CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. The basis of the rationalist aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, logic of artistic expression (largely perceived from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); belief in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical changes, the rules of artistic creativity, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.
Having perceived the idea of creativity, which goes back to Aristotle, as an imitation of nature, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation towards “beautiful nature”, transformed and ordered in accordance with the unshakable laws of art, thus, implied imitation antique samples and even competition with them. Developing the idea of art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of "beautiful", "expedient", etc., classicism, more than other artistic trends, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.
The central concept of classicism - plausibility - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for the universal norm as "due" to everything private, random, concrete corresponds to the ideology of the absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subject to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist depicted not a specific, single person, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, non-historical moral conflict; hence the orientation of the classicists to ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, of passions to duty, reason, and resistance to the vicissitudes of life; on the other - restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, appropriateness, the ability to please.
Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres were distinguished, which corresponded to a certain style, circle of themes and heroes; a clear delineation of the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the mundane was prescribed.
From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.
The term "classicism", which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics of the classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Stael, V. Hugo, and others) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics, imitating antiquity, were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary criticism and art history, the concept of "classicism" began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.
Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th-18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of "classicism" is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, "ancient classicism", "Renaissance classicism").
N. T. Pakhsaryan.
Literature. The origins of literary classicism are in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of language styles and oriented towards ancient samples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who regulated the literary language on the basis of live colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was secured by the French Academy. In the most complete form, the principles of literary classicism were set forth in the treatise "Poetic Art" by N. Boileau (1674), who summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.
Classical writers treat literature as an important mission of translating into words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way of "teaching while entertaining." The literature of classicism is striving for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication, rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, decentness to extravagant. Following the established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to keep creative freedom within the boundaries of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent for deviation from the rules, if it was appropriate and artistically effective.
The characters of the characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of the classicists is a heroic personality and, at the same time, a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes' "I think, therefore I am" plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the attitude of the characters of classicism.
At the heart of literary theory, classicism is a hierarchical system of genres; the analytical dilution in various works, even artistic worlds, of "high" and "low" heroes and thus is combined with the desire to ennoble "low" genres; for example, to rid satire of coarse burlesque, comedy of farcical features (Moliere's "high comedy").
The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama based on the rule of three unities (see The theory of three unities). Tragedy became its leading genre, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy acquires a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical one. Other "high" genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (the unsuccessful experience of J. Chaplin in the genre of the epic poem is later parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, the "low" genres were developing significantly: the heroic-comic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), the fable (J. de La Fontaine), and the comedy. Genres of small didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), "characters" (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de La Bruyère); oratorical prose (J. B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette's psychological masterpiece The Princess of Cleves (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.
At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but the archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation by I. I. Winkelman of the ideal image of Greek antiquity as “noble simplicity and calm grandeur” contributed to its new rise in the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism, the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to be free from the claims of church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary trends of the era, relies not on "rules", but rather on the "enlightened taste" of the public. The appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.
In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system, and had a noticeable impact on baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a "correct" and "perfect" poetic school worthy of other European literatures (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the baroque, whose style was more in line with the tragic era of the Thirty Years' War; the belated attempt of I. K. Gottsched in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of the classicist canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In the UK, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the poets of Arcadia - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Y. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.
In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730s-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; however, it clearly traces the connection with the baroque. Distinctive features of Russian classicism are pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical orientation, national-patriotic pathos, reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A. D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, he adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres into Russian literature: transcriptions of psalms, fables, a heroic poem (“Petrida”, not finished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V. K. Trediakovsky ("Ode Solemn on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk", 1734), who accompanied it with the theoretical "Reasoning about the ode in general" (both of which followed Boileau). The influence of baroque poetics marked the odes of M. V. Lomonosov. The most complete and consistent Russian classicism is represented by the work of A. P. Sumarokov. Having outlined the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the Epistle on Poetry (1747), written in imitation of Boileau's treatise, Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies oriented towards the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed mainly to the events of national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables that brought him the glory of the "northern Lafontaine". He also developed the song genre, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757 - “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language”, retained its significance, which correlated the theory of three styles with specific genres, linking a heroic poem, an ode, solemn speech; with the middle - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. An example of a heroic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus”, 1771). The first completed heroic epic was Rossiyada by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classic dramaturgy manifested themselves in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Kniazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends in literary development associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but retained its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800s-20s in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.
