - a kind of verse, devoid of rhyme and meter and retaining only one feature that distinguishes it from prose - a given division into correlated and commensurate lines, which is marked in the text by their graphic arrangement. For example:

She came from the cold

flushed,

Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,

And completely disrespectful to work
Chatter.

(A. A. Blok)

SENTIMENTALISM(from French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - an artistic method and literary direction that developed in the second half of the 18th century. Sentimentalism contrasted classicism with an increased interest in the human person (regardless of class), her feelings and experiences, and inner life. Of great importance for symbolism were pictures of nature, against which the state of the hero's soul was revealed with special emotionality. The founder of sentimentalism in Russia was N.M. Karamzin (story "Poor Lisa"),

SYMBOL(from the Greek symbolon - a conventional sign, a sign) - a multi-valued allegorical image based on the similarity, similarity or commonality of objects and phenomena of life. Using symbols, the artist does not show things, but only hints at them, makes us guess the meaning of the obscure, reveal "hieroglyphic words". Thus, a symbol always has a figurative meaning; this is a trope. Unlike allegory, a symbolic image does not have a straightforward, rational meaning. He always keeps alive, emotional associations with a wide range of phenomena.

There are two main types of symbols. The first type includes symbols that have a basis in the cultural tradition - images-symbols of the sea, sail, road, path, sky, snowstorm, fire, cross, etc.

The second type includes symbols that were created without relying on cultural tradition. Such symbols arose within one literary work or a series of works. These are the symbols of the cherry orchard in the play by A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard", a leopard in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri", the furiously rushing Rus'-troika in the poem by N.V. Gogol's Dead Souls. A symbol of life and faith, a metaphor for the soul in the novel by B.L. Pasternak's "Doctor Zhivago" is a candle.

SYMBOLISM- a literary trend of the late XIX - early XX centuries, the main principle of which is the artistic expression of ideas and images through symbols. The Symbolists avoided naming the subject directly, but preferred to hint at its content and meaning with the help of allegory, metaphor, sound writing, etc. Symbolism is usually divided into two currents - the "senior" symbolists, whose work fell on the 1890s. (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky and others), and the “younger ones”, whose creative life began in the 1900s. (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

SYNECDOCHE(from ancient Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a kind of metonymy, based on transfer by quantity: 1) a part is called instead of the whole, for example, in N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", Chichikov addresses a peasant: "Hey, beard! And how to get from here to Plyushkin? Here the meanings of "man with a beard" and "beard" are combined; 2) the singular is called instead of the plural, for example, in M.Yu. Lermontov: "And it was heard before dawn / how the Frenchman rejoiced."

SYNCRETISM(from the Greek synkretismos - connection, association) - the indivisibility of various types of cultural creativity. In modern science, it is seen as a trend towards the formation of a new unified picture of the world, based on an understanding of the interdependence and interconnectedness of everything that exists.

For example, in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, God shows Igor the way from the Polovtsian captivity to the Russian land, but other pagan deities (Dazhdbog, Stribog, Chore, Veles, etc.) are repeatedly mentioned in the text of the monument, which indicates the specifics of the syncretic Christian pagan worldview of the author of the work.

General principles of constructing artistic images in comedy D.I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth" are conditioned by the value orientations and aesthetic attitudes of satire (comedy) and ode (tragedy).

The blurring of boundaries between individual works and their combination into lyrical cycles causes A.A. Akhmatova the creation of a new independent work. So in the collection "Rosary" the cycle is formed around one poem, which is central and contains certain combinations of topics.

SKAZ- 1. The principle of narration, based on the imitation of the speech manner of the narrator, representing any ethnic, professional, socio-historical, class group (N.S. Leskov "Lefty", "The Enchanted Wanderer").

2. Genre of folklore, narration about contemporary events or the recent past; unlike the legend, it usually does not contain elements of fantasy.

SONNET(Italian sonetto, from Provence sonnet - song) - a lyrical poem consisting of fourteen verses, built and arranged in a special order.

In the Italian sonnet, 14 verses are grouped into two quatrains and two tertiary lines. Examples of schemes for the most common arrangement of rhymes are as follows:

1) abba, abba, ccd, ede

2) abba, abba, ede, dee

3) abba, abba, cdd, eed

4) abab, abab, cdc, ede

5) abab, abba, ccd, eed, etc.

Another form of the sonnet, English, is also known, it was developed by W. Shakespeare: three quatrains and a couplet with paired rhyming.

The sonnet genre implies a strict sequence in the disclosure of poetic thought: assertion - doubt - generalization - conclusion.

For example, A.S. Pushkin created three famous sonnets: "Severe Dante did not despise the sonnet ...", "To the Poet" ("Poet! do not cherish the love of the people ..."), "Madonna".

COMPARISON(Latin comparatio) - a comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object on a common basis. Comparison can be expressed by turns with comparative unions as if, as if, exactly; instrumental case (“dust stands like a pillar”); using negative particles (negative comparison):

The red sun does not shine in the sky,

Blue clouds do not admire them:

Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown,

The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Song about the merchant Kalashnikov")

Some types of tropes - metaphor and metonymy - contain a hidden comparison.

STYLE(from Latin stilus and Greek stylos - writing stick, later - handwriting) - the unity of the figurative system, figurative and expressive means, creative techniques, penetrating the entire artistic structure. They talk about style in art and literature, about the style of an individual work or genre, about the individual style of the author, as well as about the style of entire eras or artistic movements. Features of the literary style are clearly manifested in the language (selection of vocabulary, methods of organizing speech, etc.).

POEM- a separate line of a poem, as well as the general name of poetic speech, which differs in rhythm.

POEM- a small lyrical work written in poetic form either on behalf of the author (“I remember a wonderful moment ...” by A.S. Pushkin), or on behalf of a lyrical hero (“I was killed near Rzhev ...” by A.T. Tvardovsky ).

FOOT- a group of syllables consisting of one stressed and one or more unstressed; a conventional unit by which the poetic size and length of the verse are determined. In Russian classical verse, there are five types of feet, combined into two groups:

Disyllabic (trochee, iambic);

Trisyllabic (dactyl, amphibrach, anapaest).

STANZA(from the Greek strophe - whirling, turning, turning) - a combination of verses united by a common rhyme, a steady alternation of various poetic meters, and representing a rhythmic-syntactic whole. A stanza can contain from two to 14 lines of poetry. Depending on the number of lines, stanzas are divided into couplets (distich), tertsy, quatrains (quatrain), sextines, octaves, etc. The "Onegin" stanza was created by A.S. Pushkin specifically for the novel "Eugene Onegin". Its block diagram looks like this: ababccddeffegg.

PLOT(from the French sujet - subject, content) - a set of events depicted in a literary work, that is, the life of characters in successive circumstances. The plot is the organizing principle of most epic and dramatic works. It can also be present in lyrical works (extremely compressed, sparingly detailed): “I remember a wonderful moment ...” A.S. Pushkin; "Troika", "On the road", "Railway" N.A. Nekrasov, etc. The plots recreate life's contradictions: without a conflict in the lives of the characters, it is difficult to imagine a sufficiently pronounced plot (for example, "The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov ..." by M.Yu. Lermontov, the novel "Fathers and Sons" by I.S. Turgenev, the drama "Thunderstorm" A. N. Ostrovsky).

The plot consists of episodes organized in different ways. At the same time, the plot is a holistic, completed event that has a beginning, middle and end, otherwise - exposition, plot, development of action, climax and denouement. A major work, as a rule, contains several storylines that either intertwine, or merge, or develop in parallel (for example, in F.M. Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, L.N. Tolstoy’s War and Peace, Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

TAUTOLOGY(Greek tauto - the same and logos - a word) - the repetition of words that are identical or close in meaning and sound composition. It is used as a means of enhancing emotional impact. For example: “I killed him with my free will” (M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​“Oh, the box is full and full” (N.A. Nekrasov).

SUBJECT(from the Greek thema - the main idea) - the subject of an artistic image, the range of issues, events, phenomena, objects of reality reflected in the work and held together by the author's intention. For example, the subject of the image in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov became a feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero ("Clouds", "Sail", "And boring and sad ...", etc.). The importance in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin has the theme of freedom ("Prisoner", "To Chaadaev", "To the Sea", etc.).

Unlike lyrical works, epic and dramatic works are rarely devoted to one topic, most often they are polythematic, that is, they touch upon several topics that concern the author. For example, in the story "The Captain's Daughter" A.S. Pushkin refers to the theme of noble duty and honor, love and friendship, the role of the individual in history, etc. In such cases, it is customary to talk about the theme of the work.

THEME- a system of interrelated themes of a work of art.

TERCET(from lat. tres - three) - a stanza consisting of three verses per rhyme. For example, a poem by A.A. Block "Wings":

I spread my light wings,

I will open the walls of air,

I will leave the countries of the valley.

Curl, sparkling threads,

Star ice floes, swim,

Blizzards, take a breath!

In the heart - slight anxiety,

In the sky - star roads,

Silver-white halls...

TERZA RIMA(from it. terzina) - a stanza of three verses rhyming in such a way that a series of tertsina forms an uninterrupted chain of triple rhymes: aba, bvb, vgv, etc. and closes with a separate line rhymed with the middle verse of the last terza. For example, in the "Song of Hell" by A. A. Blok:

The day burned out on the sphere of that land,

Where I was looking for ways and days are shorter.

There, lilac twilight lay down.

I'm not there. The path of the underground night
I descend, sliding, by a ledge of slippery rocks.

Familiar Hell looks into empty eyes.

On earth I was thrown into a bright ball,

Yves wild dance of masks and guises
I forgot love and friendship lost ...

