from fr. majoritee - majority) - an election system in which candidates who receive a majority of the votes in the constituency where they are running are considered elected. There are M.i.s. absolute, relative and qualified majority (the latter is rarely used). In the first case, it is enough to get more than half of all votes, in the second - a majority relative to all other candidates, in the third - a majority exceeding half of the votes - 2/3, 3/4, etc. M.i.s. often combined with a proportional electoral system (for example, in the Russian Federation, one half of the composition of the State Duma is elected according to the MIS of the relative majority, and the other half according to the proportional system).
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
MAJORITY ELECTORAL SYSTEM
from the French "majorite" - majority) - a system for determining the results of elections, according to which a candidate in an electoral district is considered elected if he receives the majority of votes established by law. M.i.s. is the most used in the formation of parliaments. According to M.i.s. legislatures are formed in the USA, France, England and other countries. In 1917, the Constituent Assembly in Russia was elected on the basis of M.I.S. All people's deputies of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR were elected by the majority principle in 1990.
According to M.i.s. elections of half of the deputies of the State Duma of the first and second convocations were held. When developing a new law on the election of deputies to the State Duma of the third convocation, the President of the Russian Federation insisted that deputies be elected exclusively in single-member districts. However, the legislator did not agree with this approach, preferring the existing situation. At present, the majority of subjects of the Russian Federation use MIS, while few of them prefer a mixed electoral system. M.i.s. It is also used mainly in the elections of representative bodies of local self-government.
Dignity M.i.s. in its effectiveness (elections in all cases end in the victory of one of the candidates), personification, i.e. each deputy is elected in his personal capacity (the voter votes not for the list of candidates, but for a specific candidate), in direct connection between the elected deputy and the voters (which makes it possible for the deputy to be elected in the next election). The disadvantages include the low representativeness, or representativeness, of the winning deputy, the loss of votes of voters who voted for the losing candidate. It turns out that the more candidates are nominated in the elections, the fewer votes the winner needs to get. The proportional electoral system is free from these shortcomings.
There are M.i.s. absolute and relative majority. In addition, the so-called M.i.s. qualified majority.
According to the majoritarian electoral system of an absolute majority, a candidate is considered elected for whom an absolute number of votes (50% + 1) is given. Such a system for determining the results of elections is used during the elections of the President of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Federal Law of December 31, 1999 "On the Election of the President of the Russian Federation" (Article 72), a candidate for the position of President of the Russian Federation who received more than half of the votes of the voters who took part in the voting is considered elected. The number of voters who took part in the voting is determined by the number of ballot papers found in the ballot boxes. Under a qualified majority majoritarian electoral system, a fixed or certain number of votes (25%, 30%, 2/3 of the votes of voters participating in the elections) must be won in elections.
The majority electoral system of relative majority is a method of voting when the candidate who receives more votes than each of the competing candidates is considered elected. In accordance with the Federal Law of June 24, 1999 "On Elections of Deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (Article 79), the candidate who received the largest number of votes of the voters who took part in the voting is recognized elected in a single-mandate constituency. In case of an equal number of votes received by the candidates, the candidate registered earlier is considered elected. With M.i.s. absolute and qualified majority voting is held in two rounds, and with M.i.s. relative majority - in one round.
M.i.s. has its own varieties and consists of the following. The territory of a state or a representative body is divided into territorial units - more often one is elected from each, but sometimes two or more deputies. Each candidate is nominated and elected in his personal capacity, although it may be indicated which party, movement he represents. If, in order to win, a candidate needs to gain not only a majority of votes, but also at least half of the number of voters who took part in the vote, then in this case it is customary to speak of M.I.S. absolute majority. If a candidate is considered the winner who has received more votes than his rivals (i.e., a majority "relative" to his competitors), and it does not matter how much this amounts to from the number of voters who voted, such a system is usually called M.i.s. relative majority. If a certain number of votes is required to win (for example, 25, 30, 40% of the number of voters participating in the elections), this is M.i.s. qualified majority.
Voting by M.i.s. the relative majority is held in one, for other varieties - in two rounds. The two candidates with the highest number of votes advance to the second round, and the winner may be the one who has received a certain number of votes or more votes than the opponent.