A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda". 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).
N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).
Architecture and fine arts. The tendencies of classicism in European art were already outlined in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of G. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only in French artistic culture developed into an integral stylistic system. Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries was also predominantly formed in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often referred to as neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres in the visual arts (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; to “ low" - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671) - contributed to the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism.
The architecture of classicism, in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both in a separate building and in an ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, the certainty of plastic forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a system of proportioning based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shaping). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one.
An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles) is being created. Classicism strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying in the basis of its decisions the principle of proportionality to a person and, at the same time, a scale that gives the architectural image a heroic-elevated sound. And although the rhetorical splendor of palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant trend, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.
The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings and construction techniques at first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Levo - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with a solemn enfilade of the palace itself, imposing murals by Ch. Lebrun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern facade of the Louvre, realized (since the 1660s) according to the plan of C. Perrault, became the programmatic work of classicism architecture (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and Ch. Lebrun began to create an ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism are expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; according to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into the Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of fountains were combined into a static form, similar to a column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the "Sun King" Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, imperiously transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques were developed that provided for the organic connection of urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas that spatially merge with a street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Louis the Great Square, now Vendôme, and Victory Square ; the architectural ensemble of the Les Invalides, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).
The traditions of classicism in France of the 18th century were almost not interrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the rococo style prevailed. In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape (landscape) environment became the ideal environment for the house. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge impact on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of J. I. Winkelmann, J. W. Goethe, and F. Militsia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion (“hotel”), a front public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Louis XV Square, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in the Versailles Park, combining the harmonic clarity of forms with the lyrical refinement of the drawing). J. J. Souflot carried out his project of the Sainte-Genevieve church in Paris, based on the experience of classical architecture.
In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, architecture manifested a striving for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeu). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness is growing (Ch. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J. F. Chalgrin).
English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many respects related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation to the classics (not only to the ideas of A. Palladio, but also to antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motives are present in the work of I. Jones. After the "Great Fire" of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive urban plans were realized by the middle of the 18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (the Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and more lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features similar to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).
In the 17th - early 18th century, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). The strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze are characteristic of the German classicism architecture of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th century. In the work of K. F. Shinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.
By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was coming to naught; it is replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.
Fine art of classicism is normative; its figurative structure is characterized by clear signs of social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical plots, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the "anatomy of power." Not satisfied with a simple "portrait of nature", the artists of classicism strive to rise above the concrete, the individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the Little Dutch. The world of rational deeds and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above the imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of a dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation to the lofty ideal gave rise to the choice of "beautiful nature". Classicism avoids the casual, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classical architecture corresponds to a clear delimitation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, it is distinguished by the smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuary. In classical painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly reveal objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage.
The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was the French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of the rhythmic structure and color.
The "ideal landscape" (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the "golden age" of mankind, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the second half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon). Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, the decorative landscapes of J. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, whose historical and portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or salon art.
Rome became the international center of classicism in the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, often for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Kakova and B. Thorvaldsen). In the visual art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, the portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, the mythological cartoons of A. Ya. Karstens, the plastic art of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh stand out; in arts and crafts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are close, in the arts and crafts - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the masters of the factory in Derby.
A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda". 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).
The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although already the beginning of the 18th century was marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic enrichment and dynamics of forms characteristic of baroque and rococo.
The architects of the mature era of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classic types of the capital's palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the extensive construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. The Russian variant of Palladianism arose in manor construction (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of "regulating" city plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th century was marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up during its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).
In the visual arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). Sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental-decorative plasticity, which forms a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments filled with civic pathos, tombstones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, easel plasticity (I.P. Prokofiev, F.G. Gordeev, M.I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in the works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov, in scenography - in the work of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc., stand out.
A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).