TYPE(from the Greek typos - image, imprint, sample) - an artistic image endowed with generalized properties of certain social phenomena. Literary type - a bright representative of any group of people (estate, class, nation, era). For example, Maxim Maksimych (M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"), Captain Tushin (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"), Vasily Terkin (A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin") - a type of Russian soldier; Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin (N.V. Gogol "Overcoat") - type of "little man"; Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") - the type of "extra person", etc.

TOPOS(from the Greek topos - place) - artistic images of open natural spaces, as well as "places" for unfolding artistic meanings. For example, the Russian land in The Tale of Igor's Campaign is part of the forest-steppe space in the south of Rus' from Kyiv to Kursk, and later - the entire set of East Slavic lands, the territory of the Old Russian people. For the author of the monument, this is a national, historical, geographical and mythological space. Calling on his contemporaries to stand up for the offense of this time, for the Russian land, the creator of The Tale of Igor's Campaign persistently emphasizes the main idea of ​​the work: the unity of the Russian land, based on the cessation of princely strife and joint struggle with the steppes.

TRAGEDY(from the Greek tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on a particularly tense, insoluble conflict, most often ending in the death of the hero. The content of the tragedy is determined, as a rule, by a conflict that is exceptional in its significance, reflecting the leading trends in socio-historical development, the spiritual state of mankind. Hence the enlarged, elevated character of the hero's portrayal, called upon to resolve issues of world-historical significance. Tragedies are, for example, "Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare, "Boris Godunov" by A.S. Pushkin.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turnover) - turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The transfer of meanings of words is based on their ambiguity. There is no trope in the expression “sad mood”, since the words are used in the direct (or in the primary) sense. The expression “sad glades” (A.S. Pushkin “Winter Road”) is a trope, since the mood of the lyrical hero and the dull desert landscape merge into one image. The main types of tropes are metaphor, metonymy, personification, comparison, hyperbole, irony, etc.

FABULA(lat. fabula - narration, history) - a chain of events that is narrated in a work, in their temporal sequence. In other words, the plot is something that lends itself to retelling, that “what really happened”, while the plot is “how the reader found out about it”. The plot may coincide with the plot, but it may also diverge from it. The plot and plot diverge, for example, in the novel by M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time".

FANTASTIC(from the Greek phantastice - the ability to imagine) - a world of bizarre ideas and images born of the imagination based on the facts of real life. Fiction portrays the world as emphatically conditional.

The tale of M.E. is filled with fantastic elements. Saltykov-Shchedrin "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals." A man appeasing generals can do anything: cook soup in a handful, build “a ship is not a ship, but such a vessel so that you can swim across the ocean-sea,” etc.

Sometimes individual characters or elements of the plot turn out to be fantastic (plays by V.V. Mayakovsky "Bedbug" and "Bath"), Fantasy can underlie the construction of the artistic world of the work ("Master Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

FOLKLORE(from English, folk - people, lore - wisdom) - mass verbal artistic creativity, which has become part of the everyday tradition of a particular people. The most important feature of folklore is that it is the art of the spoken word, since it arose before the advent of writing. The following genres of folklore have developed: epics, historical songs, fairy tales, traditions, legends, tales, genres of ritual poetry, proverbs, sayings, etc.

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS- stable combinations of words, the meanings of which are interpreted similarly to the meaning of one word. For example: “And everything is sewn and covered - no one sees or knows anything, only God sees!” (A.N. Ostrovsky).

FUTURISM(from lat. futurum - future) - an avant-garde trend in European and Russian art of the 10-20s. XX century, based on a sense of the collapse of traditional culture and the desire to realize through art the features of an unknown future. Futurist poets abandoned the usual artistic forms up to the destruction of natural language (deformation of the word, destruction of syntax, "telegraphic language", the introduction of mathematical and musical signs into the text, etc.). In Russian futurism, two branches were formed: egofuturism (I. Severyanin) and cubofuturism (V.V. Mayakovsky). Futurism was also joined by poets who united around the publishing house "Centrifuga" (B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev).

CHARACTER(Greek character - trait, feature) - a set of stable mental characteristics that form the personality of a literary character. For example, in the stories “Death of an Official” and “Thick and Thin” A.P. Chekhov draws similar characters of Chervyakov and the "thin": they are characterized by servility, servility, fear. The means of revealing the character in a work of art are a portrait, a costume, an interior, a speech manner, etc. Each literary movement (classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism, realism) reveals its own stable types of characters.

CHOREI- two-syllable meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable (-  ). For example, A. S. Pushkin:

Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding;

Invisible moon
Illuminates the flying snow;

The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.

CHRONOTOP(from the Greek chronos - time, topos - place) - the unity of spatial and temporal parameters, aimed at expressing a certain meaning; an essential natural interconnection of “temporal and spatial relations artistically mastered in literature” (MM Bakhtin). For example, the originality of the chronotope in A.P. Chekhov's "Student" ("physical" and "biblical" time-space as an opposition of the everyday and existential levels of the work) allows the writer to go beyond the specific historical framework, give the narrative a universal sound, comment on a specific situation from the point of view of a broader perspective, and most fully reveal the problems of the work and the capacity of its ideological and artistic content.

ARTISTIC DETAILS(from French detail - a small component of something, detail, particularity) - the smallest unit of the objective world of a work of art, a memorable feature, a detail of appearance, clothing, furnishings, experiences or deeds. For example, in the guise of Pierre Bezukhov (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"), such details of his appearance attract attention: a smile that makes the face "childish, kind, even stupid and as if asking for forgiveness"; the look is "intelligent and at the same time timid, observant and natural". The details of the decoration of the office of Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") help Tatiana Larina judge his hobbies and tastes: clenched cross.

ART TIME- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the forms (along with space) of being and thinking. Time in a work of art is recreated by the word in the process of depicting and developing characters, situations, the hero’s life path, speech, etc. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, in order to create a sense of the passage of time, uses such words and expressions: “One morning I go to them ...”, “in the evening”, “For four months everything went as well as possible ...”, “At that moment two wells passed by us ladies...”, “It's been three days since I've been in Kislovodsk”, etc. The writer deliberately dates each chapter of the Pechorin's Journal, notes the time of day and the duration of the action: “May 13th. This morning the doctor came to see me; his name is Werner, but he is Russian.”

ARTISTIC SPACE- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the main characteristics of the artistic existence of heroes. Significantly different from real space. The characteristics of an artistic space (limited-unlimited, voluminous, local, proportional, concrete, etc.) are determined by the method, genre, plot of the work, as well as the creative individuality of the author. For example, A.S. Griboyedov in "Woe from Wit" depicts Moscow at the beginning of the 19th century. in its specific topographical realities (Kuznetsky Most, "English Club", etc.) and draws a psychological portrait of the Moscow nobility ("All Moscow have a special imprint"), In the poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" in the smallest details of life and customs, but without specific topographic indications, the Russian province is described (for example, the provincial city of NN). Describing in detail the space of Raskolnikov's closet room, F.M. Dostoevsky in "Crime and Punishment" is looking for the origins of the hero's worldview. In fiction, along with the concrete, an abstract space is created. It is perceived as universal, rarely has specific features and does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters. Sometimes both types of space are combined in one work (for example, in M.A. Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita, the specific space of Moscow and the space of his novel fictional by the Master are combined).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a set of the most general principles and features of the figurative reflection of life in art, which are consistently repeated in the work of a number of writers and thus can form literary trends. Artistic methods (and trends) include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism, postmodernism.

AESOP LANGUAGE(named after the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop) - artistic speech based on forced allegory, cryptography in literature. Aesopian language was used, for example, by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in his fairy tales.

EXISTENTIALISM(from lat. exsistentia - existence) - a way to identify the foundations of the existence of an individual in society and society itself as a whole. Being in existentialism is considered as a kind of direct undivided integrity of the subject and object. The original and true being is the subject's experience of his "being-in-the-world". Being is interpreted as an existence unknowable by scientific means.

Existential thinking is a characteristic feature of the worldview of Russian writers and poets. For example, for F.M. Dostoevsky, as well as for existentialists, the problem of human existence in all its manifestations becomes the object of artistic research. The problem of duality, comprehensively developed in the novels of this author, is also extremely relevant for Russian existentialism. An existential attitude is also characteristic of F.I. Tyutchev, who tends to depict borderline situations and perceives human life as "being for death."

EXPOSURE(lat. exposition - explanation) - the background of the event or events underlying the literary plot. It can be located at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the work. Distinguish delayed, scattered, detailed, direct exposure.

For example, in the poem "Dead Souls" N.V. Gogol's exposition is delayed: an explanation of the historical and everyday situation is given after the plot of the action, and information about Chichikov, the main character, is at the end of the story; the writer first showed the actions of Chichikov, and then explained in what conditions such a person could grow up.

ELEGY(Greek elegeia) - lyrical genre; a poem that expresses mainly the motives of sadness, loneliness, disappointment, reflections on the frailty of life. For example, “Again I visited ...” A.S. Pushkin, “It’s both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...” M.Yu. Lermontov, “There is melodiousness in the sea waves ...” F.I. Tyutchev and others.

EPIGRAM(from the Greek epigramma - inscription) - a genre of satirical poetry, a short poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon. Epigrams are characterized by brevity, aphorism, the poet's personal attitude to the subject of ridicule. For example, in Pushkin:

Half milord, half merchant,

Half wise, half ignorant,

Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope

What will finally be complete.

EPIGRAPH- a short text in the form of a short quote from some well-known source (religious, folklore, literary, philosophical, journalistic, etc.). It is placed immediately before the text of the work, immediately after the title or before any part of the text.

