Quite obvious is the fact that new knowledge does not appear and does not develop by itself, it is developed in the process of cognition. To obtain new knowledge, special research methods are needed.
Since the New Age, the problem of the method of cognition has become one of the main themes of European philosophy. Philosophers tried to find such universal methods of cognition that would lead to unconditionally true knowledge. Let us recall the titles of the works of philosophers of that period. The title of F. Bacon's main work "New Organon, or True Instructions for the Interpretation of Nature" reflects the problems of searching for a true method. The very term "organon" (from Grsch. organon - tool, tool) and means method as a tool of knowledge. R. Descartes at the same time writes his famous "Reasoning about the method in order to correctly direct your mind and find the truth in the sciences." In the future, the problem of the method of cognition continued to be the focus of attention of philosophy. G. Hegel develops the dialectical method of cognition, which is reworked on a materialistic basis by K. Marx and F. Engels. Methods of cognition are the subject of study of methodology (from "method" and Greek λόγος - teaching; teaching about the method) - teachings about methods, techniques, methods and means of cognition.
concept method(gr. methodos - the path to something) in the most general sense means a way to achieve certain results in knowledge and practice. The main function of the method is the organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object. That's why method (in one form or another) is reduced to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action. It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular field of activity.
The variety of types of human activity determines a diverse range of methods that can be classified on a variety of grounds.
For epistemology, general logical methods are of particular interest, which are inherent in cognition in general and are used both at the ordinary and at the theoretical level of cognition.
abstraction(from lat. abstractio - distraction) is a special method of thinking, which consists in abstracting from a number of properties and relations of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection in a "pure form" of those properties and relations that are important for this study.
The result of the abstracting activity of thinking at the ordinary level is the formation of various kinds of concepts, and at the scientific level - scientific concepts and categories. In the course of the logical activity of a scientist, by applying various forms of abstractions to objects of the subject level, abstract objects of theoretical research are formed. Here we have such objects as "gas", "liquid", "substance", "goods", etc., in which one characteristic is distinguished, which is important from the point of view of research. For example, the concept of "commodity" means a product of labor produced for sale and having a use value. When abstracting, there is a distraction from all non-essential properties within the framework of a given cognitive situation.
Analogy(gr. analogia from apa - according to the model and logos - reason, i.e. correspondence) - a logical conclusion in the process of cognition from private To private based on some elements of similarity. Analogy as a method of cognition is used everywhere. For example, in everyday life we often draw a conclusion by analogy with the same phenomena in the recent past. In scientific knowledge, analogy is one of the sources of scientific hypotheses, when knowledge obtained from the consideration of an object is transferred to another object, less studied, but similar in essential properties. The analogy even allows one to formulate laws. For example, the French physicist and engineer C. Coulomb introduced the concept of a point electric charge into electrostatics by analogy with the concept of a material point in mechanics and formulated the basic law of electrostatics, which is similar in form to I. Newton's law of universal gravitation.
Knowledge as an activity.
Knowledge- the result of the active interaction of the subject (the one who knows) with the object (what is known). Knowledge is always creative.
Cognition- active reflection or reproduction of reality in the mind of a person, i.e. primarily due to practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement. The process of comprehension of reality, the accumulation and comprehension of data obtained in the experience of human interaction with the outside world.
Ø Involuntary cognitive activity - emerging knowledge and experience are spontaneous (broken glass - it means it is fragile, burned on a pan - it means it is hot)
Ø Organized cognitive activity - training at school, in courses, at a university.
Subject- a person who knows the world.
An object- that to which knowledge is directed.
Approaches:
- A person contemplates and cognizes an object only from the outside.
- A person cognizes an object by including it in his practical activity.
Ways of knowing.
A) sensuous(through the senses) - sensations resulting from the direct impact of reality on the senses. Forms:
Feel- reflection of individual properties and features of objects and processes.
