organic matter. Theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds

All substances that contain a carbon atom, in addition to carbonates, carbides, cyanides, thiocyanates and carbonic acid, are organic compounds. This means that they are able to be created by living organisms from carbon atoms through enzymatic or other reactions. Today, many organic substances can be synthesized artificially, which allows the development of medicine and pharmacology, as well as the creation of high-strength polymer and composite materials.

Classification of organic compounds

Organic compounds are the most numerous class of substances. There are about 20 types of substances here. They are different in chemical properties, differ in physical qualities. Their melting point, mass, volatility and solubility, as well as their state of aggregation under normal conditions, are also different. Among them:

• hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkynes, alkenes, alkadienes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons);
• aldehydes;
• ketones;
• alcohols (dihydric, monohydric, polyhydric);
• ethers;
• esters;
• carboxylic acids;
• amines;
• amino acids;
• carbohydrates;
• fats;
• proteins;
• biopolymers and synthetic polymers.

This classification reflects the features of the chemical structure and the presence of specific atomic groups that determine the difference in the properties of a substance. In general terms, the classification, which is based on the configuration of the carbon skeleton, which does not take into account the features of chemical interactions, looks different. According to its provisions, organic compounds are divided into:

• aliphatic compounds;
• aromatic substances;
• heterocyclic compounds.

These classes of organic compounds can have isomers in different groups of substances. The properties of the isomers are different, although their atomic composition may be the same. This follows from the provisions laid down by A. M. Butlerov. Also, the theory of the structure of organic compounds is the guiding basis for all research in organic chemistry. It is put on the same level with Mendeleev's Periodic Law.

The very concept of chemical structure was introduced by A. M. Butlerov. In the history of chemistry, it appeared on September 19, 1861. Previously, there were different opinions in science, and some scientists completely denied the existence of molecules and atoms. Therefore, there was no order in organic and inorganic chemistry. Moreover, there were no regularities by which it was possible to judge the properties of specific substances. At the same time, there were also compounds that, with the same composition, exhibited different properties.

The statements of A. M. Butlerov in many ways directed the development of chemistry in the right direction and created a solid foundation for it. Through it, it was possible to systematize the accumulated facts, namely, the chemical or physical properties of certain substances, the patterns of their entry into reactions, and so on. Even the prediction of ways to obtain compounds and the presence of some common properties became possible thanks to this theory. And most importantly, A. M. Butlerov showed that the structure of a substance molecule can be explained in terms of electrical interactions.

The logic of the theory of the structure of organic substances

Since, before 1861, many in chemistry rejected the existence of an atom or a molecule, the theory of organic compounds became a revolutionary proposal for the scientific world. And since A. M. Butlerov himself proceeds only from materialistic conclusions, he managed to refute the philosophical ideas about organic matter.

He managed to show that the molecular structure can be recognized empirically through chemical reactions. For example, the composition of any carbohydrate can be determined by burning a certain amount of it and counting the resulting water and carbon dioxide. The amount of nitrogen in the amine molecule is also calculated during combustion by measuring the volume of gases and releasing the chemical amount of molecular nitrogen.

If we consider Butlerov's judgments about the chemical structure, which depends on the structure, in the opposite direction, then a new conclusion suggests itself. Namely: knowing the chemical structure and composition of a substance, one can empirically assume its properties. But most importantly, Butlerov explained that in organic matter there is a huge number of substances that exhibit different properties, but have the same composition.

General provisions of the theory

Considering and investigating organic compounds, A. M. Butlerov deduced some of the most important patterns. He combined them into the provisions of the theory explaining the structure of chemicals of organic origin. The provisions of the theory are as follows:

• in the molecules of organic substances, atoms are interconnected in a strictly defined sequence, which depends on valency;
• chemical structure is the direct order according to which atoms are connected in organic molecules;
• the chemical structure determines the presence of the properties of an organic compound;
• depending on the structure of molecules with the same quantitative composition, different properties of the substance may appear;
• all atomic groups involved in the formation of a chemical compound have a mutual influence on each other.