The epigraph bears:

The epigraph can be double ("Oh rus! .. Oh Russia!"), triple ("Moscow, Russia's daughter is loved, / Where can you find an equal?" (Dmitriev), "How not to love your native Moscow?" (Baratynsky), " Persecution of Moscow! What does it mean to see the light! / Where is it better? / Where we are not" (Griboedov; epigraphs in the novel "Eugene Onegin" by A. S. Pushkin).

The epigraph can be built as a dialogue: “Vanya (in an Armenian coachman's dress). Dad! Who built this road?/Daddy ("a coat with a red lining). Count Pyotr Andreevich Kleinmichel, my dear!" / Conversation in the Car” (“Railway” by N. A. Nekrasov). It can be expanded into a system of epigraphs, as, for example, in the story "The Captain's Daughter" by A. S. Pushkin, where the "publisher" directly indicates in the afterword that he "found" a "decent epigraph" for each chapter of Grinev's manuscript. The truncated folklore epigraph to the entire text ("Take care of honor from a young age") defines the main problem of the work. The remaining epigraphs, designed in the form of proverbs, excerpts from folk songs, genuine fragments of works by Russian writers of the 18th century, or author's stylizations written in the "old style", develop the main themes of the story, together with the titles of the chapters, are either a compressed "summary" of their content, or emphasize any of their characteristic features.

The epigraph becomes a kind of connecting link between the writer and already existing literature, between the writer and his reader. The epigraph forms the "horizons of the reader's expectation". Comprehension of the epigraph occurs sequentially in three stages: perception, preliminary orienting the reader; correlation of the epigraph with the text; a new level of understanding of the epigraph, revealing new meanings and expanding the boundaries of text interpretation.

EPILOGUE(from Greek epi - after, logos - word, letters, “afterword”) - the final part of a work of art, which tells about the further fate of the characters after the events depicted. For example, the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment" ends with an epilogue in which the author shows Raskolnikov a year and a half after the events described in the main part. He is in hard labor, next to him is Sonya Marmeladova. Briefly tells about the fate of Raskolnikov's relatives - mother, sister Dunya, Razumikhin. A large epilogue, consisting of two parts (the historical life of the country and the private life of the heroes seven years later), completes the epic romance of L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". The epilogue of The Master and Margarita tells the reader what happens to the characters of the novel after Woland leaves Moscow. We learn about raids on unfortunate cats and the persecution of suspicious citizens, the fate of Likhodeev, Varenukha, Nikolai Ivanovich and, of course, the poet Bezdomny, who turned into a venerable history professor Ponyrev, who continues to remain under the magical influence of mystery history.

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison. An epithet is called not only an adjective (“ruddy dawn”, “timid breath”, “zealous horse”), but also a noun-application; an adverb that metaphorically defines the verb (“frost-governor”, ​​“tramp wind”, “Petrel proudly flies”).

A special group is made up of permanent epithets that have formed in folklore and are used only in combination with a certain word (good fellow, beautiful girl, greyhound horse, living water, pure field, etc.).

EPOS(Greek epos - word, narration) - one of the three literary genres (along with lyrics and drama), the main feature of which is the narration of events external to the author. The narration in the epic is usually conducted in the past tense, as about the events that have already taken place, and on behalf of a real or conditional narrator, witness, participant and, less often, the hero of the events. The epic uses a variety of ways of presentation (narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions), the author's speech and the speech of the characters. .

HUMOR(from English, humor - humor; temper, mood, complexity) - a special kind of comic that combines mockery and sympathy, involves a soft smile and a gentle joke, which are based on a positive attitude towards the depicted. Unlike satire, humor is aimed at the shortcomings of individuals and everyday life that do not have social significance. Humor is an essential feature of A. S. Pushkin’s “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda”, A. P. Chekhov’s early stories, A. T. Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”, etc.

YMB- two-syllable meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable (  -). For example, a poem by A. A. Fet “Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch ...”:

Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch.

Around winter. Tough time!

In vain, tears froze on them,

And cracked, shrink, bark.

1 The dictionary is based on the materials of the following dictionaries and reference books: Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Ed. N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L.D. Frenkel, 1925 (http://feb-web.ru); Literary encyclopedic dictionary / Under the general. ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev.- M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1987; Dictionary of literary terms. - Ed.-Comp.: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. - M.: Enlightenment, 1972; Kvyatkovsky A.P. School poetic dictionary. - M.: Bustard, 2000; Rusova N. Yu. From allegory to iambic: Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism, - M .: Flinta: Nauka, 2004; Big Literary Encyclopedia / Krasov-
sky V. E. and others - M .: Philol. about-vo "SLOVO": OLMA-PRESS Education, 2003.

Allegories are an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a specific image; personification of human properties or qualities. The connection between the image and the concept, the image and its meaning is established by analogy.

Alliteration - the repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech, one of the ways of sound organization of speech.

Amphibrach is a three-syllable meter in which the stress falls on the second syllable in the foot.

Anapaest is a three-syllable poetic meter in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot.

Antithesis - the opposition of characters, circumstances, images, compositional elements that create the effect of sharp contrast. There are antitheses character (in character organization), plot (in plot construction), compositional.

An aphorism is a short saying containing a complete thought, philosophical or worldly wisdom, an instructive conclusion that summarizes the meaning of phenomena.

Ballad - one of the types of lyrical-epic poetry - a poem or narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual event. The ballad is characterized by a relatively small volume, a pronounced plot, a special melodiousness, and magical musicality. The ballad often contains an element of the mysterious, inexplicable, unspoken. By origin, ballads are associated with legends, folk legends, they combine the features of a story and a song.

A fable is a short moralizing story in verse or prose with a clearly articulated moral, a satirical direction and an allegorical meaning. The characters in the fable are often animals, plants, and inanimate objects.

Bylna - a heroic-patriotic song-tale, telling about the exploits of heroes and reflecting the life of Ancient Russia (IX-XIII centuries); a kind of oral folk art, which is characterized by a song-epic way of reflecting reality.

Eternal images - images of world literature, which have not lost their significance over time.

literary hero- the image of a person in a work of art. Often used in the meaning of "character", "character". An additional semantic connotation is the positive dominant of the personality, its originality, exclusivity.

I hyperbola artistic technique based on excessive exaggeration of events, feelings, the size of the depicted phenomenon. It is used to create a comic effect when a particular detail of a portrait is exaggerated. character trait or behavior of a character.

Grotesque artistic technique, which is based on the maximum possible exaggeration and sharpening, violation of the boundaries of plausibility. the transformation of artistic images, leading to the combination of the incompatible - the real and the fantastic, the terrible and the funny, the tragic and the comic, the ugly and the sublime.

A dactyl is a three-syllable meter in which the stress falls on the first syllable.

Action - 1) The finished part of the performance, play (the same as the act). 2) In drama and epic - the development of events that forms the basis, the "flesh" of the plot (brooches). !) In the theater, the main means of embodying the stage image.

Dialogue - a conversation of two, sometimes more persons in a literary work, two-way communication of people, carried out in the form of concise statements (replicas). Dialogue dominates drama and is of great importance in epics.

Drama - 1) Dramaturgy is one of the main types of literature, reflecting life in the actions, deeds and experiences of people, a literary work written in the form of a conversation between characters. Intended for performance (staging) on ​​stage, focused on spectacular expressiveness; the second speech is replaced by remarks. Dramatic works include tragedies, comedies, drama proper, melodramas, vaudevilles.

2) Actually, drama is one of the leading genres of dramaturgy, the image of the individual in her dramatic relationship with society and difficult experiences.

A literary genre is a historically established type of a work of art that organizes all its elements into a coherent artistic reality. The totality of works united by the commonality of the objects of the image, the range of topics, the author's attitude to what is being described, the unity of the components of the form, etc. There are literary genres, in the epic a novel, a story, a story, in a lyric - a poem, an ode. in drama - tragedy, comedy. Each genre exists in a certain epoch in the form of typological varieties (for example, a psychological novel, a historical novel, a novel of understanding, etc.).

Life is a genre of ancient Russian literature, a biography of people recognized as saints by the Christian church. The life differs from the biography in its emphasized religious assessment and the coloring of the events described. The authors are unknown or not named.

The plot is the initial event from which the development of the plot begins. The initial moment in the development of events often determines the entire subsequent unfolding of the action.

The artistic idea is the main generalizing thought underlying the work and expressed in figurative form. The author's attitude to the depicted, the solution to the main problem are expressed in the entire artistic structure of the work.

Inversion - an unusual sequence of words in a sentence, a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech, a rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; often found in poetry.

Irony is an allegory expressing mockery or cunning, a double meaning, when what is said in the context of speech takes on the opposite meaning. An ironic attitude implies mockery, hidden in a certain way. but easily detectable in the intonations of antorarlsskaechika. Irony in a work of art can act as a figure of speech, tropes, and as an artistic principle that determines the sound of the entire work.

Classicism is an artistic trend that has developed in European literature of the 18th century, based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest model, the cult of reason, rationalism, imitation of nature, strict

plot-compositional organization. Human characters are outlined in a straightforward manner, positive and negative characters are opposed. The division of genres into high - tragedy, epic, ode and low - comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed; the leading genre is tragedy.

Comedy is a kind of dramatic work that ridicules social and human vices. Comedy can be based on the contradiction (inconsistency) of the real and the imaginary, the true and the imaginary. beautiful and ugly.

Composition the construction of a work of art, the arrangement of its parts, images, episodes in a certain sequence in accordance with the content and genre form of the work, the most important structural principle, an essential element of style.