Pluses M.i.s. in that it is effective - it gives a winner; in addition, voting is subject - the voter gives preference to a particular person; deputies must maintain constant contact with voters, hoping for their support in the next elections. Lack of M.i.s. in that votes cast for non-winning candidates are lost, and the winner in this case has the support of a sometimes clear minority of voters, i.e. we can talk about the low representativeness (representativeness) of such a deputy.
In the Russian Federation, for elections to the State Duma, since 1993, the principle of combining proportional and M.i.s. At the same time, M.i.s. looks like this: it is established that 225 (i.e. half) of the deputies of the State Duma are elected on the basis of M.i.s. for single-member (one constituency - one mandate) constituencies formed in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the basis of a single representation norm, with the exception of electoral districts formed in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the number of voters in which is less than the average number of voters established by the CEC for a single-mandate constituency (see para. Constituency). To win in the district, you need to get more votes than other candidates, i.е. this is M.i.s. relative majority. Elections are considered valid if at least 25% of registered voters voted.
According to M.i.s. elections of half of the deputies of the State Duma were held in 1993 and 1995. It may be recalled that in 1993 deputies were also elected to the Federation Council - two from each subject of the Russian Federation. M.i.s. was used. a relative majority, with the difference that the constituency had two mandates; the constituency was the territory of each subject of the Russian Federation. As for the elections of representative bodies of power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, in 1993 they were given the opportunity to introduce both majoritarian and mixed majoritarian-proportional systems. However, in all constituent entities of the Russian Federation, elections of bodies of representative power are held in constituencies. Some constituent entities simultaneously formed two types of such constituencies: ordinary (according to the number of voters) and administrative-territorial (that is, a district or a city, respectively, became a district, and a deputy was elected from it to the parliament of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation). In elections to representative bodies of local self-government (i.e., assemblies, dumas of cities and regions), deputies are elected according to M.i.s. At the same time, quite often the entire territory is a single multi-member constituency. However, each deputy is elected in his personal capacity, which is exactly what is typical for M.i.s.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Majoritarian electoral system is the majority system. This means that the candidate who receives the most votes is considered elected.
There are two types of majority system:
- majority system of absolute majority;
- the majority system of relative, or simple, majority.
At absolute majority system a candidate who receives an absolute majority of votes (more than 50%, i.e. at least 50% + 1 vote) is considered elected.
At majority system of relative majority the candidate who receives more votes than each of his rivals separately is considered elected.
Peculiarities majoritarian electoral system:
1. The majoritarian electoral system is used for elections in single-mandate administrative-territorial districts. The first characteristic (single-member constituency) means that in such a constituency only one deputy, although there can be any number of candidates for deputies. The second characteristic (administrative-territorial district) means that electoral districts are formed according to one and only, and purely formal feature - they should have an approximately equal number of citizens with the right to vote. No qualitative criteria - type of settlement, ethnic composition of the population, etc. - are not taken into account. Administrative-territorial districts are not a geographical or administrative entity. They are created only for the period of elections and in such quantity that corresponds to the number of deputy mandates in the legislative body.
2. Under the majoritarian system, elections are held in two rounds. In the first round - according to the majority system of the absolute majority (in order to exclude the possibility of forming an illegitimate body of power). If the first round did not determine the winner, then the two candidates who received the largest number of votes in the first round go to the second round. In the second round, voting is always carried out according to the majority system of relative majority.
Flaws majority system.
To understand the shortcomings of the majoritarian electoral system, we turn to the following example. Suppose elections are held in three single-mandate electoral districts, in each of which 100,000 voters took part in the voting. Let's also assume that in all three constituencies, representatives of three parties - A, B and C - are fighting for deputy mandates. Let's assume that the votes of voters are distributed as follows:
It would seem that a fair, simple and, most importantly, understandable electoral system. In fact, the majoritarian electoral system has very significant shortcomings.
These shortcomings become apparent when we count the number of votes received by representatives of each party in all three districts. Thus, representatives of party A received a total of 110 votes, representatives of party B received a total of 139 thousand voters, and candidates from party C were supported in three constituencies by 51 thousand voters.