Perception- a holistic image of objects in the variety of their properties (distinguishes the object from the general background)
Performance- a sensual image of objects and phenomena, stored in the mind without their direct impact. There are real ones (about a new car project) and unrealistic ones (about mermaids, brownies).
B) rational(abstract or logical thinking) - mental operations:
*analysis *comparison *generalization
* synthesis * assimilation * distraction
concept- a thought that reflects objects and phenomena in general and essential features.
Judgment- a form of thought in which, through the connection through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or refuted about the objects of knowledge.
inference- reasoning, during which a new judgment is born (conclusion or conclusion)
IN) intuition- the ability of a person to directly or directly comprehend the truth as a result of insight or insight.
Views on ways of knowing:
Philosophers - rationalists - a person acquires true knowledge through reason.
Philosophers - empiricists - a person acquires true knowledge through feelings. Philosophers - Gnostics - the world is cognizable. Truth is perceived by man.
Philosophers - agnostics - the world is impossible to know. Only relative truth is available to man.
True- (reliable correct knowledge) - the correspondence of the received knowledge to reality, such a reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, in which the cognitive object is reproduced as it exists by itself, outside of consciousness.
Criteria:
B) practice (material production, experience, scientific experiment)
B) theory
1) subjective (emotional coloring of the subject)
2) objective (what is the same for everyone).
3) Absolute - ideal (undoubted, unchanging, once and for all established knowledge) - complete, exhaustive knowledge about a complex object.
4) Relative (incomplete limited knowledge - the world is endless and changeable; historical conditions influence the process of cognition through the development of production, spiritual culture, means of observation and experiment).
Types of knowledge:
A) Worldly knowledge - it states how this or that event proceeds. It is based on human sensual knowledge of the world in such forms as sensation, perception, representation.
B) Scientific knowledge is a reliable generalization of facts, in that the regular, necessary is randomly manifested, and the general is behind the single. A feature is the desire for objectivity.
C) Practical knowledge is a way of knowing the world, a product of centuries-old practical human activity, in the process of which certain knowledge was accumulated.
D) Artistic knowledge is a holistic reflection of the world and the person in it. Artistic knowledge is built on the image.
E) Social cognition is the most difficult cognition, because the subject and object of cognitive activity coincide.
Theoretical methods of cognition are what is commonly called "cold reason". A mind versed in theoretical research. Why is that? Remember the famous phrase of Sherlock Holmes: “And from this place, please, speak in as much detail as possible!” At the stage of this phrase and the subsequent story of Helen Stoner, the famous detective initiates a preliminary stage - sensual (empirical) knowledge.
By the way, this episode gives us grounds for comparing two degrees of knowledge: only primary (empirical) and primary together with secondary (theoretical). Conan Doyle does this with the help of the images of the two main characters.
How does retired military doctor Watson react to the girl's story? He fixates on the emotional stage, having decided in advance that the story of the unfortunate stepdaughter was caused by her unmotivated suspicion of her stepfather.
Two stages of the method of cognition
Ellen Holmes listens in a completely different way. He first perceives verbal information by ear. However, the empirical information obtained in this way is not the final product for him, he needs them as raw material for subsequent intellectual processing.
Skillfully using theoretical methods of cognition in processing every grain of information received (none of which passed by his attention), the classical literary character seeks to resolve the mystery of the crime. Moreover, he applies theoretical methods with brilliance, with analytical sophistication that fascinates readers. With their help, there is a search for internal hidden connections and the definition of those patterns that resolve the situation.
What is the nature of theoretical methods of cognition
We deliberately turned to a literary example. With his help, we hope that our story did not begin impersonally.
It should be recognized that science at its present level has become the main driving force of progress precisely because of its "tool set" - research methods. All of them, as we have already mentioned, are divided into two large groups: empirical and theoretical. A common feature of both groups is the goal - true knowledge. They differ in their approach to knowledge. At the same time, scientists practicing empirical methods are called practitioners, and theoretical ones - theorists.