Conflict - an acute clash of characters and circumstances underlying the action, a naturally arising confrontation, a contradiction between heroes, groups of heroes, a hero and society, or an internal struggle of a hero with himself. The development of the conflict sets the plot action in motion. The conflict can be local, transient, irresolvable, private or general, explicit or hidden, external or internal.

climax - the highest and turning point in the development of the action, after which events move towards the denouement.

Legend - one of the genres of folk, non-fairytale prose, a folk legend about an outstanding event or act of a person, based on a miracle, a fantastic image. At the same time, the plot of the legend is based on real or admissible facts and is perceived by the narrator as an admissible event. The legendary hero may have a prototype in real life or in historical reality.

chronicle - the narrative genre of ancient Russian literature in the form of records of the most important historical events over the years, a consistent description of events by their witness or participant.

Lyrics - one of the main types of literature, reflecting life with the help shew images of feelings, experiences, thoughts of a person caused by dark or other circumstances. In the center of the author's attention is the image-experience, the lyrical hero, his feelings are not described, but expressed. Characteristic features of the lyrics; poetic form, lack of plot, subjectivism, small volume.

Fiction literature- a kind of art that recreates a figurative, subjective picture of the world, a reflection of life with the help of a word; an artistic way of comprehending a person and the surrounding reality.

Metaphor - a figurative meaning of a word based on a hidden comparison or likening of one object, phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast, in which the words "as", "as if", "as if" are absent, but are implied. A kind of metaphor is personification - assimilation to a living being.

Artistic metol is a special type of figurative vision of the world, a historically established way of reflecting reality, the general principle of selection, generalization and evaluation of life material by the writer, identifying the main thing in it, the general type of the writer's approach to reality.

Monologue - the speech of one person in a work of art, a detailed statement of a character or narrator. The monologue can be reversed

to a specific addressee or solitary - taking the form of inner speech, spoken out loud in solitude.

The artistic direction is a concrete historical manifestation of the artistic method in the work of many writers, united by a common ideological and aesthetic principles that have been formed historically for a long time. Belonging to one literary movement presupposes a common cultural and aesthetic tradition. The same type of worldview, however, the attitude to the problems posed by different authors may be different. Main literary trends: classicism. sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, neo-romanticism.

Neo-romanticism is a literary movement originating from romanticism. the revival of romantic traditions in the literature of the late XIX - early XX century. with subsequent rethinking and addition of romantic mindsets. Neo-romanticism is characterized by an increased interest in a strong, demonic personality, exotic circumstances, the conflict of the ideal and the real.

The short story is an epic genre close to the story, distinguished by the clarity of the depiction of events, the unexpectedness of their development and denouement. A plot collision, traditional for the novel, is when the hero undertakes certain actions that should lead him to success, and success comes to a strong, active hero.

An image-symbol is an artistic image that embodies with the greatest expressiveness the characteristic features of a certain phenomenon. The symbol is implied, so its perception depends on the reader. Compared with allegory, the symbol is more ambiguous, broader, and gives greater freedom of interpretation.

Ode is a solemn poem that sings of a historical person or

event.

Personification is the depiction of inanimate objects as animate. in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.

Description - a type of narration based on the image of static pictures - a portrait, landscape, furnishings, interior or constantly repeating scenes. Communication of the necessary features of the described object, information about those features of a phenomenon or object that remain unchanged throughout the story.

Paphos is the emotional and evaluative attitude of the writer to the reality he depicts, the emotional sound, the mood of the work, which determine its general tone. There are heroic, tragic, comic, sublime pathos of the work.

Landscape - a description of nature in a work of art or a picture of nature recreated with the help of words in the reader's imagination as part of the real environment in which the action takes place. The description-picture includes a color palette, images-sounds, images-smells, taste images, tactile images, images of flora and fauna. The landscape can emphasize or convey the state of mind of the characters, while the internal state of a person is often likened to or contrasted with the natural world.

Song (song) - a small lyrical work intended for singing; a chanting pronunciation of the text in a certain rhythm to a certain melody. The origin of the song is associated with ancient rites and rituals.

Swear. a literary genre of a descriptive-narrative type, in which reality is threaded through and in the form of a series of episodes, stages from the life of a hero, an average epic form. In terms of volume, the story is more than a story and more broadly depicts human life, there are more events and characters in it, the chronological development of the plot and the corresponding construction of the composition are often used. Most often, this is the story of a person’s life, told either on behalf of the author or on behalf of the hero himself.

Proverb small genre of folklore, apt figurative expression, allegorical definition of the subject; can be part of a proverb or an independent expression.

Portrait - depiction of the character's appearance (face, figure, body and its plastics, facial expressions, gestures, clothes) as a means of characterizing it: a kind of description. Distinguish between static and dynamic portrait, detailed and fragmentary, psychological, leitmotif, portrait-description. impression portrait. A literary portrait illustrates those aspects of the character's appearance and character that seem to the author to be the most important.

Proverb - a small genre of folklore, a short, complete, figurative saying of a generalizing nature, an instructive life observation applicable to various cases and situations. Proverbs can be folk and author's.

teaching a genre of ancient Russian literature that conveys the thoughts of the author in an instructive form.

Poetry a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by its poetic form, the presence of rhythm and rhyme; lyrical form of reflection of reality. Often the term is used in the meaning of "works of different genres in verse." It conveys a subjective attitude to life, in the foreground - an image-experience.

Parable - a short story of a moralizing nature, contains a lesson in an allegorical, allegorical form. It is one of the ways of expressing the moral and philosophical judgments of the author and is often used With the purpose of directly instructing the reader in matters of human and social behavior; parables with religious content are widespread.

Prose - a form of artistic speech or a type of artistic text without clearly expressed signs of a regular rhythm. It is characterized by life authenticity, "ordinary" language and style. Depicts the everyday life of people in its complexity and versatility, tends to describe events, characters, details that are organized in the plot. The author focuses on the image-character. There are three main types prose: story, novel and novel.

Prologue - preface, introduction to the work, which tells about the events of the past; emotionally adjusts the reader to the perception of the work.

The denouement is the final moment in the development of the action, the final position of the narrative, the final episode in which the resolution of the conflict is described or its fundamental insolubility is demonstrated. The denouement can be happy or unhappy, flow from the logic of what is told, or be unexpected.

Story - a prose work of small volume with a dynamic development of the plot, a short narrative, usually devoted to one episode or several events from the life of the hero of the work. Operating

There are few persons, the described action is limited in time, great importance is attached to the ending, which is the conclusion from the story.

Realism is a creative method in literature and art, the military of which is the realistic reconstruction of reality in concrete images, the reproduction of life in its laws. typical features and properties. The desire for a wide coverage of reality in its contradictions and development, the image of a person in his interactions with the environment, the inner world of the characters reflect the signs of the times; much attention is paid to the social background of the time. Realism is characterized by historicism and a wide variety of art forms.

Remarque - a brief indication or explanation of the author, describing the actions of the characters in a dramatic work, intonation, gestures, and the setting of the action. Remarks supplement and clarify the main text, serve to express the author's assessment, his vision of what is happening in the work.

A replica is a statement, a speech of the protagonist of a dramatic work. towards other characters.

Refrain - The repetition of a verse or series of verses, usually at the end of a line.

Rhythm is the repetition in poetic speech of homogeneous sound, intonation. syntactic units, periodic repetition of stressed and unstressed sounds and other elements of poetic speech at certain intervals. creating orderliness of its sound structure.

Rhyme is a repetition of sounds that connect the endings of two or more lines, the same or similar sounding of the endings of poems. Rhymes differ in the place of stress, consonance and rhyming method.

A novel is a large epic work that depicts a comprehensive picture of the lives of many people in a certain period of time or a whole human life, one of the great forms of the epic kind of literature. The characteristic properties of the novel are: branching of the plot, coverage of a wide range of life phenomena, problems and conflicts, significant temporal duration of the action, many characters, broad socio-historical issues. One of the most common genres in literature. There are family-household, historical, adventurous, philosophical, social-psychological, love novels, epic novels, etc.

Romanticism is a creative method in literature and art, which is based on the desire of the individual for freedom, spiritual perfection, an unattainable ideal, combined with an understanding of the imperfection of the surrounding world. One of the main signs of romanticism is a tragic dual world: the hero is aware of the imperfection of the world and people, suffers from communication with them and at the same time wants to live in this imperfect world, dreams of being understood and accepted, painfully experiences discord with reality. The proclamation of the cult of the human personality, complex and deep, the assertion of human individuality, open subjectivity, a view of life "through the prism of the heart.

Romance - a worldview, a person's attitude, in which a significant role is assigned to dreams, the pursuit of ideals, the highest spiritual values, implies a critical attitude towards reality. It found direct expression in romanticism, however, it is an important element of the realistic artistic method, since it is not an analogue of romanticism.

Sarcasm is an evil and caustic mockery, the highest degree of irony, one of the strongest means of satire. Sarcasm reveals and emphasizes the unseemly behavior or motives of people.

Satire is a kind of comic that most mercilessly ridicules human imperfection. Satire expresses a sharply negative attitude of the author to the depicted, implies an evil ridicule of the character or phenomenon depicted in the work.

Sentimentalism - a literary movement that recognizes feeling, and not reason, as the basis of human nature. The most important property is the desire to represent the personality in the movements of the soul, thoughts, experiences. The underlined subjectivity of the approach to the world, the cult of natural feelings, the assertion of moral purity, the integrity of the common people, the discovery of the wealth of the spiritual world of representatives of the lower classes. Idealization of patriarchal life, spread of elegiac moods, educational character, introduction of colloquial forms into the literary language.

Syllabic versification is a syllabic versification system based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; the length of the verse is determined by the number of slots.

Syllabo-tonic versification- syllable-impact system of versification. which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in a poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. There are two and three syllable sizes.