Theater. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the "high" arts. The French saw samples of theatrical art in the Italian "learned theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, the court ceremonial and festivities, ballets, and ceremonial receptions also influenced the stage style. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Mare theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais-Cardinal built by Cardinal Richelieu (1641, from 1642 the Palais-Royal), whose arrangement met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundy Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared, which rose and fell at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. An architectural backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, a common three-dimensional mise-en-scene contributed to the creation of the illusion of plausibility. In stage classicism of the 17th century, there was the concept of the “fourth wall”. “He acts like this,” F. E. a'Aubignac wrote about the actor (“The Practice of the Theater”, 1657), “as if the audience does not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they really are kings, and not Mondori and Belrose, as if they were in the palace of Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those who are present on the stage (i.e., in the depicted place).
In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of the plays by A. Hardy (the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by static and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy required changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating a close-up portrait of his contemporary with his acting; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, plastic obeyed the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of a speaker, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine inscribed notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which combined the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main expressive means of the French actor. A. Vitez called the recitation of the 17th century "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and its control was worked out; the success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, possession of colors and intonations.
"Andromache" by J. Racine in the Burgundy hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.
The division of theatrical genres into "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Palais Royal" of the time of Molière), the emergence of roles fixed the hierarchical structure of the theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of "ennobled" nature, the performance pattern and outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the major actors: J. Floridor's manner of recitation was more natural than that of the excessively posing Belrose; M. Chanmelet was characterized by a sonorous and melodious "recitation", and Montfleury did not know equal in the affects of passion. The concept that developed later on the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right, and hands repelling the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.
In the 18th century, despite the decisive retreat of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comedie Francaise A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequin, Dumesnil, Cleron, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and demands era. They departed from the classic norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the play, creating an ensemble of actors. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F.J. Talma, M.J. ”and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence the theatrical culture of France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of the styles of classicism and modernity is characteristic of the game of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B.C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, the French director's theater became closer to the European one, the stage style lost its national specificity. Nevertheless, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: the performances of J. Copeau, J. L. Barraud, L. Jouvet, J. Vilard, Vitez's experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart and etc.
Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism in the Weimar theater led by him. The actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and the actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, the English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons propagandized classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be ineffective and, ultimately were rejected. Stage classicism became the object of a pan-European controversy, and thanks to the German, and after them the Russian theorists of the theater, it received the definition of "false classical theater".
In Russia, the classicist style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the work of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see the Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygin), then Yu. M. Yuriev.
E. I. Gorfunkel.
Music. The term "classicism" in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient samples (only monuments of ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), but a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and baroque tendencies were inconsistently combined in the French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of the librettist F. Kino and composer J. B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets by J. F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which occupied a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of the French musical tragedy came at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship of the period of the struggle for a nationwide state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, an attraction to luxury and refined hedonism. The sharpness of the conflict of feeling and duty typical of classicism in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with tragedy in a drama theater). The requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedy and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also place and time), and a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue) are associated with the norms of classicism. The central position in musical drama is occupied by recitative - an element closest to rationalistic verbal-conceptual logic. In the intonational sphere, declamatory-pathetic formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.) associated with natural human speech predominate, at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards spectacle and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more in line with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.
Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of a decorative element inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the requirements of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, J. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the circle of plots was limited to historical and historical-legendary, moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is an exalted heroic image of a monarch, less often a statesman, courtier, epic hero, demonstrating the positive qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The 3-act structure, traditional for Italian opera, was preserved (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of actors was reduced, intonational expressive means, overture and aria forms, and the structure of vocal parts were typified in music. The type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinated to musical tasks, was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, whose name is associated with the pinnacle stage in the history of the opera seria. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted "delusion" of the main actors, and not due to a real conflict of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for an idealized expression of feelings, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.
The culmination in the development of musical classicism of the Age of Enlightenment (in the 1760s and 70s) was the creative collaboration of K.V. Gluck and librettist R. Calcabidgi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in an emphasis on ethical issues, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period, in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feeling). The norms of classicism also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, a strict selection of expressive means in accordance with the tasks of a particular dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of a decorative element, a virtuoso beginning in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of the images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in the classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.