All classes of organic compounds are built according to the principles of this theory. Having laid the foundations, A. M. Butlerov was able to expand chemistry as a field of science. He explained that due to the fact that carbon exhibits a valence of four in organic substances, the variety of these compounds is determined. The presence of many active atomic groups determines whether a substance belongs to a certain class. And it is precisely due to the presence of specific atomic groups (radicals) that physical and chemical properties appear.

Hydrocarbons and their derivatives

These organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are the simplest in composition among all the substances of the group. They are represented by a subclass of alkanes and cycloalkanes (saturated hydrocarbons), alkenes, alkadienes and alkatrienes, alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons), as well as a subclass of aromatic substances. In alkanes, all carbon atoms are connected only by a single C-C bond, which is why not a single H atom can be built into the composition of the hydrocarbon.

In unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen can be incorporated at the site of the double C=C bond. Also, the C-C bond can be triple (alkynes). This allows these substances to enter into many reactions associated with the reduction or addition of radicals. All other substances, for the convenience of studying their ability to enter into reactions, are considered as derivatives of one of the classes of hydrocarbons.

Alcohols

Alcohols are called organic chemical compounds more complex than hydrocarbons. They are synthesized as a result of enzymatic reactions in living cells. The most typical example is the synthesis of ethanol from glucose as a result of fermentation.

In industry, alcohols are obtained from halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons. As a result of the substitution of a halogen atom for a hydroxyl group, alcohols are formed. Monohydric alcohols contain only one hydroxyl group, polyhydric - two or more. An example of a dihydric alcohol is ethylene glycol. The polyhydric alcohol is glycerol. The general formula of alcohols is R-OH (R is a carbon chain).

Aldehydes and ketones

After alcohols enter into reactions of organic compounds associated with the elimination of hydrogen from the alcohol (hydroxyl) group, a double bond between oxygen and carbon closes. If this reaction takes place at the alcohol group located at the terminal carbon atom, then as a result of it, an aldehyde is formed. If the carbon atom with alcohol is not located at the end of the carbon chain, then the result of the dehydration reaction is the production of a ketone. The general formula of ketones is R-CO-R, aldehydes R-COH (R is the hydrocarbon radical of the chain).

Esters (simple and complex)

The chemical structure of organic compounds of this class is complicated. Ethers are considered as reaction products between two alcohol molecules. When water is cleaved from them, a compound of the R-O-R sample is formed. Reaction mechanism: elimination of a hydrogen proton from one alcohol and a hydroxyl group from another alcohol.

Esters are reaction products between an alcohol and an organic carboxylic acid. Reaction mechanism: elimination of water from the alcohol and carbon groups of both molecules. Hydrogen is split off from the acid (along the hydroxyl group), and the OH group itself is separated from the alcohol. The resulting compound is depicted as R-CO-O-R, where the beech R denotes radicals - the rest of the carbon chain.

Carboxylic acids and amines

Carboxylic acids are called special substances that play an important role in the functioning of the cell. The chemical structure of organic compounds is as follows: a hydrocarbon radical (R) with a carboxyl group (-COOH) attached to it. The carboxyl group can only be located at the extreme carbon atom, because the valency C in the (-COOH) group is 4.

Amines are simpler compounds that are derivatives of hydrocarbons. Here, any carbon atom has an amine radical (-NH2). There are primary amines in which the (-NH2) group is attached to one carbon (general formula R-NH2). In secondary amines, nitrogen combines with two carbon atoms (formula R-NH-R). Tertiary amines have nitrogen attached to three carbon atoms (R3N), where p is a radical, a carbon chain.

Amino acids

Amino acids are complex compounds that exhibit the properties of both amines and acids of organic origin. There are several types of them, depending on the location of the amine group in relation to the carboxyl group. Alpha amino acids are the most important. Here the amine group is located at the carbon atom to which the carboxyl group is attached. This allows you to create a peptide bond and synthesize proteins.