Style is a cross-cutting principle of constructing an artistic form, which determines the integrity and uniform tone of a work. It manifests itself in themes, ideas, characters, figurative and expressive means of the language, etc. Stylistic certainty is also characteristic of an individual work (the style of a work). and for the creative individuality of the artist of the word (the style of the writer), and for the group of works of various authors (style trend), and for the literary era (the style of ancient Russian literature).

Stop - a stable combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed ones, which is repeated in each verse. The foot can be double or triple, weakened or strengthened.

A stanza is a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as the arrangement of rhymes; additional rhythmic element of the verse. Often has a complete content and syntactic construction. The smallest stanza is a couplet. Visually, in writing, the stanzas are separated from one another by an increased interval.

The plot is a set of events in a work of art, presented in a certain sequence, revealing the characters of the characters and the attitude of the writer to the depicted life phenomena. The plot is closely connected with the idea of ​​the work and is a way to implement it.

Theme is the range of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work, the object of the artistic image, then. what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers.

Topics - a constant circle of topics in the work of an individual author, a group of authors, or in the literature of a particular era (everyday, social, historical topics, etc.).

Tin is an artistic image that reflects any socially significant, comprehensive human properties and qualities, the image of representatives of certain social groups in the guise of a specific person, the embodiment of one or more dominant features in a character. constituting recurring signs of human character.

Typification is a way of artistic generalization of reality and you reflections of these characteristic features in specific images; the most important means of pre the image of the truth of life in the artistic truth of the literary works.

A literary trend is a stable variety of a literary trend, which is an artistic community of a certain stylistic manner within the same direction. It characterizes the common spiritual and aesthetic content in national literature, unites groups of writers (for example, civil romanticism as a kind of romanticism in Russian literature).

Tonic versification is a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in a line. The length of a verse is determined by the number of stressed syllables, the number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary. Basic tonic forms: accent verse, dolnik, taktovik. Widespread in folklore and poetry of the early 20th century.

Tragedy is a kind of dramatic work, which is based on an acute insoluble conflict between the hero's personality and life or with himself.

In this conflict, the hero - a solid and strong personality - is not able to retreat, therefore he dies, but wins a moral victory. The tragedy is designed to reflect the triumph of the human spirit, to cause grief in the audience and the spiritual purification of a person through suffering - catharsis.

Tragic is an aesthetic category based on the presence of a conflict in a person's life that cannot be resolved. The consequences of this conflict can be catastrophic for the hero, but his unbending courage in the face of imminent defeat becomes the basis for the faith and hope of the audience or readers.

Literary tradition is a successive connection between old and new phenomena in life and literature, a conscious orientation towards the artistic values ​​of the past, elements of the literary heritage that are passed down from generation to generation of poets and writers.

Tropes are words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. At the heart of the trail is a comparison of objects and phenomena; varieties of tropes: comparison, epithet, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, etc.

The plot is the event core of a work of art, its life or literary material, a summary of the narrative. The plot performs an organizing function, combining the details of the plot into a certain sequence.

Artistic character - the image of a person, presented in a literary work with sufficient completeness, in the unity of the general and the individual. objective and subjective, and therefore allows you to perceive the character as a living person. Artistic character is both the image of a person and the author's thought. It is not an analogue of character in psychology.

Khoren is a two-syllable poetic meter with an emphasis on the first syllable.

The school is a literary group of writers who are united by ideological and aesthetic closeness and the presence of a common creative program ("lake school" in English romanticism, Russian school of critical realism, etc.).

Exposition - an introduction to the action, a presentation of the events needed. to understand what is happening in the future, the image of the conditions and circumstances. preceding the immediate start of the action.

Elegies are a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a discord of sadness. The most common themes of the elegy are contemplation of nature, philosophical reflections on life, regrets about past or unrequited love.

An epigraph is a short text, often a quote, placed before the text of a work, expressing the main idea, the mood of the entire work of art. The epigraph sets the tone. hints at what will be described in the work.

Epilogue - the final part of the work, which briefly describes what happened to the characters in the work after the end of the main plot action. In the epilogue, an assessment is sometimes given to what is depicted. It is built in the form of a message, without bringing the characters to the stage.

An epithet is an artistic poetic definition that emphasizes some property of an object or phenomenon that the author wishes to draw attention to in order to enhance the expressiveness of poetic speech.

Epos is one of the main genres of fiction along with lyrics and drama. Reflects reality in the form of a story about a person, his fate and the events in which he took part. The main genres of the epic: epic, novel, story, short story, short story, essay, fable. The term "epos" is also used in the sense of a kind of oral folk art, which in an idealized form tells about historical events and the exploits of the heroes of the past.

Humor is a mild form of the comic; laughter that does not aim at denunciation of phenomena: a good-natured chuckle that combines mockery with sympathy.

Iambic is a two-syllable meter with the stress on the second syllable. The most common size of Russian poetry is iambic tetrameter.

Literature for non-class reading

Literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

1.Kalyazinsky petition

2. Bottom

3.The Tale of Ersh Ershovich

4.The Tale of Boris and Gleb

5.Life of Boris to Gleb

6.The Tale of Woe-Misfortune

7.The Tale of Frol Skobesve

8.The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu

9.A novel about Tristan

10. Shakespeare W. "Romeo and Juliet"

Classicism and sentimentalism in literature

1. Molière JB. "Stingy"

2. Lomonosov M.V. "Conversation with Anacreon", "Monument", "Morning Reflection on God's Majesty"

3. Derzhavin G. R. "Invitation to Dinner", "To Rulers and Judges", "The River of Time", "Murza's Vision"

4. Fonvizin D. I. "Foreman"

5. Radishchev A. II. "Liberty"

6. Karamzin N. M. "Martha the Posadnitsa"

Romanticism in literature

1. Byron J. G. "Prisoner of Chillon", "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage"

2. Schiller F. "Cunning to Love"

3. Lazhechnikov I. I. "Ice House".

4. Zhukovsky V. A. Poems. ballads

5. Pushkin A. S. "Ruslan and Ludmila"

6. Veltman A.F. Novels

7. Ryleev K. F. "Olga at Igor's grave"

8.Kuchelbecker V.K."Forest"

9. Lermontov M. Yu. "Fugitive". "Prisoner of the Caucasus"

10. Gogol N. V. "Portrait"

11. Hoffman E. "Sandman", "Little Tsakhes"

12. By E. "Murder in the Rue Morgue", "Gold Bug"

13. Doyle A.K. Novels about Sherlock Holmes

14. Stendhal. "Your Wainn"

From romanticism to realism

1. Goethe I. V. "Faust"

2. Pushkin A. S. "Shot", "Arap of Peter the Great"

3.Gogol II. IN. "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich", "Marriage"

4. Tolstoy L. N. "Cossacks"

5. Turgenev I. S. "Date." "Asya"

6. Bulgakov M. A. "The Life of Monsieur ds Molière"

7. Akhmatova A. A. "Reading Hamlet"

8. Tsvetaeva M. I. "Hamlet's dialogue with conscience"

9. Pasternak B. L. "Hamlet"

10. Zabolotsky N. A. "Ugly girl"

11. Kazakov Yu. II. "In your dream you wept bitterly..." "Autumn in oak forests"

Neo-romanticism in literature

1.Dostoevsky F. M."Dream of a funny man"

2. Korolenko V. G. "Without language", "Blind musician"

3. Bunin I. A. "Margarita crept into the room"

4. Gumilyov N. S. "Olga", "Margarita"

5. Green A. "Scarlet sails." "Running on the waves"

Russian literature of Kazakhstan

1. Ivanov Sun. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". "Kyrgyz Tsmsrbey"

2. Shukhov I.P. "Hatred"

3. Rozhitsyn Yu. M. "Forgiveness Sunday"

4. Gert Yu. M. “Sentence”

5. Bel'ger G.K. "Before the distance"

6. Schmidt A. Lyrica

7.Kiktenko V. Lyrics

8. Verevonkin N. Stories

Part I. Questions of Poetics

ACT, or ACTION- a relatively finished part of a literary dramatic work or its theatrical performance. The division of the performance into A. was first carried out in the Roman theater. The tragedies of ancient authors, classicists, romantics were usually built in 5 A. In the realistic dramaturgy of the 19th century, along with a five-act play, a four- and three-act play appears (A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov). The one-act play is typical of vaudeville. In modern dramaturgy, there are plays with different amounts of A.

ALLEGORY- an allegorical expression of an abstract concept, judgment or idea through a specific image.

For example, industriousness - in the form of an ant, carelessness - in the form of a dragonfly in I.A. Krylov's fable "The Dragonfly and the Ant".

A. is unambiguous, i.e. expresses a strictly defined concept (compare with the ambiguity of a symbol). Many proverbs, sayings, fables, fairy tales are allegorical.

ALLITERATION- repetition of consonant sounds in the same or close combination in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.

Howsl hello dreml em garden is darkh el eny,

Embraced by the bliss of the nightl atb Ouch,

through mebl they, flowersb el enna.

Howsl the moon shines like hellh Ol whoa!...

(F.I. Tyutchev)

In the above example, A. (sl - ml - zl - lb - bl - bl - sl - zl) contributes to the transfer of enjoyment of the beauty of a flowering garden.

AMPHIBRACHY- in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with an emphasis on the second syllable:

Once upon a time in the cold winter time

I came out of the forest; there was severe frost.

(N.A. Nekrasov. "Frost, Red Nose")

ANAPAEST- in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with an emphasis on the third syllable:

Name me a place like this

I didn't see that angle.