In the 1780s and 1790s, revolutionary classicist tendencies, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in the French musical theater. Genetically connected with the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed the Gluckian opera reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrannical pathos that had previously been characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. In contrast to the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution of the tragic conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of "deus ex machina" - Latin "God from the machine"), for the works of the 1780s and 1790s, a characteristic denouement became through a heroic deed (denial of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a vivid and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the genre of "rescue opera", which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic philistine drama.
In Russia, in the musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cefal and Prokris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, the music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).
In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not related to theatrical action, the term "classicism" is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used in a broad sense to refer to the initial stage of the classical-romantic era, gallant and classical styles (see the article Vienna Classical School, Classics in Music), in particular to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term "Klassik" or in expression "Russian classicism" applied to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).
In the 19th century, classicism in the musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, and others). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles were revived again in neoclassicism.
P. V. Lutsker.
Lit.: General works. Zeitler R. Classizismus und Utopia. Stockh., 1954; Peyre H. Qu'est-ce que le classicisme? R., 1965; Bray R. La formation de la doctrine classique en France. R., 1966; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries. M., 1966; Tapie V. L. Baroque et classicisme. 2 ed. R., 1972; Benac H. Le classicisme. R., 1974; Zolotov Yu. K. Moral foundations of action in French classicism of the 17th century. // Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser. literature and language. 1988. V. 47. No. 3; Zuber R., Cuénin M. Le classicisme. R., 1998. Literature. Vipper Yu. B. Formation of classicism in French poetry in the early 17th century. M., 1967; Oblomievsky D. D. French classicism. M., 1968; Serman I. Z. Russian classicism: Poetry. Drama. Satire. L., 1973; Morozov A. A. The fate of Russian classicism // Russian literature. 1974. No. 1; Jones T. W., Nicol B. Neo-classical dramatic criticism. 1560-1770. Camb., 1976; Moskvicheva G. V. Russian classicism. M., 1978; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists. M., 1980; Averintsev S. S. Ancient Greek Poetics and World Literature // Poetics of Ancient Greek Literature. M., 1981; Russian and Western European classicism. Prose. M., 1982; L'Antiquité gréco-romaine vue par le siècle des lumières / Éd. R. Chevalier. Tours, 1987; Classic im Vergleich. Normativität und Historizität europäischer Klassiken. Stuttg.; Weimar, 1993; Pumpyansky L.V. On the history of Russian classicism // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition. M., 2000; Genetiot A. Le classicisme. R., 2005; Smirnov A. A. Literary theory of Russian classicism. M., 2007. Architecture and fine arts. Gnedich P. P. History of Arts. M., 1907. T. 3; he is. Art history. Western European Baroque and Classicism. M., 2005; Brunov N.I. Palaces of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. M., 1938; Blunt A. Francois Mansart and the origins of French classical architecture. L., 1941; idem. Art and architecture in France. 1500 to 1700. 5th ed. New Haven, 1999; Hautecoeur L. Histoire de l'architecture classique en France. R., 1943-1957. Vol. 1-7; Kaufmann E. Architecture in the age of Reason. Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Rowland V. The classical tradition in western art. Camb. (Mass.), 1963; Kovalenskaya N. N. Russian classicism. M., 1964; Vermeule S. S. European art and the classical past. Camb. (Mass.), 1964; Rotenberg E. I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; he is. Western European painting of the 17th century. Thematic principles. M., 1989; Nikolaev E.V. Classical Moscow. M., 1975; Greenhalgh M. The classical tradition in art. L., 1978; Fleming J. R. Adam and his circle, in Edinburgh and Rome. 2nd ed. L., 1978; Yakimovich A. K. Classicism of the Poussin era. Fundamentals and principles // Soviet art history'78. M., 1979. Issue. 1; Zolotov Yu. K. Poussin and freethinkers // Ibid. M., 1979. Issue. 