We also note that often the results of empirical and theoretical studies do not coincide with each other. This is the reason for the existence of two groups of methods. 
Empirical (from the Greek word "empirios" - observation) are characterized by purposeful, organized perception, defined by the research task and subject area. In them, scientists use the best forms of fixing the results.
The theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the processing of empirical information using data formalization techniques and specific information processing techniques.
For a scientist practicing theoretical methods of cognition, the ability to use creatively as a tool that is in demand by the optimal method is of paramount importance.
Empirical and theoretical methods have common generic features:
- the fundamental role of various forms of thinking: concepts, theories, laws;
- for any of the theoretical methods, the source of primary information is empirical knowledge;
- in the future, the data obtained are subject to analytical processing using a special conceptual apparatus, the information processing technology provided for them;
- the purpose, due to which theoretical methods of cognition are used, is the synthesis of inferences and conclusions, the development of concepts and judgments as a result of which new knowledge is born.
Thus, at the primary stage of the process, the scientist receives sensory information using the methods of empirical knowledge:
- observation (passive, non-interference tracking of phenomena and processes);
- experiment (fixing the passage of the process under artificially given initial conditions);
- measurements (determining the ratio of the parameter being determined to the generally accepted standard);
- comparison (associative perception of one process compared to another).
Theory as the result of knowledge
What kind of feedback coordinates the methods of theoretical and empirical levels of cognition? Feedback when testing the truth of theories. At the theoretical stage, based on the received sensory information, the key problem is formulated. To resolve it, hypotheses are made. The most optimal and elaborated ones develop into theories.
The reliability of a theory is checked by its correspondence to objective facts (data of sensory cognition) and scientific facts (reliable knowledge, verified many times before for truth.) For such adequacy, it is important to select the optimal theoretical method of cognition. It is he who should ensure the maximum correspondence of the studied fragment to objective reality and the analytical presentation of its results.
Concepts of method and theory. Their commonality and differences
Properly chosen methods provide a “moment of truth” in cognition: the development of a hypothesis into a theory. Actualized, the general scientific methods of theoretical knowledge are filled with the necessary facts in the developed theory of knowledge, becoming its integral part.
If, however, such a well-functioning method is artificially singled out from a ready-made, universally recognized theory, then, having considered it separately, we will find that it has acquired new properties.
On the one hand, it is filled with special knowledge (incorporating the ideas of the current research), and on the other hand, it acquires common generic features of relatively homogeneous objects of study. It is in this that the dialectical relationship between the method and the theory of scientific knowledge is expressed. 
The commonality of their nature is tested for relevance throughout the entire time of their existence. The first one acquires the function of organizational regulation, prescribing to the scientist a formal order of manipulations in order to achieve the goals of the study. Being involved by the scientist, the methods of the theoretical level of knowledge bring the object of study beyond the framework of the existing previous theory.
The difference between method and theory is expressed in the fact that they are different forms of knowledge of scientific knowledge.
If the second expresses the essence, the laws of existence, the conditions of development, the internal connections of the object under study, then the first one orients the researcher, dictating to him a “road map of knowledge”: requirements, principles of subject-transforming and cognitive activity.
It can be said in another way: the theoretical methods of scientific knowledge are addressed directly to the researcher, regulating his thought process in an appropriate way, directing the process of obtaining new knowledge by him in the most rational direction.
Their significance in the development of science led to the creation of its separate branch, which describes the theoretical tools of the researcher, called methodology based on epistemological principles (epistemology is the science of knowledge).
List of theoretical methods of cognition
It is well known that the following variants of theoretical methods of cognition include:
- modeling;
- formalization;
- analysis;
- synthesis;
- abstraction;
- induction;
- deduction;
- idealization.
Of course, the qualifications of a scientist are of great importance in the practical effectiveness of each of them. A knowledgeable specialist, after analyzing the main methods of theoretical knowledge, will choose the right one from their totality. It is he who will play a key role in the effectiveness of cognition itself.