Wherever your sower and keeper,

Where would a Russian peasant not moan?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Reflections at the front door”)

ANAPHORA, or UNITY- stylistic figure; repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas (in verse), at the beginning of adjacent phrases or paragraphs (in prose).

I swear I am the first day of creation.

I swear his last day

I swear shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Demon")

By analogy with lexical A., one sometimes speaks of phonic A. (repetition of identical sounds at the beginning of words), and compositional A. (repetition of identical plot motifs at the beginning of episodes).

ANTITHESIS- in a work of art, a sharp opposition of concepts, images, situations, etc.:

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush, like a poppy color,

I am like death, and thin and pale.

(A.S. Pushkin. "You and I")

A. can be the basis of the composition of the entire work. For example, in Leo Tolstoy's story "After the Ball" the scenes of the ball and the execution are contrasted.

ANTONYMS- Words that are opposite in meaning. A. are used in order to emphasize the difference between phenomena. A.S. Pushkin characterizes Lensky and Onegin as follows:

They agreed. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

("Eugene Onegin")

A. are also used to convey the internal complexity, inconsistency of a phenomenon or feeling:

All this would be funny

When would not be so sad.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "A.O. Smirnova")

ARCHAISM- a word that is obsolete in its lexical meaning or grammatical form. A. are used to convey the historical flavor of the era, as well as for the artistic expressiveness of the speech of the author and the hero: they, as a rule, give it solemnity. For example, A.S. Pushkin, speaking about the tasks of the poet and poetry, achieves sublime pathos with the help of A.:

Arise , prophet, andsee , Andheed ,

Fulfilled by my will

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.

("Prophet")

Sometimes A. are introduced into the work with a humorous or satirical purpose. For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Gavriliad" creates a satirical image of St. Gabriel, combining A. ("bowed", "rose", "rivers") with reduced words and expressions ("grabbed in the temple", "hit right in the teeth").

ASSONANCE- repetition of the same or close-sounding vowel sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. Stressed vowels form the basis of A., unstressed vowels can only play the role of peculiar sound echoes.

"On this moonlit night

We love to see our work!

In this phrase, the persistent repetition of sounds OU creates the impression of a groan, crying of people tortured by hard work.

ARCHETYPE- in modern literary criticism: a prototype, a model of the world and human relations, as if unconsciously "dormant" in the collective memory of mankind, ascending to its single primitive ideas (e.g. old age - wisdom; motherhood - protection). A. manifests itself in individual motifs or in the plot of the work as a whole. The images and motifs of the folklore of the peoples of the world are archetypal. Conscious or unconscious transformed (altered) archetypalness is inherent in the work of individual writers. Its opening during analysis enhances the perception of the artistic image in all its innovative originality, sharply felt, as it were, “against the background” of its eternal (archetypal) essence. For example, the motif of the transformation of a person by an evil force into some other creature (inherent in various folklore systems) in literature emphasizes the tragedy and fragility of human destiny (F. Kafka. "Transformation").

APHORISM- a deep generalizing thought, expressed with the utmost conciseness in a refined form:

The habit is given to us from above.

She is a substitute for happiness.

A. differs from a proverb in that it belongs to an author.

BLANK VERSE- syllabo-tonic non-rhyming verse. B.S. especially common in poetic dramaturgy (more often iambic pentameter), because. Suitable for conveying conversational intonations:

Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.

But there is no higher truth. For me

So it is clear, like a simple gamma.

(A.S. Pushkin. "Mozart and Salieri")

In the lyrics of B.S. occurs, but less frequently. See: “Again I visited ...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Do I hear your voice ...” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

ASYNDETON, or ASYNDETON- stylistic figure; omission of conjunctions connecting homogeneous words or sentences in phrases. B. can communicate dynamism, drama, and other shades to the depicted:

Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts,

Drum beat, clicks, rattle,

The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan...

(A.S. Pushkin. "Poltava")

EUPHONY, or EUPHONY- pleasant to the ear sounding of words, giving additional emotional coloring to poetic speech.

The mermaid floated on the blue river

Illuminated by the full moon:

And she tried to splash to the moon

Silvery foam waves.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Mermaid")

Here the words sound softly, smoothly, giving the verse a special lyrical harmony. B. is created by all types of sound repetitions (rhyme, alliteration, assonance), as well as intonation of phrases. Requirements for B. vary depending on the genre, individual poetic tastes or literary current (for example, futurists considered sharp sound combinations to be harmonious).

BARBARISM- a word of foreign origin that has not become an organic property of the national language in which it is used. For example, the Russified words “diploma” and “decree” (from French) are not barbarisms, but the words “madame”, “pardon” (from French) are barbarisms.

Monsieur l Abbe , the Frenchman is wretched.

So that the child is not exhausted,

I taught him everything in jest.

(A.S. Pushkin. "Eugene Onegin")

In Russian literature, V. are used when it is necessary to accurately name the phenomenon being described (in the absence of a corresponding Russian word), to convey the features of the life of people of other nationalities, to create a satirical image of a person who bows to everything foreign, etc.

OUTSIDE COMPOSITION ELEMENTS- when interpreting the plot as an action - those passages of a literary work that do not advance the development of the action. To V.E.K. include various descriptions of the appearance of the hero (portrait), nature (landscape), description of the dwelling (interior), as well as monologues, dialogues of heroes and lyrical digressions of the author. So, the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" begins with a detailed description of the village, and then the house where the hero settled. V.E.K. allow a multifaceted and detailed reveal of the character of the characters (because their essence is manifested not only in actions, but also in a portrait, in the perception of nature, etc.). V.E.K. also create a background for what is happening.

FREE VERSE- syllabic-tonic rhyming verse, in which the lines have different lengths (an unequal number of feet). The free iambic (with fluctuations of stops from 1 to 6) is especially common, which is also called fable verse, because. most often found in the works of this genre.

Bear (1 foot)

Caught in a net (2 feet)

Jokes on death from afar, as you boldly want: (6 stops)

But death up close is a completely different matter! (5 stops)

(I.A. Krylov. "Bear in the nets")

VULGARISM- a rude word that does not meet the literary norm. V. are sometimes introduced into the speech of the hero in order to characterize him. For example, Sobakevich conveys his attitude towards city officials in such words: “All Christ-sellers. There is only one decent person there: the prosecutor; and that one, to tell the truth, is a pig ”(N.V. Gogol.“ Dead Souls ”).

HYPERBOLA- artistic exaggeration of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess. A variety of properties are hyperbolized: size, speed, quantity, etc. For example: “Bloom pants the width of the Black Sea” (N.V. Gogol, “How Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich”). G. is used especially widely in Russian epics.

GRADATION- stylistic figure; gradual increase (or, on the contrary, weakening) of the emotional and semantic meaning of words and expressions: “I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, furiously ...” (N.V. Gogol. “Old World Landowners”). G. is able to convey the development of any feeling of the hero, his emotional excitement or reflect the dynamism of events, the drama of situations, etc.

GROTESQUE- the ultimate exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. G. assumes the internal interaction of contrasting principles: the real and the fantastic; tragic and comic; sarcastic and humorous. G. always sharply violates the boundaries of plausibility, gives the image conditional, bizarre, strange forms. For example, the veneration of one of Gogol's heroes is so great that he bows before his own nose, which has come off his face and has become an official higher than him in rank (“The Nose”). Widely used by G. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. V. Mayakovsky and others.

DACTYL- in syllabo-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with an emphasis on the first syllable:

Glorious autumn! Healthy, vigorous

The air invigorates tired forces.

(N.A. Nekrasov. "Railway")

COUPLET- the simplest stanza, consisting of two rhyming verses:

In the sea, the prince bathes his horse;

Hearing: "Tsarevich! Look at me!"

The horse snorts and spins its ears.

It splashes and splashes and swims far away.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Sea Princess")

DIALECTISM- a non-literary word or expression characteristic of the speech of people living in a certain locality (in the North, in the South, in the k-l. Region). D., as a rule, have correspondences in the literary language. So, in the villages where the Cossacks live, they say: “baz” (yard), “kuren” (hut); in the North they say: “basco” (beautiful), “parya” (guy). Writers turn to D. in order to create a convincing, realistic image of the hero. In Russian literature, D. N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, M. A. Sholokhov, A. T. Tvardovsky and others were widely used. I have come to give you freedom...”).

DIALOGUE- exchange of remarks of two or more persons in a literary work. D. is especially widely used in dramaturgy, and is also used in epic works. (for example, D. Chichikov and Sobakevich).

JARGON, or ARGO- a non-literary artificial language, understandable only to Ph.D. a circle of dedicated people: a certain social stratum (secular Zh., thieves Zh.), people united by a common pastime (kartezhny Zh.), etc. For example: “And the “hooks” are a damn flock! ..” (I.L. Selvinsky. “The Thief”). "Hooks" here means "police". Writers turn to Zh. to convey the social affiliation of the hero, to emphasize his spiritual limitations, etc.

STRING- an episode of the plot depicting the emergence of a contradiction (conflict) and to some extent determining the further development of events in the work. For example, in I.S. Turgenev's "Nest of Nobles" 3. is the flared love of Lavretsky and Liza, colliding with the inert morality of the environment. 3. May be motivated by prior exposure (such is 3. in the named novel) and it can be sudden, unexpected, "opening" the work, which makes the development of the action especially acute. This 3. is often used, for example, by A.P. Chekhov (“Wife”).

INTELLIGENT LANGUAGE, or ZAUM- a purely emotional language, based not on the meaning of words, but on a set of sounds, as if expressing a certain state of the poet. Nominated by futurist writers (1910-20 in Russian literature). 3. I. is, of course, the destruction of art as a form of knowledge and reflection of reality. For example:

Alebos,

Mystery Boss.