2; Summerson J. The classical language of architecture. L., 1980; Gnudi C. L'ideale classico: saggi sulla tradizione classica nella pittura del Cinquecento e del Seicento. Bologna, 1981; Howard S. Antiquity restored: essays on the afterlife of the antique. Vienna, 1990; The French Academy: classicism and its antagonists / Ed. J Hargrove. newark; L., 1990; Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990; Daniel S. M. European classicism. St. Petersburg, 2003; Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. M., 2003; Bedretdinova L. Ekaterininsky classicism. M., 2008. Theatre. Celler L. Les décors, les costumes et la mise en scène au XVIIe siècle, 1615-1680. R., 1869. Gen., 1970; Mantius K. Moliere. Theater, public, actors of his time. M., 1922; Mongredien G. Les grands comediens du XVIIe siècle. R., 1927; Fuchs M. La vie théâtrale en province au XVIIe siècle. R., 1933; About the theatre. Sat. articles. L.; M., 1940; Kemodle G. R. From art to theatre. Chi., 1944; Blanchart R. Histoire de la mise en scène. R., 1948; Vilar J. On the theatrical tradition. M., 1956; History of the Western European Theatre: In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988; Velekhova N. In disputes about style. M., 1963; Boyadzhiev G. N. The Art of Classicism // Questions of Literature. 1965. No. 10; Leclerc G. Les grandes aventures du theater. R., 1968; Mints N. V. Theatrical collections of France. M., 1989; Gitelman L. I. Foreign acting art of the XIX century. St. Petersburg, 2002; History of foreign theater. SPb., 2005.
Music. Materials and documents on the history of music. 18th century / Under the editorship of M. V. Ivanov-Boretsky. M., 1934; Buken E. Music of the epoch of Rococo and Classicism. M., 1934; he is. Heroic style in opera. M., 1936; Livanova T. N. On the way from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment of the 18th century. // From the Renaissance to the XX century. M., 1963; she is. The problem of style in music of the 17th century. // Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966; she is. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries. in the arts. M., 1977; Liltolf M. Zur Rolle der Antique in der musikalischen Tradition der französischen Epoque Classique // Studien zur Tradition in der Musik. Munch., 1973; Keldysh Yu. V. The problem of styles in Russian music of the 17th-18th centuries. // Keldysh Yu. V. Essays and research on the history of Russian music. M., 1978; Lutsker P.V. Style problems in musical art at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. // Epochal milestones in the history of Western art. M., 1998; Lutsker P. V., Susidko I. P. Italian opera of the 18th century. M., 1998-2004. Ch. 1-2; Kirillina L. V. Gluck's reformist operas. M., 2006.
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia
Faculty of Philology
Department of Russian and Foreign Literature
on the course "History of Russian literature of the 19th century"
Subject:
"Classicism. Basic principles. The originality of Russian classicism"
Completed by student Ivanova I.A.
Group FZhB-11
Scientific adviser:
Associate Professor Pryakhin M.N.
Moscow
The concept of classicism
Philosophical doctrine
Ethical and aesthetic program
genre system
Representatives of classicism
The concept of classicism
Classicism is one of the most important trends in the literature of the past. Having established itself in the works and creativity of many generations, putting forward a brilliant galaxy of poets and writers, classicism left such milestones on the path of the artistic development of mankind as the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, Milton, Voltaire, the comedies of Molière and many other literary works. The history itself confirms the viability of the traditions of the classicist artistic system and the value of the concepts of the world and the human person underlying it, primarily the moral imperative characteristic of classicism.
Classicism did not always remain identical to itself in everything, constantly developing and improving. This is especially obvious if we consider classicism in the perspective of its three centuries of existence and in various national variants, in which it appears to us in France, in Germany and in Russia. Taking its first steps in the 16th century, that is, at the time of the mature Renaissance, classicism absorbed and reflected the atmosphere of this revolutionary era, and at the same time it carried new trends that were destined to be energetically manifested only in the next century.
Classicism is one of the most studied and theoretically thought out literary movements. But, despite this, its detailed study is still an extremely relevant topic for a modern researcher, largely due to the fact that it requires special flexibility and subtlety of analysis.
The formation of the concept of classicism requires a systematic, purposeful work of the researcher based on attitudes towards artistic perception and the development of value judgments in the analysis of the text.
Russian classicism literature
Therefore, in modern science, contradictions often arise between the new tasks of literary research and the old approaches to the formation of theoretical and literary concepts about classicism.