Modeling Method Example
In March 1945, under the auspices of the Ballistic Laboratory (US Armed Forces), the principles of PC operation were outlined. It was a classic example of scientific knowledge. A group of physicists, reinforced by the famous mathematician John von Neumann, participated in the research. A native of Hungary, he was the principal analyst for this study.
The above-mentioned scientist used, as a research tool, the modeling method.
Initially, all devices of the future PC - arithmetic-logical, memory, control device, input and output devices - existed verbally, in the form of axioms formulated by Neumann.
The mathematician clothed the data of empirical physical research in the form of a mathematical model. In the future, it was she, and not her prototype, that was subjected to research by the researcher. Having received the result, Neumann "translated" it into the language of physics. By the way, the thinking process demonstrated by the Hungarian made a great impression on the physicists themselves, as evidenced by their feedback. 
Note that it would be more accurate to give this method the name "modeling and formalization". It is not enough to create the model itself, it is equally important to formalize the internal relations of the object through the coding language. After all, this is how the computer model should be interpreted.
Today, such computer simulation, which is performed using special mathematical programs, is quite common. It is widely used in economics, physics, biology, automotive, radio electronics.
Modern computer modeling
The computer simulation method involves the following steps:
- definition of the object being modeled, formalization of the installation for modeling;
- drawing up a plan of computer experiments with the model;
- analysis of the results.
There are simulation and analytical modeling. Modeling and formalization in this case are a universal tool.
Simulation reflects the functioning of the system when it sequentially performs a huge number of elementary operations. Analytical modeling describes the nature of an object using differential control systems that have a solution that reflects the ideal state of the object.
In addition to mathematical, they also distinguish:
- conceptual modeling (through symbols, operations between them and languages, formal or natural);
- physical modeling (object and model - real objects or phenomena);
- structural-functional (graphs, diagrams, tables are used as a model).
abstraction
The abstraction method helps to understand the essence of the issue under study and solve very complex problems. It allows, discarding everything secondary, to focus on the fundamental details.
For example, if we turn to kinematics, it becomes obvious that researchers use this particular method. Thus, it was originally distinguished as primary, rectilinear and uniform motion (by such abstraction, it was possible to isolate the basic parameters of motion: time, distance, speed.) 
This method always involves some generalization.
By the way, the opposite theoretical method of cognition is called concretization. Using it to study changes in speed, the researchers came up with a definition of acceleration.
Analogy
The analogy method is used to formulate fundamentally new ideas by finding analogues to phenomena or objects (in this case, analogues are both ideal and real objects that have an adequate correspondence to the studied phenomena or objects.)
An example of the effective use of analogy can be well-known discoveries. Charles Darwin, taking as a basis the evolutionary concept of the struggle for the means of subsistence of the poor with the rich, created the evolutionary theory. Niels Bohr, relying on the planetary structure of the solar system, substantiated the concept of the orbital structure of the atom. J. Maxwell and F. Huygens created the theory of wave electromagnetic oscillations, using, as an analogue, the theory of wave mechanical oscillations.
The analogy method becomes relevant when the following conditions are met:
- as many essential features as possible should resemble each other;
- a sufficiently large sample of known features must actually be associated with an unknown feature;
- analogy should not be interpreted as identical similarity;
- it is also necessary to consider the fundamental differences between the subject of study and its analogue.
Note that this method is most often and fruitfully used by economists.
Analysis - synthesis
Analysis and synthesis find their application both in scientific research and in ordinary mental activity.
The first is the process of mentally (most often) breaking the object under study into its components for a more complete study of each of them. However, the stage of analysis is followed by the stage of synthesis, when the studied components are combined together. In this case, all the properties revealed during their analysis are taken into account and then their relationships and methods of connection are determined. 