Bezve!

Boo Boo,

baoba,

Decrease!!!

(A.E. Kruchenykh. "Vesel zau")

To some extent, zaum served as a search for new artistic means, for example, author's neologisms (“wings with golden letters of the thinnest wings ...” - this is what V. Khlebnikov says about a grasshopper).

ONOMATOPOEIA- the desire with the help of sounds to hint at the sound features of c.-l. particular phenomenon of reality. 3. makes the artistic image more expressive. In a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov, the old train is described as follows: “The mail train ... rushes at full speed ... The locomotive whistles, puffs, hisses, sniffs ... “Something will happen, something will happen!” - wagons trembling from old age are knocking ... Ogogogo-hoo - oh-oh! - picks up the locomotive. ("In the wagon"). Especially often 3. is used in poetry (S. Cherny. "Easter chime").

INVERSION- stylistic figure; unusual (in terms of grammar rules) word order in a sentence or phrase. Successful I. gives the created image greater expressiveness. The youth, the lightness of Onegin, hurrying to the long-begun ball, the poet emphasizes with such an inversion:

Doorman past he's an arrow

He flew up the marble steps.

(A.S. Pushkin. "Eugene Onegin")

ALLEGORY- an expression containing a different, hidden meaning. For example, about a small child: “What a big man is coming!” I. enhances the expressiveness of artistic speech, underlies the tropes. Particularly striking types of I. are allegory and Aesopian language.

INTONATION- a melody of a sounding speech, which allows you to convey the subtlest semantic and emotional shades of a particular phrase. Thanks to I. the same statement (e.g. greeting “Hello, Maria Ivanovna!”) may sound businesslike, or flirtatious, or ironic, etc. I. is created in speech by raising and lowering the tone, pauses, tempo of speech, etc. In writing, the main features of I. are conveyed with the help of punctuation, the author's explanatory words about the speech of the characters . I. plays a special role in verse, where it can be melodious, declamatory, colloquial, etc. Poetic meters, line length, rhyme, clause, pauses, and stanzas participate in creating the intonation of a verse.

INTRIGUE- a complex, tense, intricate knot of events that underlies the development of a dramatic (less often - epic) work. I. - the result of a thoughtful, stubborn, often secret struggle of characters (for example, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, novels by F.M. Dostoevsky).

PUN- a play on words based on the identical or very similar sounding of words that are different in meaning. K. are built on homonyms or comic etymology. K. usually characterizes the hero as a witty, lively person: “I came to Moscow, crying and crying” (P.A. Vyazemsky. “Letter to my wife”, 1824).

KATREN, or QUATRAIN- the most popular stanza in Russian versification. The rhyming of lines in K. can be different:

1. abab (cross):

Do not be shy for the dear homeland ...

The Russian people have endured enough.

Carried out this railroad -

Will endure everything that the Lord does not send!

(N.A. Nekrasov. "Railway")

2. aabb (adjacent):

Can't wait for me to see freedom

And prison days are like years;

And the window is high above the ground.

And there is a sentry at the door!

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Neighbor")

3. abba (belt):

God help the deputies, my friends,

And in storms, and in worldly grief,

In a foreign land, in a desert sea

And in the dark abysses of the earth.

COMPOSITION- this or that construction of a work of art, motivated by its ideological intent. K. is a certain arrangement and interaction of all components of works: plot (i.e., the development of action), descriptive (landscape, portrait), as well as monologues, dialogues, author's lyrical digressions, etc. Depending on artistic goals, techniques and The principles underlying K. can be very diverse. So, for example, the basis for the arrangement of pictures in L.N. Tolstoy's story "After the Ball" is a contrast that well conveys the main idea of ​​the inhuman essence of an outwardly respectable and brilliant colonel. And in "Dead Souls" one of the compositional techniques is the repetition of the same type of situations (Chichikov's arrival to the next landowner, meeting the hero, lunch) and descriptions (estate landscape, interior, etc.). This technique allows us to convey the idea of ​​the diversity of the characters of the landowners and at the same time their uniformity, which consists in the meaninglessness of an idle existence at the expense of the peasants. In addition, the idea of ​​the many-sided opportunism of Chichikov is being carried out. The composition of epic works is especially diverse in terms of its constituent components; in the cinematography of dramatic works, the plot, monologues, and dialogues play a particularly significant role; in K. lyrical works, as a rule, there is no plot beginning.

CULMINATION- that point in the development of the plot when the conflict reaches its highest tension: the clash of opposing principles (socio-political, moral, etc.) is felt especially sharply, and the characters in their essential features are revealed to the greatest extent. For example, in I.S. Turgenev's "The Nest of Nobles", the contradiction between the love of the characters and the laws of the social environment reaches a special intensity in the episode depicting the arrival of Lavretsky's wife, Varvara Pavlovna. This is K. of the novel, because. the outcome of the conflict depends on how the main characters behave: can Lavretsky and Lisa defend their feelings or not?

VOCABULARY- the vocabulary of the language. Turning to one or another L., the writer is guided primarily by the tasks of creating an artistic image. For these purposes, it is important for the author to choose an exact and accurate word (see: synonyms, antonyms), the ability to use its figurative meaning (see: paths), as well as lexical and stylistic shades (see: archaisms, vernacular, jargon, etc.) . Features of L. in the speech of the hero serve as a means of characterizing him. For example, Manilov's speech contains many affectionate words ("darling", "mouth") and epithets expressing the highest (even "twice the highest") degree of Ph.D. qualities (“most respected”, “most amiable”), which speaks of the sentimentality and enthusiasm of his character (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”). Literary analysis of literary works should lead to an understanding of the character of the hero and the author's attitude to the depicted.

AUTHOR'S LYRICAL DIRECTION- the author's deviation from a direct plot narrative, which consists in expressing his feelings and thoughts in the form of lyrical inserts on topics that are little (or not at all) related to the main theme of the work. L.O. allow expressing the author's opinion on important issues of our time, expressing reflections on certain issues. L.O. found in both poetry and prose. For example, in the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”, the story of Tatyana who has fallen in love is suddenly interrupted, and the author expresses his opinion on the issues of classic, romantic and realistic art (the principles of which he asserts in the novel. Then the story of Tatyana An example of a lyrical digression in prose is the author's reflections on the future of Russia in Nikolai Gogol's Dead Souls (see the end of Chapter XI).

LITOTES- artistic understatement of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess. For example: Chichikov's stroller is "light as a feather" (N.V. Gogol. "Dead Souls"). A variety of properties can be underestimated: size, thickness, distance, time, etc. L. increases the expressiveness of artistic speech.

METAPHOR- one of the main tropes of artistic speech; a hidden comparison of an object or phenomenon by the similarity of their features. In M. (unlike comparison), the word denotes not both objects (or phenomena) that are compared, but only the second, the first is only implied.

Bee for tribute in the field

Flies from the wax cell.

(A.S. Pushkin. "Eugene Onegin")

In this example, there are two M.: a beehive is compared by similarity with a cell, nectar is compared with a tribute, although the concepts of “beehive” and “nectar” themselves are not named. Grammatically, M. Can be expressed by different parts of speech: noun (examples given), adjective ("fire kiss"), verb (“a kiss sounded on my lips” - M.Yu. Lermontov. “Taman”), gerund (“Into every carnation of fragrant lilac, Singing, a bee creeps in” - A.A. Fet). If the image is revealed through several metaphorical expressions, then such a metaphor is called expanded: see the poem “In the mundane, sad and boundless steppe” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cup of Life” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

METONYMY- the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another not on the basis of the similarity of their features (which is noted in the metaphor), but only on the basis of c.-l. their related relationship. Depending on the specific nature of the contiguity, many types of M are distinguished. Let's name the most common.

1. Content is named instead of containing: “The flooded stove is cracking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Winter Evening”);

3. The material from which the thing is made is called instead of the thing itself: “Amber smoked in his mouth” (A.S. Pushkin. “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray”);

4. The place where people are located is called instead of the people themselves: “Pairs and armchairs - everything is in full swing” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

POLYUNION, or POLYSYNDETHONE- stylistic figure; a special construction of a phrase in which all (or almost all) homogeneous members of a sentence are connected by the same union. M. can communicate gradualness, lyricism, and other shades to artistic speech. “The earth is all in silver light, and the wonderful air is both cool and stuffy, and full of bliss, and moves an ocean of fragrance ...” (N.V. Gogol. “May Night”).

Oh! Summer red! I would love you.

If it weren't for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies.

(A.S. Pushkin. "Autumn")

MONOLOGUE- a fairly long speech of the hero in a literary work. M. is especially significant in dramaturgy, is used in epic works, and manifests itself in a peculiar way in lyrics (M. of a lyrical hero). M. conveys the feelings, thoughts of the character, includes messages about his past or future, etc. M. can be pronounced aloud (direct M.) or mentally (internal M). An example is the famous M. Onegin, addressed to Tatyana, which begins with the words: “Whenever life is at home \ I want to limit it ...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”, ch. IV, stanzas XIII-XVI ).

NEOLOGISM- a word or phrase newly formed in the language, created to denote a new object or phenomenon, e.g. computer virus. Writers, on the other hand, create their individual N. in order to enhance the figurativeness and emotionality of artistic speech, especially poetic speech. For example, the poet conveys his impression of the silent city street in this way: “... the squat buildings of Otserkveneli, like yesterday” (L. Martynov, Novy Arbat). N. can be found in many writers of the XIX and XX centuries. Some of them, very accurately expressing c.-l. feeling or phenomenon, forever became part of the Russian language: "industry", "phenomenon" (N.M. Karamzin); "Slavophile" (K.N. Batyushkov): "to hunt" (N.M. Zagoskin); "shuffle" (F.M. Dostoevsky).