Carbohydrates and fats

Carbohydrates are aldehyde alcohols or keto alcohols. These are compounds with a linear or cyclic structure, as well as polymers (starch, cellulose, and others). Their most important role in the cell is structural and energetic. Fats, or rather lipids, perform the same functions, only they participate in other biochemical processes. Chemically, fat is an ester of organic acids and glycerol.

In the past, scientists divided all substances in nature into conditionally inanimate and living ones, including the animal and plant kingdoms among the latter. Substances of the first group are called mineral. And those that entered the second, began to be called organic substances.

What is meant by this? The class of organic substances is the most extensive among all chemical compounds known to modern scientists. The question of which substances are organic can be answered as follows - these are chemical compounds that include carbon.

Please note that not all carbon-containing compounds are organic. For example, corbides and carbonates, carbonic acid and cyanides, carbon oxides are not among them.

Why are there so many organic substances?

The answer to this question lies in the properties of carbon. This element is curious in that it is able to form chains from its atoms. Moreover, the carbon bond is very stable.

In addition, in organic compounds, it exhibits a high valence (IV), i.e. the ability to form chemical bonds with other substances. And not only single, but also double and even triple (otherwise - multiples). As the bond multiplicity increases, the chain of atoms becomes shorter, and the bond stability increases.

And carbon is endowed with the ability to form linear, flat and three-dimensional structures.

That is why organic substances in nature are so diverse. You can easily check it yourself: stand in front of a mirror and carefully look at your reflection. Each of us is a walking textbook on organic chemistry. Think about it: at least 30% of the mass of each of your cells is organic compounds. The proteins that built your body. Carbohydrates, which serve as "fuel" and a source of energy. Fats that store energy reserves. Hormones that control organ function and even your behavior. Enzymes that start chemical reactions within you. And even the "source code," the strands of DNA, are all carbon-based organic compounds.

Composition of organic substances

As we said at the very beginning, the main building material for organic matter is carbon. And practically any elements, combining with carbon, can form organic compounds.

In nature, most often in the composition of organic substances are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus.

The structure of organic substances

The diversity of organic substances on the planet and the diversity of their structure can be explained by the characteristic features of carbon atoms.

You remember that carbon atoms are able to form very strong bonds with each other, connecting in chains. The result is stable molecules. The way carbon atoms are connected in a chain (arranged in a zigzag pattern) is one of the key features of its structure. Carbon can combine both into open chains and into closed (cyclic) chains.

It is also important that the structure of chemicals directly affects their chemical properties. A significant role is also played by how atoms and groups of atoms in a molecule affect each other.

Due to the peculiarities of the structure, the number of carbon compounds of the same type goes to tens and hundreds. For example, we can consider hydrogen compounds of carbon: methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc.

For example, methane - CH 4. Such a combination of hydrogen with carbon under normal conditions is in a gaseous state of aggregation. When oxygen appears in the composition, a liquid is formed - methyl alcohol CH 3 OH.

Not only substances with different qualitative composition (as in the example above) exhibit different properties, but substances of the same qualitative composition are also capable of this. An example is the different ability of methane CH 4 and ethylene C 2 H 4 to react with bromine and chlorine. Methane is capable of such reactions only when heated or under ultraviolet light. And ethylene reacts even without lighting and heating.

Consider this option: the qualitative composition of chemical compounds is the same, the quantitative is different. Then the chemical properties of the compounds are different. As in the case of acetylene C 2 H 2 and benzene C 6 H 6.

Not the last role in this variety is played by such properties of organic substances, "tied" to their structure, as isomerism and homology.

Imagine that you have two seemingly identical substances - the same composition and the same molecular formula to describe them. But the structure of these substances is fundamentally different, hence the difference in chemical and physical properties. For example, the molecular formula C 4 H 10 can be written for two different substances: butane and isobutane.

We are talking about isomers- compounds that have the same composition and molecular weight. But the atoms in their molecules are located in a different order (branched and unbranched structure).

Concerning homology- this is a characteristic of such a carbon chain in which each next member can be obtained by adding one CH 2 group to the previous one. Each homologous series can be expressed by one general formula. And knowing the formula, it is easy to determine the composition of any of the members of the series. For example, methane homologues are described by the formula C n H 2n+2 .