The complex use of analysis and synthesis is characteristic of theoretical knowledge. It was these methods in their unity and opposition that the German philosopher Hegel laid at the foundation of dialectics, which, in his words, "is the soul of all scientific knowledge."
Induction and deduction
When the term "methods of analysis" is used, deduction and induction are most often meant. These are logical methods.
Deduction involves the course of reasoning, following from the general to the particular. It allows us to single out some consequences from the general content of the hypothesis that can be substantiated empirically. Thus, deduction is characterized by the establishment of a common connection.
Sherlock Holmes, mentioned by us at the beginning of this article, very clearly substantiated his deductive method in the story “The Land of Crimson Clouds”: “Life is an endless connection of causes and effects. Therefore, we can cognize it by examining one link after another. The famous detective collected as much information as possible, choosing the most significant from the many versions.
Continuing to characterize the methods of analysis, let us characterize the induction. This is the formulation of a general conclusion from a series of particular ones (from the particular to the general.) Distinguish between complete and incomplete induction. Full induction is characterized by the development of a theory, and incomplete - hypotheses. The hypothesis, as you know, should be updated by proving. Only then does it become a theory. Induction, as a method of analysis, is widely used in philosophy, economics, medicine, and jurisprudence.
Idealization
Often in the theory of scientific knowledge, ideal concepts that do not exist in reality are used. Researchers endow non-natural objects with special, limiting properties, which are possible only in "limiting" cases. Examples are a straight line, a material point, an ideal gas. Thus, science singles out certain objects from the objective world that are completely amenable to scientific description, devoid of secondary properties.
The idealization method, in particular, was applied by Galileo, who noticed that if all external forces acting on a moving object are removed, then it will continue to move indefinitely, rectilinearly and uniformly.
Thus, idealization allows in theory to obtain a result that is unattainable in reality. 
However, in reality, for this case, the researcher takes into account: the height of the falling object above sea level, the latitude of the point of impact, the effect of wind, air density, etc.
Training of methodologists as the most important task of education
Today, the role of universities in the training of specialists who creatively master the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge is becoming obvious. At the same time, as the experience of Stanford, Harvard, Yale and Columbia Universities testifies, they are assigned a leading role in the development of the latest technologies. Perhaps that is why their graduates are in demand in science-intensive companies, the share of which has a constant tendency to increase.
An important role in the training of researchers is played by:
- flexibility of the educational program;
- the possibility of individual training for the most talented students capable of becoming promising young scientists.
At the same time, the specialization of people who develop human knowledge in the field of IT, engineering, production, and mathematical modeling implies the presence of teachers with relevant qualifications.
Conclusion
The examples of methods of theoretical knowledge mentioned in the article give a general idea of the creative work of scientists. Their activity is reduced to the formation of a scientific reflection of the world.
It, in a narrower, special sense, consists in the skillful use of a certain scientific method. 
The researcher summarizes empirical proven facts, puts forward and tests scientific hypotheses, formulates a scientific theory that advances human knowledge from ascertaining the known to understanding the previously unknown.
Sometimes the ability of scientists to use theoretical scientific methods is like magic. Even centuries later, no one doubts the genius of Leonardo da Vinci, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein.
Methods are inherent in scientific knowledge, i.e. special rules and techniques of cognitive activity.
Method It is a way to achieve certain results in knowledge and practice. The scientific method includes a system of rules, techniques and procedures used to obtain reliable knowledge. The whole seriousness of the research depends on the method, on the mode of action. F. Bacon compared the method with a lamp that illuminated the way for a traveler walking in the dark.
In ancient Greece, one of the most common methods of cognition was observation. Democritus called for observing nature and revealing its laws. Socrates actively applied the method discussion and dialogue with your listeners. Plato used dialogue as a way to connect opposing points of view. Aristotle developed logic as the science of the forms and methods of correct thinking and the search for truth.