Thus, the first disadvantage of the majoritarian electoral system lies in the possible discrepancy between the number of voters who voted for the party and the number of deputy mandates it received, namely, with a smaller number of voters who voted for the party, it can receive more deputy mandates (example with party A), and on the contrary, with a larger number of voters who voted for a party, it may receive a smaller number of deputy mandates (an example with party B).
The second drawback of the majoritarian electoral system is that it is unfavorable for small and medium-sized parties, namely, the votes cast for them simply disappear, and the interests of these voters are not represented in the authorities.
To overcome the shortcomings of the majoritarian system, a proportional electoral system was developed.
Under the electoral system usually understand the procedure for determining the results of elections, which allows you to identify which of the candidates running for election is elected as a deputy or for a particular elective office. At the same time, the preference for a certain method of counting votes may lead to the fact that the results of elections with the same voting results may turn out to be different.
Depending on the order of distribution of deputy mandates among candidates based on the voting results, electoral systems are usually divided into three types: majoritarian, proportional and mixed.
Historically, the first electoral system was majoritarian, based on majority principle. Those candidates who receive the established majority of votes are considered elected.
Under this system, the territory of the whole country is divided into districts approximately equal in the number of voters, from which deputies are elected.
Simplicity, the possibility of voters' participation in the procedure for nominating candidates, and the listing of all applicants by name are called as undoubted advantages of the majority system.
In addition, it is believed that this system is more universal, since it makes it possible to take into account both party interests and the interests of voters who are not members of public organizations.
At the same time, it also has disadvantages: the danger of distorting the balance of political forces in parliament compared to the one that actually exists in society; the impossibility of accurately taking into account the real influence of organizations, electoral unions, parties.
Depending on the minimum number of votes required to elect a candidate, allocates the following varieties majority system: absolute majority, relative majority, qualified majority.
Under an absolute majority system(operating in France) the winner is the candidate who received the absolute majority of votes - 50% + 1 vote. What matters here is how the majority of votes is determined: 1) from the total number of registered voters; 2) from the number of voters who voted; 3) from valid votes cast. Foreign legislation can provide for all these cases. One of the main shortcomings of the system is the ineffectiveness of the voting results, when none of the candidates receives the required number of votes. In such cases, a second round of voting is usually held, in which, as a rule, only the two candidates with the highest number of votes in the first round are allowed to participate. In a number of countries, it is provided that in order to win in the second round, it is enough for a candidate to receive a relative majority.
The most common is the repeated voting, which is held for the two candidates who received the largest number of votes (as a rule, presidential elections are held according to this scheme, for example, in Poland). In some countries, all candidates who receive the percentage of votes established by law take part in the second round (in the elections of deputies of parliament, for example, France, it is 12.5%).
A feature of this electoral system is the requirement of a mandatory quorum, without which the elections are considered invalid. As a rule, the turnout of 50% of voters (presidential elections) is considered mandatory, less often - 25% or a different number of votes.
A positive feature of this variety of the majority system, in comparison with the relative majority system, is that the candidate who is supported by a real (representative) majority of voters wins.
In general, the absolute majority system is a rather complicated and cumbersome system that requires an increase in government spending on elections. In addition, when it is used, a significant part of the votes of the electorate is lost, since candidates for whom a minority cast their votes are not considered elected.
The most common abroad is majority system of relative majority, in which the candidate who receives more votes than any of his rivals is considered elected. The majority system of the relative majority is used in elections in the UK, India, Canada, the USA and other countries.
This system is effective and excludes the second round of elections, since it does not require the candidate to gain a set minimum of votes in order to win. Only if several candidates receive the same number of votes creates a situation where it is impossible to determine the winner. The unequivocal minus of the application of the majority system of relative majority, researchers call ignoring the votes cast for unelected candidates. The situation is aggravated when there are many candidates and votes are distributed among them. Then the votes cast for unelected candidates disappear, and if there are more than two dozen candidates, the one for whom less than 10% of the votes are cast may be elected. When applying the majoritarian system of relative majority, the electoral geography is of particular importance.
Under this system, the Anglo-Saxon countries do not set a voter turnout threshold, it is believed that voters who did not come to the polls agree with the opinion of the majority.