Basic principles of classicism
Classicism, as an artistic movement, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards the universal "norm" model. Hence the cult of antiquity of classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.
Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings.
The most important norms of classicism are the unity of action, place and time. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire him to selfless feelings, the author should not complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely linked to the unity of action. The unity of the place was interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours.
Classicism is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and opposes the Baroque.
Historical basis of classicism
The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise in theatrical art in the country. Classicism continued to fruitfully exist in the 18th and early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.
As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it.
Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, division into higher genres - an ode (a solemn song (lyric) poem praising glory, praise, greatness, victory, etc.), tragedy (a dramatic or stage work that depicts an irreconcilable conflict of personality with opposing forces), epic (depicts actions or events in an objectively narrative form, characterized by a calmly contemplative attitude to the depicted subject) and lower - comedy (dramatic performance or composition for the theater, where society is presented in a funny, funny way), satire (a kind of comic , which differs from other types (humor, irony) by the sharpness of the denunciation).
The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.
Philosophical doctrine
Unlike the irrational Baroque, Classicism was rational and appealed not to faith, but to reason. He sought to balance among themselves all the worlds - divine, natural, social and spiritual. He stood up for the dynamic balance of all these spheres, which should not conflict with each other, but coexist peacefully within the boundaries and imperatives set by the mind.
The central place in Classicism was occupied by the idea of order, in the establishment of which the leading role belongs to reason and knowledge. From the idea of the priority of order and reason followed a characteristic concept of man, which could be reduced to three leading foundations or principles:
) the principle of the priority of reason over passions, the belief that the highest virtue consists in resolving the contradictions between reason and passions in favor of the first, and the highest valor and justice lie, respectively, in actions prescribed not by affects, but by reason;
) the principle of the original morality and law-abidingness of the human mind, the belief that it is the mind that is able to lead a person to truth, goodness and justice in the shortest way;
) the principle of social service, which asserted that the duty prescribed by reason is the honest and selfless service of a person to his sovereign and state.
In socio-historical and moral-legal terms, Classicism turned out to be associated with the process of centralization of power and the strengthening of absolutism in a number of European states. He took on the role of ideology, defending the interests of the royal houses, seeking to unite nations around him.
Ethical and aesthetic program
The initial principle of the aesthetic code of classicism is the imitation of beautiful nature. Objective beauty for the theorists of classicism (Boileau, Andre) is the harmony and regularity of the universe, which has as its source a spiritual principle that forms matter and puts it in order. Beauty thus, as an eternal spiritual law, is opposed to everything sensual, material, changeable. Therefore, moral beauty is higher than physical beauty; the creation of human hands is more beautiful than the rough beauty of nature.
The laws of beauty do not depend on the experience of observation, they are derived from the analysis of inner spiritual activity.
The ideal of the artistic language of classicism is the language of logic - accuracy, clarity, consistency. The linguistic poetics of classicism avoids, as far as possible, the objective depiction of the word. Her usual remedy is an abstract epithet.
The ratio of individual elements of a work of art is built on the same principles, i.e. composition, which is usually a geometrically balanced structure based on a strict symmetrical division of the material. Thus the laws of art are likened to the laws of formal logic.
The political ideal of classicism
In their political struggle, the revolutionary bourgeois and plebeians in France, both in the decades preceding the revolution and in the turbulent years of 1789-1794, made extensive use of ancient traditions, the ideological heritage and external forms of Roman democracy. So, at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in European literature and art, a new type of classicism has developed, new in its ideological and social content in relation to the classicism of the 17th century, to the aesthetic theory and practice of Boileau, Corneille, Racine, Poussin.
The art of classicism of the era of the bourgeois revolution was strictly rationalistic, i.e. required a complete logical correspondence of all elements of the artistic form to an extremely clearly expressed plan.
Classicism XVIII-XIX centuries. was not a homogeneous phenomenon. In France, the heroic period of the bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. preceded and accompanied by the development of revolutionary republican classicism, which was embodied in the dramas of M.Zh. Chenier, in the early painting of David, etc. In contrast, during the years of the Directory and especially the Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire, classicism lost its revolutionary spirit and turned into a conservative academic direction.