As the “homologous difference” CH 2 is added, the bond between the atoms of the substance is strengthened. Let's take the homologous series of methane: its first four members are gases (methane, ethane, propane, butane), the next six are liquids (pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane, decane), and then substances in the solid state of aggregation follow (pentadecane, eicosan, etc.). And the stronger the bond between carbon atoms, the higher the molecular weight, boiling and melting points of substances.

What classes of organic substances exist?

Organic substances of biological origin include:

• proteins;
• carbohydrates;
• nucleic acids;
• lipids.

The first three points can also be called biological polymers.

A more detailed classification of organic chemicals covers substances not only of biological origin.

The hydrocarbons are:

• acyclic compounds:
  • saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes);
  • unsaturated hydrocarbons:
    • alkenes;
    • alkynes;
    • alkadienes.
• cyclic compounds:
  • carbocyclic compounds:
    • alicyclic;
    • aromatic.
  • heterocyclic compounds.

There are also other classes of organic compounds in which carbon combines with substances other than hydrogen:

• alcohols and phenols;
• aldehydes and ketones;
• carboxylic acids;
• esters;
• lipids;
• carbohydrates:
  • monosaccharides;
  • oligosaccharides;
  • polysaccharides.
  • mucopolysaccharides.
• amines;
• amino acids;
• proteins;
• nucleic acids.

Formulas of organic substances by classes

Examples of organic substances

As you remember, in the human body, various kinds of organic substances are the basis of the foundations. These are our tissues and fluids, hormones and pigments, enzymes and ATP, and much more.

In the bodies of humans and animals, proteins and fats are prioritized (half of the dry weight of an animal cell is protein). In plants (approximately 80% of the dry mass of the cell) - for carbohydrates, primarily complex - polysaccharides. Including cellulose (without which there would be no paper), starch.

Let's talk about some of them in more detail.

For example, about carbohydrates. If it were possible to take and measure the masses of all organic substances on the planet, it would be carbohydrates that would win this competition.

They serve as a source of energy in the body, are building materials for cells, and also carry out the supply of substances. Plants use starch for this purpose, and glycogen for animals.

In addition, carbohydrates are very diverse. For example, simple carbohydrates. The most common monosaccharides in nature are pentoses (including deoxyribose, which is part of DNA) and hexoses (glucose, which is well known to you).

Like bricks, at a large construction site of nature, polysaccharides are built from thousands and thousands of monosaccharides. Without them, more precisely, without cellulose, starch, there would be no plants. Yes, and animals without glycogen, lactose and chitin would have a hard time.

Let's look carefully at squirrels. Nature is the greatest master of mosaics and puzzles: from just 20 amino acids, 5 million types of proteins are formed in the human body. Proteins also have many vital functions. For example, construction, regulation of processes in the body, blood coagulation (there are separate proteins for this), movement, transport of certain substances in the body, they are also a source of energy, in the form of enzymes they act as a catalyst for reactions, provide protection. Antibodies play an important role in protecting the body from negative external influences. And if a discord occurs in the fine tuning of the body, antibodies, instead of destroying external enemies, can act as aggressors to their own organs and tissues of the body.

Proteins are also divided into simple (proteins) and complex (proteins). And they have properties inherent only to them: denaturation (destruction, which you have noticed more than once when you boiled a hard-boiled egg) and renaturation (this property is widely used in the manufacture of antibiotics, food concentrates, etc.).

Let's not ignore and lipids(fats). In our body, they serve as a reserve source of energy. As solvents, they help the course of biochemical reactions. Participate in the construction of the body - for example, in the formation of cell membranes.

And a few more words about such curious organic compounds as hormones. They are involved in biochemical reactions and metabolism. These small hormones make men men (testosterone) and women women (estrogen). They make us happy or sad (thyroid hormones play an important role in mood swings, and endorphins give a feeling of happiness). And they even determine whether we are “owls” or “larks”. Whether you're ready to study late or prefer to get up early and do your homework before school, it's not just your daily routine that decides, but some adrenal hormones as well.