In the Middle Ages, it was widely practiced in Ph. method of logical proof as a way to justify your point of view. The methods of self-observation and self-analysis were also used as methods of comprehending one's own spiritual world.
In modern times, F. Bacon developed inductive, and R. Descartes - deductive methods. In Ph.i., it prevailed metaphysical a method that posited being as something unchanging, motionless. In F.I actively declared himself dialectical method of knowledge.
Methods of cognition are usually divided into general (used in all types of human cognitive activity), and purely scientific (general scientific), used primarily in scientific research.
To general methods cognitions include such as observation (obtaining primary material), analysis and synthesis (decomposition into parts and their combination), abstraction (highlighting the most important properties and features in objects). These are also such methods as generalization (highlighting the general properties of objects), induction and deduction. This should also include analogy (searching for similarities between objects), modeling, experiment and other methods.
The methods of scientific knowledge include those that are used in empirical and theoretical research.
Methods of empirical scientific knowledge- this is primarily an observation, a description, an analogy. They are very actively used in many sciences, and especially in biology and astronomy.
Methods of theoretical research very varied. Thus, formalization is the operation of signs and symbols, formulas. They seem to replace the real object or process. This method is actively used in mathematics, chemistry, physics.
Axiomatic Method is based on the use of axioms, i.e. provisions, the truth of which is not in doubt due to their repeated proof and even evidence.
genetic method allows you to trace the occurrence of certain phenomena and processes. For example, to reveal the genesis of life on Earth, to study the origin of man-
historical method reproduces the entire history of the object, taken in all its details and forms of manifestation.
Unlike the historical boolean method traces only the general logic (direction) of the development of the subject, the most important trends and contradictions of this process. This method also reproduces the history of an object, but, as it were, “cleanses” it of the accidental and insignificant in it, of small details, and singles out the laws of development in it.
Modeling as a method is the creation of ideal (mental) models (substitutes) of objects. This makes it possible, as it were, to reproduce the processes under study and analyze them. It is possible, for example, to create a theoretical model of society's transition to market relations and trace all possible manifestations of this process.
By using ascending from the abstract to the concrete the transition from incomplete knowledge to complete (concrete) knowledge is achieved. The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete is the path and regularity of the development of all sciences without exception, the entire history of human cognitive activity.
Scientific knowledge has various forms of its existence.
scientific fact represents a real event or phenomenon recorded by our consciousness as objectively existing or existing. It is known, for example, that A.S. Pushkin died in a duel. Facts are the "air of science", its empirical basis.
Hypothesis- this is a scientifically based assumption or a system of assumptions about the causes of facts and phenomena. There are, for example, hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth, about the nature of the Tunguska meteorite, etc. Hypotheses push the search for truth, but they are "not yet a fact." They represent only probabilistic knowledge about something. In the case of reasoned evidence, the hypothesis becomes reliable knowledge.
Idea is a generalized knowledge that explains the essence (essence) of objects, processes and phenomena. These are, for example, the idea of the development of everything that exists in dialectical philosophy, the idea of the class struggle in Marxism, and other ideas.
Theory is a system of generalized, reliable and ordered knowledge about an object. It describes, explains and predicts its development and functioning. There is, for example, the theory of man, the theory of the atomic nucleus, the theory of natural selection, and others.
The scientific picture of the world is a picture of how the world works and how it moves and develops. It is a very complex synthesis of knowledge, a holistic image of the world obtained with the help of various sciences. There are also concepts of F., a religious picture of the world. The scientific picture of the world is not only a system of knowledge, but also the ideal towards which scientific knowledge strives.
Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge about the world around us and about oneself. Cognition begins from the moment when a person begins to ask himself questions: who am I, why did I come into this world, what mission should I fulfill. Cognition is a continuous process. It occurs even when a person is not aware of what thoughts guide his actions and deeds. Cognition as a process studies a number of sciences: psychology, philosophy, sociology, scientific methodology, history, science of science. The purpose of any knowledge is self-improvement and expansion of one's horizons.