Sometimes under the direct influence of French art and the events of the French Revolution, and in some cases independently of them and even preceding them in time, a new classicism developed in Italy, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and the USA. In Russia, classicism reached its highest height in the architecture of the first third of the 19th century.
One of the most significant ideological and artistic achievements of this time was the work of the great German poets and thinkers - Goethe and Schiller.
With all the variety of variants of classic art, it had much in common. Both the revolutionary classicism of the Jacobins, and the philosophical and humanistic classicism of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, and the conservative classicism of the Napoleonic Empire, and the very diverse - sometimes progressive-patriotic, sometimes reactionary-great-power - classicism in Russia were contradictory creations of the same historical era.
genre system
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable).
ABOUT? Yes- a poetic, as well as musical and poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity, dedicated to some event or hero.
Tragé? diya- a genre of fiction based on the development of events, which, as a rule, is inevitable and necessarily leads to a catastrophic outcome for the characters.
The tragedy is marked by severe seriousness, depicts reality most sharply, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form, which acquires the meaning of an artistic symbol; It is no coincidence that most tragedies are written in verse.
epic? I- generic designation of major epic and similar works:
.An extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.
2.A complex, long history of something, including a number of major events.
Comé? diya- a genre of fiction characterized by a humorous or satirical approach.
Satire- a manifestation of the comic in art, which is a poetic humiliating denunciation of phenomena using various comic means: sarcasm, irony, hyperbole, grotesque, allegory, parody, etc.
Ba? taking off- a poetic or prose literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a brief moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. The actors are usually animals, plants, things. In the fable, the vices of people are ridiculed.
Representatives of classicism
In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A.D. Kantemira, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov.
HELL. Kantemir was the ancestor of Russian classicism, the founder of the most vital real-satirical direction in it - such are his well-known satires.
VC. Trediakovsky, with his theoretical works, contributed to the establishment of classicism, but in his poetic works the new ideological content did not find an appropriate artistic form.
In a different way, the traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, who defended the idea of the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism. In tragedies, under the influence of the reality of that time, he often refers to the theme of the uprising against tsarism. In his work, Sumarokov pursued social and educational goals, preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds.
The next prominent representative of Russian classicism, whose name is known to everyone without exception, is M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). Lomonosov, unlike Kantemir, rarely ridicules the enemies of enlightenment. He managed to almost completely rework the grammar based on the French canons, and made changes to the versification. Actually, it was Mikhail Lomonosov who became the first who was able to introduce the canonical principles of classicism into Russian literature. Depending on the quantitative mixing of words of three kinds, this or that style is created. This is how the "three styles" of Russian poetry developed: "high" - Church Slavonic words and Russian.
The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin (Brigadier, Undergrowth), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.
Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin was the last among the largest representatives of Russian classicism. Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also vocabulary: in "Felitsa" the words "high calm" and vernacular are organically combined. Thus, Gavriil Derzhavin, who developed the possibilities of classicism to the maximum in his works, became at the same time the first Russian poet to overcome the canons of classicism.
Russian classicism, its originality
A significant role in the shift of the genre dominant in the artistic system of Russian classicism was played by a qualitatively different attitude of our authors to the traditions of the national culture of previous periods, in particular to national folklore. The theoretical code of French classicism - "The Poetic Art" of Boileau demonstrates a sharply hostile attitude towards everything that in one way or another had a connection with the art of the masses. In attacks on the theater of Tabarin, Boileau denies the traditions of folk farce, finding traces of this tradition in Molière. The sharp criticism of burlesque poetry also testifies to the well-known anti-democratism of his aesthetic program. There was no place in Boileau's treatise to characterize such a literary genre as a fable, which is closely connected with the traditions of the democratic culture of the masses.
Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the traditions of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of the new direction, undertaking the reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules.
The absence of a gap between the literature of Russian classicism and the traditions of national folklore explains its other features. Thus, in the system of poetic genres of Russian literature of the 18th century, in particular in the work of Sumarokov, the genre of the lyrical love song, which Boileau does not mention at all, suddenly flourishes. In Epistle 1 on Poetry, Sumarokov gives a detailed description of this genre along with characteristics of recognized classicist genres, such as ode, tragedy, idyll, etc. Sumarokov includes in his Epistle a description of the fable genre, while relying on the experience of La Fontaine . And in his poetic practice, both in songs and in fables, Sumarokov, as we will see, often directly focused on folklore traditions.