Conclusion

The world of organic matter is truly amazing. It is enough to delve into its study just a little to take your breath away from the feeling of kinship with all life on Earth. Two legs, four or roots instead of legs - we are all united by the magic of mother nature's chemical laboratory. It causes carbon atoms to join in chains, react and create thousands of such diverse chemical compounds.

You now have a short guide to organic chemistry. Of course, not all possible information is presented here. Some points you may have to clarify on your own. But you can always use the route we have planned for your independent research.

You can also use the definition of organic matter, classification and general formulas of organic compounds and general information about them in the article to prepare for chemistry classes at school.

Tell us in the comments which section of chemistry (organic or inorganic) you like best and why. Don't forget to "share" the article on social networks so that your classmates can also use it.

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organic matter - these are compounds that have a carbon atom in their composition. Even in the early stages of the development of chemistry, all substances were divided into two groups: mineral and organic. In those days, it was believed that in order to synthesize organic matter, it is necessary to have an unprecedented "life force", which is inherent only in living biosystems. Therefore, it is impossible to carry out the synthesis of organic substances from minerals. And only at the beginning of the 19th century, F. Weller refuted the existing opinion and synthesized urea from ammonium cyanate, that is, he obtained organic matter from mineral matter. After that, a number of scientists synthesized chloroform, aniline, acetate acid and many other chemical compounds.

Organic substances underlie the existence of living matter, and are also the main food for humans and animals. Most organic compounds are raw materials for various industries - food, chemical, light, pharmaceutical, etc.

Today, more than 30 million various organic compounds are known. Therefore, organic substances represent the most extensive class. The variety of organic compounds is associated with the unique properties and structure of Carbon. Neighboring carbon atoms are linked by single or multiple (double, triple) bonds.

They are characterized by the presence of C-C covalent bonds, as well as polar covalent bonds C-N, C-O, C-Hal, C-metal, etc. Reactions that take place with the participation of organic substances have some features in comparison with mineral ones. In the reactions of inorganic compounds, as a rule, ions participate. Often such reactions pass very quickly, sometimes instantly at the optimum temperature. Molecules are usually involved in reactions with. It should be said that in this case, some covalent bonds are broken, while others are formed. As a rule, these reactions proceed much more slowly, and in order to accelerate them, it is necessary to increase the temperature or use a catalyst (acid or base).

How are organic compounds formed in nature? Most of the organic compounds in nature are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophylls of green plants.

Classes of organic substances.

Based on the theory of O. Butlerov. Systematic classification is the foundation of scientific nomenclature, which makes it possible to name organic matter based on the existing structural formula. The classification is based on two main features - the structure of the carbon skeleton, the number and placement of functional groups in the molecule.

The carbon skeleton is a part of the molecule of organic matter that is stable in different ways. Depending on its structure, all organic substances are divided into groups.

Acyclic compounds include substances with a straight or branched carbon chain. Carbocyclic compounds include substances with cycles, they are divided into two subgroups - alicyclic and aromatic. Heterocyclic compounds are substances whose molecules are based on cycles, formed by carbon atoms and atoms of other chemical elements (Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur), heteroatoms.

Organic substances are also classified according to the presence of functional groups that are part of the molecules. For example, the classes of hydrocarbons (the exception is that there are no functional groups in their molecules), phenols, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, amines, esters, carboxylic acids, etc. It should be remembered that each functional group (COOH, OH, NH2, SH, NH, NO) determines the physicochemical properties of this compound.

The classification of organic substances is even more complex. This is due to a number of reasons: the extreme abundance of organic compounds, the complexity and diversity of their structure, the very history of the study of carbon compounds.
Indeed, until the middle of the XIX century. organic chemistry, in the figurative expression of F. Wöhler*, seemed to be “a dense forest full of amazing things, a boundless thicket from which you can’t get out, where you don’t dare to penetrate.” Only with the appearance in 1861 of the theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds "dense forest"
organic chemistry began to transform into a regular park flooded with sunlight with a strict grid of alleys and paths. The authors of this theory were an outstanding international trio of chemical scientists: our compatriot A.M. Butlerov **, the German F.A. Kekule and the Englishman A. Cooper.