A specific, rarely encountered variety of the majoritarian electoral system is supermajority system, in which the candidate who receives a qualified majority of votes is considered elected. The qualified majority is established by law and exceeds the absolute majority. This system is used mainly in the election of heads of state and other officials. For example, the President of Azerbaijan in 1995-2002. in order to be elected, he had to receive 2/3 of the votes of the voters who participated in the voting. Then this rule was canceled as inappropriate. In the elections of the Chamber of Deputies, this system is used in Chile (in two-member constituencies, both mandates are received by the party that won 2/3 of the votes in the constituency).
Another type of electoral system is proportional system. It is based on the principle of proportional representation of political associations participating in elections. In contrast to the majoritarian system, under the proportional system, the voter votes for a political party (electoral association), and not for a specific person. The positive features of this system are that it contributes to an adequate reflection by the parliament of the real balance of political forces in society, strengthens political pluralism and stimulates a multi-party system. The disadvantages include the detachment of the majority of voters from the procedure for nominating candidates and, as a result, the lack of a direct connection between a particular candidate and voters.
The system, which is designed to combine the positive aspects and, if possible, eliminate the shortcomings of the majoritarian and proportional electoral systems, is called mixed. On this basis, elections to the German Bundestag are organized. Each elector has two votes. He gives one vote for a specific candidate, and the second - for the party list. Half of the deputies of the Bundestag are elected by the majority system of relative majority in constituencies. The rest of the seats are distributed according to the proportional system according to the number of votes cast for the lists drawn up by the parties in each Land.
In some countries, when changing the proportional system, there is a statutory clause, according to which a prerequisite for the participation of a party in the distribution of mandates is to obtain a certain minimum of votes. In Denmark, for example, it is required that a party collect national votes of at least 2% of all those participating in elections. Seats in the Swedish Parliament are distributed only between parties for which at least 4% of the total number of voters or at least 12% in one of the electoral districts voted. In Germany, a party gains access to the distribution of parliamentary mandates in the Bundestag if it collects nationwide at least 5% of valid votes or wins at least three single-member districts.
Common to all varieties of electoral systems is that they can be used both for any turnout of voters in the elections, and for the established mandatory turnout percentage (25%, 50%), in these cases the elections are recognized as valid.
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TOPIC 7. Electoral system.
Plan.
1. Introduction.
2. Majority electoral system, its varieties and modifications. Advantages and disadvantages.
3. Proportional electoral system, its specificity in different countries. Advantages and disadvantages.
4. The electoral system in modern Russia.
5. Conclusion.
6. List of used literature.
Introduction.
This control work is devoted to electoral systems, their classification, features of functioning, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of these systems. The Russian mixed electoral system is considered in detail.
Majoritarian electoral system, its varieties and modifications. Advantages and disadvantages.
2.1. The concept and features of the majoritarian electoral system.
A majoritarian electoral system (from French majorite - majority) is a system of elections to a collegiate body (parliament), in which candidates (independent or nominated on behalf of parties) who receive the majority of votes in the constituency where they run are considered elected. The majority system was established in England, the USA, France, and Japan. In Russia, the majority system is used in the election of senior officials (president, governor, mayor), as well as in elections to a representative body of power (Duma, parliament).
Signs of a majoritarian electoral system:
1. The majoritarian electoral system is used for elections in single-mandate administrative-territorial districts. The first characteristic (single-mandate constituency) means that only one deputy should be elected in such a constituency, although there can be as many candidates for deputies as you like. The second characteristic (administrative-territorial district) means that electoral districts are formed according to one and only, and purely formal feature - they should have an approximately equal number of citizens with the right to vote. No qualitative criteria - type of settlement, ethnic composition of the population, etc. - are not taken into account. Administrative-territorial districts are not a geographical or administrative entity. They are created only for the period of elections and in such quantity that corresponds to the number of deputy mandates in the legislative body.
However, it is also possible to use multi-member administrative-territorial districts, in which case the voter has as many votes as the number of deputies elected from this district (local government elections in the UK). Moreover, the maximum number of mandates per one multi-member constituency cannot exceed five. At the same time, this restriction does not apply to elections to local self-government bodies of a rural settlement, as well as another municipality, the boundaries of a multi-member constituency of which coincide with the boundaries of a polling station.
The majority system based on a single constituency is used only in the election of officials.