The structure of knowledge
Cognition as a scientific category has a clearly defined structure. Cognition necessarily includes a subject and an object. The subject is understood as a person who takes active steps to implement knowledge. The object of knowledge is that to which the attention of the subject is directed. Other people, natural and social phenomena, any objects can act as an object of knowledge.
Methods of knowledge
Under the methods of cognition understand the tools with which the process of acquiring new knowledge about the world around is carried out. Methods of cognition are traditionally divided into empirical and theoretical.
Empirical methods of knowledge
Empirical methods of cognition involve the study of an object with the help of any research actions, confirmed by experience. Empirical methods of cognition include: observation, experiment, measurement, comparison.
- Observation- this is a method of cognition, during which the study of an object is carried out without direct interaction with it. In other words, the observer can be at a distance from the object of knowledge and at the same time receive the information he needs. With the help of observation, the subject can draw his own conclusions on a particular issue, build additional assumptions. The method of observation is widely used in their activities by psychologists, medical personnel, and social workers.
- Experiment is a method of cognition in which immersion occurs in a specially created environment. This method of cognition involves some abstraction from the outside world. Experiments are used to conduct scientific research. In the course of this method of cognition, the hypothesis put forward is confirmed or refuted.
- Measurement is an analysis of any parameters of the object of knowledge: weight, size, length, etc. In the course of comparison, significant characteristics of the object of knowledge are compared.
Theoretical methods of cognition
Theoretical methods of cognition involve the study of an object through the analysis of various categories and concepts. The truth of the put forward hypothesis is not confirmed empirically, but is proved with the help of existing postulates and final conclusions. Theoretical methods of cognition include: analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, concretization, abstraction, analogy, deduction, induction, idealization, modeling, formalization.
- Analysis involves the mental analysis of the whole object of knowledge into small parts. The analysis reveals the connection between the components, their differences and other features. Analysis as a method of cognition is widely used in scientific and research activities.
- Synthesis involves the unification of individual parts into a single whole, the discovery of a link between them. Synthesis is actively used in the process of any knowledge: in order to accept new information, it is necessary to correlate it with existing knowledge.
- Classification is a grouping of objects united by specific parameters.
- Generalization involves grouping individual items according to their main characteristics.
- Specification is a refinement process carried out in order to focus attention on significant details of an object or phenomenon.
- abstraction implies focusing on the private side of a particular subject in order to discover a new approach, to acquire a different view of the problem under study. At the same time, other components are not considered, not taken into account, or insufficient attention is paid to them.
- Analogy is carried out in order to identify the presence of similar objects in the object of knowledge.
- Deduction- this is the transition from the general to the particular as a result of the conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
- Induction- this is the transition from the particular to the whole as a result of the conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
- Idealization implies the formation of separate concepts denoting an object that do not exist in reality.
- Modeling involves the formation and consistent study of any category of existing objects in the process of cognition.
- Formalization reflects objects or phenomena using generally accepted symbols: letters, numbers, formulas or other conventional symbols.
Types of knowledge
The types of cognition are understood as the main directions of human consciousness, with the help of which the process of cognition is carried out. Sometimes they are called forms of knowledge.
Ordinary knowledge
This type of cognition implies the receipt by a person of elementary information about the world around him in the process of life. Even a child has ordinary knowledge. A small person, receiving the necessary knowledge, draws his conclusions and gains experience. Even if a negative experience comes, in the future it will help to form such qualities as caution, attentiveness, and prudence. A responsible approach is developed through understanding the experience gained, its inner living. As a result of everyday knowledge, a person develops an idea of how one can and cannot act in life, what one should count on, and what one should forget about. Ordinary knowledge is based on elementary ideas about the world and connections between existing objects. It does not affect general cultural values, does not consider the worldview of the individual, its religious and moral orientation. Ordinary knowledge seeks only to satisfy the momentary request about the surrounding reality. A person simply accumulates useful experience and knowledge necessary for further life activity.
scientific knowledge
This type of knowledge is based on a logical approach. Its other name is . Here a detailed consideration of the situation in which the subject is immersed plays an important role. With the help of a scientific approach, an analysis of existing objects is carried out, and appropriate conclusions are drawn. Scientific knowledge is widely used in research projects of any direction. With the help of science prove the truth or disprove many facts. The scientific approach is subject to many components, cause-and-effect relationships play an important role.