Rice. 5. Friedrich Wöhler
(1800–1882)

Rice. 6. Alexander
Mikhailovich Butlerov
(1828–1886)

The essence of the theory of chemical structure they created can be formulated in the form of three propositions.
1. Atoms in molecules are connected in a certain order according to their valence, and carbon in organic compounds is tetravalent.
2. The properties of substances are determined not only by the qualitative and quantitative elemental composition, but also by the order of the bonds of atoms in molecules, i.e. chemical structure.
3. Atoms in molecules have mutual influence on each other, which is reflected in the properties of substances.
* German chemist. Conducted research in the field of inorganic and organic chemistry. Established the existence of the phenomenon of isomerism, for the first time carried out the synthesis of organic matter (urea) from inorganic. Received some metals (aluminum, beryllium, etc.).
** Outstanding Russian chemist, author of the theory of chemical
structure of organic matter. Based onconcepts of the structure explained the phenomenon of isomerism, predicted the existence of isomers of a number of substances and synthesized them for the first time. He was the first to synthesize a sugary substance. Founder of the School of Russian Chemistrykov, which included V.V. Markovnikov, A.M. Zaitsev, E.E. Wagner, A.E. Favorsky and others.

Today it seems incredible that until the middle of the 19th century, during the period of great discoveries in natural science, scientists had a poor idea of ​​the internal structure of matter. It was Butlerov who introduced the term "chemical structure", meaning by it a system of chemical bonds between atoms in a molecule, their mutual arrangement in space. Thanks to this understanding of the structure of the molecule, it became possible to explain the phenomenon of isomerism, predict the existence of unknown isomers, and correlate the properties of substances with their chemical structure. As an illustration of the phenomenon of isomerism, we present the formulas and properties of two substances - ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether, which have the same elemental composition of C2H6O, but different chemical structures (Table 2).
table 2

Illustration of the dependence of the properties of a substancefrom its structure

The phenomenon of isomerism, which is very widespread in organic chemistry, is one of the reasons for the diversity of organic substances. Another reason for the diversity of organic substances lies in the unique ability of the carbon atom to form chemical bonds with each other, resulting in carbon chains.
different lengths and structures: unbranched, branched, closed. For example, four carbon atoms can form chains like this:

If we take into account that between two carbon atoms there can be not only simple (single) C–C bonds, but also double C=C and triple C≡C, then the number of variants of carbon chains and, consequently, various organic substances increases significantly.
The classification of organic substances is also based on Butlerov's theory of chemical structure. Depending on the atoms of which chemical elements are part of the molecule, all organic large groups: hydrocarbons, oxygen-containing, nitrogen-containing compounds.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that consist only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
According to the structure of the carbon chain, the presence or absence of multiple bonds in it, all hydrocarbons are divided into several classes. These classes are shown in Figure 2.
If the hydrocarbon does not contain multiple bonds and the chain of carbon atoms is not closed, it belongs, as you know, to the class of saturated hydrocarbons, or alkanes. The root of this word is of Arabic origin, and the suffix -en is present in the names of all hydrocarbons of this class.
Scheme 2

Hydrocarbon classification

The presence of one double bond in the hydrocarbon molecule makes it possible to attribute it to the class of alkenes, and its relation to this group of substances is emphasized
suffix -en in the name. The simplest alkene is ethylene, which has the formula CH2=CH2. There can be two C=C double bonds in a molecule, in which case the substance belongs to the class of alkadienes.
Try to explain the meaning of the suffixes -dienes yourself. For example, butadiene-1,3 has the structural formula: CH2=CH–CH=CH2.
Hydrocarbons with triple carbon-carbon bonds in the molecule are called alkynes. The suffix -in indicates belonging to this class of substances. The ancestor of the class of alkynes is acetylene (ethyne), the molecular formula of which is C2H2, and the structural formula is HC≡CH. From compounds with a closed carbon chain
The most important atoms are arenas - a special class of hydrocarbons, the name of the first representative of which you probably heard - this is C6H6 benzene, the structural formula of which is also known to every cultured person:

As you already understood, in addition to carbon and hydrogen, the composition of organic substances can include atoms of other elements, primarily oxygen and nitrogen. Most often, the atoms of these elements in various combinations form groups that are called functional.
A functional group is a group of atoms that determines the most characteristic chemical properties of a substance and its belonging to a certain class of compounds.
The main classes of organic compounds containing functional groups are shown in Scheme 3.
Scheme 3
The main classes of organic substances containing functional groups

The functional group -OH is called hydroxyl and determines belonging to one of the most important classes of organic substances - alcohols.
The names of alcohols are formed using the suffix -ol. For example, the most famous representative of alcohols is ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, C2H5OH.
An oxygen atom can be bonded to a carbon atom by a double chemical bond. The >C=O group is called carbonyl. The carbonyl group is part of several
functional groups, including aldehyde and carboxyl. Organic compounds containing these functional groups are called aldehydes and carboxylic acids, respectively. The most famous representatives of aldehydes are formaldehyde HCO and acetaldehyde CH3COH. With acetic acid CH3COOH, the solution of which is called table vinegar, everyone is probably familiar. A distinctive structural feature of nitrogen-containing organic compounds, and, first of all, amines and amino acids, is the presence of the –NH2 amino group in their molecules.
The above classification of organic substances is also very relative. Just as one molecule (for example, alkadienes) can contain two multiple bonds, a substance can be the owner of two or even more functional groups. So, the structural units of the main carriers of life on earth - protein molecules - are amino acids. The molecules of these substances necessarily contain at least two functional groups - a carboxyl and amino group. The simplest amino acid is called glycine and has the formula:

Like amphoteric hydroxides, amino acids combine the properties of acids (due to the carboxyl group) and bases (due to the presence of an amino group in the molecule).
For the organization of life on Earth, the amphoteric properties of amino acids are of particular importance - due to the interaction of amino groups and carboxyl groups of amino acids.
lots are linked into polymer chains of proteins.
? 1. What are the main provisions of the theory of the chemical structure of A.M. Butlerov. What role did this theory play in the development of organic chemistry?
2. What classes of hydrocarbons do you know? On what basis was this classification carried out?
3. What is called the functional group of an organic compound? What functional groups can you name? What classes of organic compounds contain these functional groups? Write down the general formulas of the classes of compounds and the formulas of their representatives.
4. Give a definition of isomerism, write down the formulas of possible isomers for compounds of composition C4H10O. Using various sources of information, give names to each of them and prepare a report about one of the compounds.
5. Assign substances whose formulas are: C6H6, C2H6, C2H4, HCOOH, CH3OH, C6H12O6 to the corresponding classes of organic compounds. Using various sources of information, give names to each of them and prepare a report about one of the compounds.
6. Structural formula of glucose: To which class of organic compounds would you classify this substance? Why is it called a compound with a dual function?
7. Compare organic and inorganic amphoteric compounds.
8. Why are amino acids referred to as compounds with a dual function? What role does this structural feature of amino acids play in the organization of life on Earth?
9. Prepare a message on the topic “Amino acids are the “bricks” of life”, using the possibilities of the Internet.
10. Give examples of the relativity of dividing organic compounds into certain classes. Draw parallels of similar relativity for inorganic compounds.

>> Chemistry: Classification of organic compounds

You already know that the properties of organic substances are determined by their composition and chemical structure. Therefore, it is not surprising that the classification of organic compounds is based on the theory of structure - the theory of A. M. Butlerov. Classify organic substances by the presence and order of connection of atoms in their molecules. The most durable and least changeable part of the molecule of organic matter is its skeleton - a chain of carbon atoms. Depending on the order of connection of carbon atoms in this chain, substances are divided into acyclic, which do not contain closed chains of carbon atoms in molecules, and carbocyclic, containing such chains (cycles) in molecules.

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