Autobiography(gr. autos - myself, bios - life, grapho - I write) - a literary and prose genre, a description by the author of his own life. A literary autobiography is an attempt to return to one's own childhood, youth, to resurrect and comprehend the most significant segments of life and life as a whole.

Allegory(gr. allegoria - allegory) - an allegorical image of an object, a phenomenon in order to most clearly show its essential features.

Amphibrachius(gr. amphi - round, brachys - short) - a three-syllable meter with an accent on the second syllable (- / -).

Analysis of a work in literary criticism(gr. analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) - research reading of a literary text.

Anapaest(gr. anapaistos - reflected back, reversed to dactyl) - a three-syllable meter with an emphasis on the third syllable (- - /).

annotation- a summary of the book, manuscript, article.

Antithesis(gr. antithesis - opposition) - opposition of images, pictures, words, concepts.

Archaism(gr. archaios - ancient) - an obsolete word or phrase, grammatical or syntactic form.

Aphorism(gr. aphorismos - saying) - a generalized deep thought, expressed in a concise, concise, artistically pointed form. An aphorism is akin to a proverb, but unlike it, it belongs to a certain person (writer, scientist, etc.).

Ballad(Provence ballar - to dance) - a poem, which is most often based on a historical event, a legend with a sharp, intense plot.

Fable- a short moralizing poetic or prose story, in which there is an allegory, allegory. The characters in the fable are most often animals, plants, things in which human qualities and relationships are manifested, guessed. (Fables of Aesop, La Fontaine, A. Sumarokov, I. Dmitriev, I. Krylov, parodic fables of Kozma Prutkov, S. Mikhalkov, etc.)

Best-seller(English best - the best and sell - to be sold) - a book that has a special commercial success, which is in reader demand.

"Poet's Library"- a series of books dedicated to the work of major poets, individual poetic genres ("Russian ballad", "Russian epics", etc.). Founded by M. Gorky in 1931.

Bible(gr. biblia - lit.: "books") - a collection of ancient texts of religious content.

Bylina- a genre of Russian folklore, a heroic-patriotic song about heroes and historical events.

Screamers(mourners) - performers of lamentations (I. Fedosova, M. Kryukova, etc.).

hero of a literary work, literary hero- the character of a literary work.

Hyperbola(gr. huperbole - exaggeration) - excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object. It is introduced into the fabric of the work for greater expressiveness, it is characteristic of folklore and the genre of satire (N. Gogol, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. Mayakovsky).

Grotesque(French grotesque, urn. grottesco - whimsical, from grotta - grotto) - the ultimate exaggeration based on fantasy, on a bizarre combination of the fantastic and the real.

Dactyl(gr. dactylos - finger) - a three-syllable meter with an accent on the first syllable (/ - -).

Disyllabic sizes- iambic (/ -), trochee (- /).

Detail(fr. detail - detail) - expressive detail in the work. The detail helps the reader, the viewer, to imagine the time, the place of action, the appearance of the character, the nature of his thoughts, to feel and understand the author's attitude to the depicted more sharply and deeper.

Dialogue(gr. dialogos - conversation, conversation) - a conversation of two or more persons. Dialogue is the main form of revealing human characters in dramatic works (plays, screenplays).

Genre(French genre - genus, type) - a type of work of art, for example, a fable, a lyric poem, a story.

tie- an event that marks the beginning of the development of action in epic and dramatic works.

Idea(gr. idea - idea) - the main idea of ​​a work of art.

Inversion(lat. inversio - permutation) - an unusual word order. Inversion gives the phrase a special expressiveness.

Interpretation(lat. interpretatio - explanation) - interpretation of a literary work, comprehension of its meaning, ideas.

Intonation(lat. intonare - I speak loudly) - an expressive means of sounding speech. Intonation makes it possible to convey the attitude of the speaker to what he is saying.

Irony(gr. eironeia - pretense, mockery) - an expression of mockery.

Composition(lat. compositio - compilation, connection) - the arrangement of parts, i.e., the construction of the work.

Winged words- widely used apt words, figurative expressions, famous sayings of historical figures.

climax(lat. culmen (culminis) - peak) - the moment of the highest tension in a work of art.

A culture of speech- the level of speech development, the degree of proficiency in the norms of the language.

Legend(lat. legenda - lit.: “what should be read”) - a work created by folk fantasy, which combines the real and the fantastic.

chronicle- monuments of historical prose of Ancient Rus', one of the main genres of ancient Russian literature.

Literary critic- a specialist who studies the laws of the historical and literary process, analyzing the work of one or more writers.

literary criticism- the science of the essence and specifics of fiction, the laws of the literary process.

Metaphor(gr. metaphora - transfer) - a figurative meaning of a word based on the similarity or opposition of one object or phenomenon to another.

Monologue(gr. monos - one and logos - speech, word) - the speech of one person in a work of art.

Neologisms(gr. neos - new and logos - word) - words or phrases created to denote a new object or phenomenon, or individual word formations.

Oh yeah(gr. ode - song) - a solemn poem dedicated to some historical event or hero.

personification- the transfer of human traits to inanimate objects and phenomena.

Description- the type of narration in which the picture is depicted (portrait of the hero, landscape, view of the room - interior, etc.).

Scenery(French paysage, from pays - locality) - a picture of nature in a work of art.

Tale- one of the types of epic work. The story is more in volume and coverage of life phenomena than a short story, and less than a novel.

subtext- latent, implicit meaning, not coinciding with the direct meaning of the text.

Portrait(fr. portrait - image) - the image of the appearance of the hero in the work.

Proverb- a short, winged, figurative folk saying that has an instructive meaning.

Poem(gr. poiema - creation) - one of the types of lyrical-epic works, which are characterized by plot, eventfulness and expression by the author or lyrical hero of his feelings.

Tradition- a genre of folklore, an oral story that contains information passed down from generation to generation about historical figures, events of past years.

Parable- a short story, allegory, which contains a religious or moral teaching.

Prose(lat. proza) - a literary non-poetic work.

Nickname(gr. pseudos - fiction, lie and onima - name) - a signature that the author replaces his real name. Some pseudonyms quickly disappeared (V. Alov - N.V. Gogol), others replaced the real surname (Maxim Gorky instead of A.M. Peshkov), even passed on to the heirs (T. Gaidar - son of A.P. Gaidar); sometimes a pseudonym is attached to a real surname (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

denouement- one of the elements of the plot, the final moment in the development of action in a work of art.

Story- a small epic work that tells about one or more events in a person's life.

Review- one of the genres of criticism, a review of a work of art with the aim of evaluating and analyzing it. The review contains some information about the author of the work, the formulation of the theme and the main idea of ​​the book, a story about its heroes with reasoning about their actions, characters, relationships with other people. The review also notes the most interesting pages of the book. It is also important to reveal the position of the author of the book, his attitude towards the characters, their actions.

Rhythm(gr. rhythmos - tact, proportion) - the repetition of any unambiguous phenomena at regular intervals (for example, the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse).

Rhetoric(gr. rhitorike) - the science of oratory.

Rhyme(gr. rhythmos - proportionality) - consonance of the endings of poetic lines.

Satire(lat. satira - lit.: “a mixture, all sorts of things”) - a merciless, destroying ridicule, criticism of reality, a person, a phenomenon.

Fairy tale- one of the genres of oral folk art, an entertaining story about unusual, often fantastic events and adventures. Fairy tales are of three types. These are magical, household and fairy tales about animals. The most ancient are fairy tales about animals and magic. Much later, everyday fairy tales appeared, in which human vices were often ridiculed and amusing, sometimes incredible life situations were described.

Comparison- the image of one phenomenon by comparing it with another.

Means of artistic expression- artistic means (for example, allegory, metaphor, hyperbole, grotesque, comparison, epithet, etc.) that help to draw a person, event or object clearly, concretely, clearly.

Poem- a work written in verse, mostly of a small volume, often lyrical, expressing emotional experiences.

Stanza(gr. strophe - turn) - a group of verses (lines) that make up the unity. The verses in a stanza are connected by a certain arrangement of rhymes.

Plot(French sujet - subject, content, event) - a series of events described in a work of art, which form its basis.

Subject(gr. thema - what is laid [as the basis]) - the range of life phenomena depicted in the work; the range of events that form the lifeblood of the work.

Tragedy(gr. tragodia - letters, “goat song”) - a type of drama opposite to comedy, a work depicting a struggle, a personal or social catastrophe, usually ending in the death of a hero.

Trisyllabic meter- dactyl (/ - -), amphibrach (- / -), anapaest (- - /).

Oral folk art, or folklore, - the art of the oral word, created by the people and existing among the broad masses. The most common types of folklore are a proverb, a saying, a fairy tale, a song, a riddle, an epic.

Fantastic(gr. phantastike - the ability to imagine) - a kind of fiction in which the author's fiction extends to the creation of a fictional, unreal, "wonderful" world.

Chorey(gr. choreios from choros - choir) - a two-syllable meter with an accent on the first syllable (/ -). A work of art is a work of art that depicts events and phenomena, people, their feelings in a vivid figurative form.

Quote- verbatim excerpt from any text or verbatim quoted someone's words.

Epigraph(gr. epigraphe - inscription) - a short text placed by the author before the text of the essay and expressing the theme, idea, mood of the work.

Epithet(gr. epitheton - letters, “attached”) - a figurative definition of an object, expressed mainly by an adjective.

Humor(English humor - disposition, mood) - the image of heroes in a funny way. Humor - laughter is cheerful and friendly.

Yamb(gr. iambos) - disyllabic size with stress on the second syllable (- /).