In scientific activity, the process of cognition is carried out by putting forward hypotheses and proving them in a practical way. As a result of the ongoing research, a scientist can confirm his assumptions or completely abandon them if the final product does not meet the stated goal. Scientific knowledge relies primarily on logic and common sense.
Artistic knowledge
This type of knowledge is also called creative. Such knowledge is based on artistic images and affects the intellectual sphere of a person's activity. Here, the truth of any statements cannot be proved scientifically, since the artist comes into contact with the category of beauty. Reality is reflected in artistic images, and is not built by the method of mental analysis. Artistic knowledge is limitless in its essence. The nature of creative knowledge of the world is such that a person himself models the image in his head with the help of thoughts and ideas. The material created in this way is an individual creative product and gets the right to exist. Each artist has his own inner world, which he reveals to other people through creative activity: the artist paints pictures, the writer writes books, the musician composes music. Every creative thinking has its own truth and fiction.
Philosophical knowledge
This type of knowledge consists in the intention to interpret reality by determining the place of a person in the world. Philosophical knowledge is characterized by the search for individual truth, constant reflection on the meaning of life, appeal to such concepts as conscience, purity of thoughts, love, talent. Philosophy tries to penetrate the essence of the most complex categories, to explain mystical and eternal things, to determine the essence of human existence, existential questions of choice. Philosophical knowledge is aimed at understanding the controversial issues of being. Often, as a result of such research, the actor comes to understand the ambivalence of everything that exists. Philosophical approach implies a vision of the second (hidden) side of any object, phenomenon or judgment.
religious knowledge
This type of knowledge is aimed at studying the relationship of a person with higher powers. The Almighty is considered here both as an object of study, and at the same time as a subject, since religious consciousness implies the praise of the divine principle. A religious person interprets all the events taking place from the point of view of divine providence. He analyzes his inner state, mood and waits for some definite response from above to certain actions committed in life. For him, the spiritual component of any business, morality and moral principles are of great importance. Such a person often sincerely wishes others happiness and wants to do the will of the Almighty. A religiously minded consciousness implies the search for the only correct truth, which would be useful to many, and not to one specific person. Questions that are put before the personality: what is good and evil, how to live according to conscience, what is the sacred duty of each of us.
mythological knowledge
This type of knowledge refers to a primitive society. This is a variant of the knowledge of a person who considered himself an integral part of nature. Ancient people looked for answers to questions about the essence of life differently than modern people, they endowed nature with divine power. That is why the mythological consciousness has formed its gods and the corresponding attitude to the events taking place. Primitive society relieved itself of responsibility for what happens in everyday reality and completely turned to nature.
self-knowledge
This type of knowledge is aimed at studying one's true states, moods and conclusions. Self-knowledge always implies a deep analysis of one's own feelings, thoughts, actions, ideals, aspirations. Those who have been actively engaged in self-knowledge for several years, note a highly developed intuition. Such a person will not get lost in the crowd, will not succumb to the "herd" feeling, but will make responsible decisions on his own. Self-knowledge leads a person to an understanding of his motives, comprehension of the years lived and committed deeds. As a result of self-knowledge, a person's mental and physical activity increases, he accumulates self-confidence, becomes truly courageous and enterprising.
Thus, cognition as a deep process of acquiring the necessary knowledge about the surrounding reality has its own structure, methods and types. Each type of cognition corresponds to a different period in the history of social thought and the personal choice of a single person.