2. Under the majoritarian system, elections can be held in two rounds (France, presidential elections in the Russian Federation, etc.). In the first round - according to the majority system of the absolute majority (in order to exclude the possibility of forming an illegitimate body of power). If the first round did not determine the winner, then two or more candidates who received the largest number of votes in the first round go to the second round. The winner is determined by a relative or simple majority of votes. The undoubted advantage of this system lies on the surface, it is in the simplicity and clarity of the procedure for determining the results of voting, and at the same time, the elected deputy formally represents the absolute majority of voters. At the same time, the use of such an electoral model significantly increases the costs of holding elections, both on the part of the state and on the part of candidates.
According to R. Taageper and M.S. Shugart, “the purpose of the system, in which two or more candidates are allowed to participate in the second round, is to encourage deals between parties in the interval between two rounds.
Thus, the interval between the first and second rounds of voting is indeed used by the French parties for active “bargaining” over which of the remaining candidates to transfer the votes of those who did not pass in the first round. As a result of the negotiations, the parties that lost in the first round call on their supporters to vote for one of the two winners of the first round. These "bargaining" often lead to mutual support agreements, where parties agree to support an ally party's candidate in the constituency where he has the best chances. Often such agreements are concluded even before the elections, the partner parties agree on which constituencies they will nominate their candidates in order to prevent the dispersion of votes of potential supporters. Such agreements lay the foundations for parliamentary coalitions, which is seen as one of the most important advantages of this system.
However, it is easy to see that even this electoral model does not provide an adequate reflection of the political preferences of voters, since candidates who sometimes enjoy the support of a significant part of the electorate are “overboard” by the second round. The regrouping of forces between the two rounds is undoubtedly making its own adjustments, but for many voters the second round of voting turns into a choice of the "lesser of two evils" rather than supporting candidates who really represent their political positions.
3. With a majoritarian electoral system, a variant is possible - the so-called “cumulative” voting, when the voter receives several votes and distributes them among the candidates at his own discretion (he can, in particular, “give” all his votes to one candidate most preferable to him ). This system has been used so far only for the elections of the House of Representatives of the US state of Oregon.
2.2. Varieties of the majoritarian electoral system.
I. According to the methodology for determining the winner, there are three types of the majority system:
1. The relative majority system assumes that in order to win, a candidate needs to collect more votes than any of his rivals. For this version of the majoritarian system, the number of votes required to win is directly related to the number of candidates running in each district. The more candidates, the fewer votes required to be elected. If there are more than a dozen candidates, then the one with only 10% of the votes or less may be elected. Accordingly, about 90% of voters voted for his rivals. It turns out that this candidate was elected by an absolute minority of voters, although by their relative majority. This is the specific shortcoming of this version of the majoritarian electoral system.
The advantage of the relative majority system is that it is efficient, since the probability of obtaining the same largest number of votes is extremely small. In addition, there is usually no minimum voter turnout required for an election to be valid.
The majority system of relative majority is used in many countries, including the USA, Great Britain, India, Canada.
2. The absolute majority system assumes that in order to win the election, you need to get more than half of the votes (minimum 50% + one vote). The advantage of this version of the majority system is that the candidate who is actually supported by the majority of voters is elected. However, its specific drawback is that elections often turn out to be ineffective. Because the more candidates running in the district, the less likely it is that one of them will gain an absolute majority of votes. In this case, a second round of elections is held, in which, as a rule, the two candidates who received the largest number of votes in the first round take part. Although, for example, in France, in the elections to the National Assembly, all candidates who collected at least 12.5% of the votes from the number of registered voters in the first round go to the second round.
The majority system of an absolute majority is used, for example, in parliamentary elections in Australia, France, and in presidential elections in Austria, Brazil, Portugal, Finland, and France.
3. The system of qualified majority is quite rare. It is based on the fact that in order to win elections, it is necessary not only to get one or another majority of votes, but a majority fixed in the law (at least 1/3, 2/3, 3/4) of the number of voters who voted. At present, it is practically not used, although earlier cases of its use took place in some subjects of the Federation. Thus, the now repealed Law of Primorsky Territory of September 28, 1999 "On the election of the Governor of Primorsky Territory" provided that the candidate who received the largest number of votes was recognized as elected based on the results of voting, provided that it was at least 35% of the number of voters who took part in the vote.
II. Candidate nomination methods:
In some states, a candidate can be self-nominated, in others - only from the party. On the one hand, self-nomination allows a popular personality to get into parliament; on the other hand, self-nominated candidates report only to voters, but they can also join a party that is convenient for them.
2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of the majoritarian electoral system.
In general, this type of electoral system has a number of advantages:
1. The majority system is universal: with its use, it is possible to hold elections both for individual representatives (president, governor, mayor), and for collective bodies of state power or local self-government (country parliament, city municipality).
2. Prevents the creation of numerous party factions in parliament.
3. Allows small parties and self-nominated candidates to get into parliament.
4. Contributing to the victory of large political parties, it allows the formation of a stable government under parliamentary forms of government and semi-presidential republics.
5. Since individual candidates are nominated and compete with each other in the majoritarian system, the voter makes a decision based on the personal qualities of the candidate, and not his party affiliation. Candidates, as a rule, are well aware of the state of affairs in their constituencies, the interests of voters, and are personally acquainted with their most active representatives. Accordingly, the voters have an idea of who they trust to express their interests in government.
However, the majority system also has certain disadvantages:
1. A significant part of the voters may not be represented in the elected body, since the votes cast for the defeated candidates are lost. Let us illustrate this with a conditional example of the rivalry of three candidates representing different parties in one constituency:
As can be seen, candidate B won in this constituency, and a little less than half of the voters actually voted in vain. If we talk about the system of relative majority, then more than half of the voters may not be represented in the elected body.
2. There is a reduction in the representation of political parties in power structures. If we return to our example, only one of the three parties managed to get its candidate through. This electoral system is especially disadvantageous for small and medium-sized parties. In a sharp struggle for the only mandate in the district, it is very difficult for them to resist large parties, and on a national scale - to make real competition to these political forces.
3. There are disproportions between the number of mandates received by the parties and the number of voters who voted for them. Let's use a conditional example in which three political parties - A, B and C - put forward their candidates in three districts.
This example shows conclusively that a party that receives more votes nationwide than its rivals may end up winning fewer seats in an elected body.
4. Is fraught with violations such as vote buying and gerrymandering.
5. The result of the election is largely determined by the financial capabilities of a particular candidate, which makes him dependent on a small number of donors.
2.4. Modifications of the majoritarian electoral system.
Attempts to overcome the shortcomings of the majoritarian electoral system have led to its modifications in some countries of the world.
1. The system of ordinal voting (transferable vote system) is used to ensure that the votes of voters are not lost, and the candidate who has voted for the real majority of voters receives the mandate. Under this voting system in a single-mandate majoritarian district, the voter ranks the candidates according to the degree of preference. If the candidate ranked first by the voter ends up with the fewest votes in the constituency, his vote is not lost, but passed to the next most preferred candidate, and so on until a real winner is identified, who usually gets well over 50% the votes of the electorate. A similar system exists in Australia, in Malta.
2. Japan uses a single non-transferable vote system in multi-member constituencies, i.e. if there are several mandates, the voter has only one vote, which cannot be transferred to other candidates, and the mandates are distributed in accordance with the rating of candidates.
3. An interesting system of elections based on cumulative voting, which is used in the formation of the House of Representatives of the US state of Oregon, in which a voter in a multi-member majoritarian district receives the appropriate number of votes, but disposes of them freely: he can distribute his votes among several candidates he likes, or he can give all their votes to one of them, the most preferred.
4. And there is also a preferential electoral system. Such an electoral system is used in multi-member constituencies, where the voter independently displays the rating of all candidates. If no candidate receives an absolute majority from the entire list of candidates, then the one with the fewest first places is eliminated. This procedure for eliminating candidates with the fewest first places may involve several stages and will last until the required number of candidates achieves an absolute majority of votes.
5. Another modification of the majoritarian electoral system is the American presidential election system. It is characterized by the fact that voters choose their president not directly, but through the Electoral College. Candidates for members of the Electoral College are nominated by a single list of committees of political parties from 50 states. The number of the Electoral College is equal to the number of Senators and members of the House of Representatives of the US Congress elected from a given state. On presidential election day, voters vote for members of the Electoral College from one party or another. At the final stage, the electoral colleges cast their votes in person for presidential and vice presidential candidates.
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