The peculiarity of the literary process of the late XVII - early XVIII century. explains another feature of Russian classicism: its connection with the artistic system of the Baroque in its Russian version.
Bibliography
1. Natural-legal philosophy of classicism of the 17th century. #"justify">Books:
5.O.Yu. Schmidt "The Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 32." Ed. "Soviet Encyclopedia" 1936
6.A.M. Prokhorov. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 12. "Publishing house" Soviet Encyclopedia "1973
.S.V. Turaev "Literature. Reference materials". Ed. "Enlightenment" 1988
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Classicism
Classicism- one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in the work, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Molière. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).
Historical roots of classicism
The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise in theatrical art in the country. Classicism continues to fruitfully exist in the 18th - early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.
As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it. "Classicism" (from the Latin "classicus", i.e. "exemplary") assumed a stable orientation of the new art to the antique way, which did not at all mean a simple copying of antique samples. Classicism carries out continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.
Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, the division into higher genres - ode, tragedy, epic and lower ones - comedy, satire.
The laws of classicism
The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.
The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of the aesthetics of classicism, which differs significantly from the concept of a hero adopted in the Renaissance, when complete freedom of the individual was proclaimed, and man was declared the “crown of the universe”. However, the course of historical events disproved these ideas. Overwhelmed by passions, a person could not decide, find support. And only in serving society, a single state, the monarch, who embodied the strength and unity of his state, could a person express himself, assert himself, even at the cost of abandoning his own feelings. The tragic collision was born on a wave of colossal tension: ardent passion collided with inexorable duty (in contrast to the Greek tragedy of fatal predestination, when the will of a person turned out to be powerless). In the tragedies of classicism, reason and will were decisive and suppressed spontaneous, poorly controlled feelings.
Hero in the tragedies of classicism
The classicists saw the veracity of the characters' characters in strict subordination to internal logic. The unity of the character of the hero is the most important condition for the aesthetics of classicism. Summarizing the laws of this direction, the French author N. Boileau-Despreo in his poetic treatise Poetic Art, states: Let your hero be carefully thought out, Let him always remain himself.
The one-sidedness, the inner static nature of the hero does not, however, exclude the manifestation of living human feelings on his part. But in different genres, these feelings manifest themselves in different ways, strictly according to the chosen scale - tragic or comic. N. Boileau says about the tragic hero:
The hero, in whom everything is small, is only suitable for a novel,
May he be brave, noble,
But still, without weaknesses, he is not nice to anyone ...
He cries from resentment - a useful detail,
So that we believe in its plausibility ...
So that we crown you with enthusiastic praise,
We should be excited and touched by your hero.
From unworthy feelings let him be free
And even in weaknesses he is mighty and noble.
To reveal the human character in the understanding of the classicists means to show the nature of the action of eternal passions, unchanged in their essence, their influence on the fate of people. Basic rules of classicism. Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings. In tragedy, the theater taught the spectator resilience in the struggle of life, the example of a positive hero served as a model of moral behavior. The hero, as a rule, a king or a mythological character was the main character. The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was necessarily resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle. In the 17th century the idea became dominant that only in serving the state does a person acquire the possibility of self-affirmation. The flowering of classicism was due to the assertion of absolute power in France, and later in Russia.
The most important norms of classicism - the unity of action, place and time - follow from those substantive premises that were discussed above. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire selfless feelings, the author did not have to complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely connected with the unity of action, and many diverse events did not occur in the tragedy. The unity of place has also been interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours. Particularly bold reformers decided to stretch the action for thirty hours. The tragedy must have five acts and be written in Alexandrian verse (iambic six-foot). Excites the visible more than the story, But what the ear can endure, sometimes the eye will not endure. (N. Boileau)
Characteristic features of classicism architecture
Spassky Construction and Fair Cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod. Architect O. Montferrand.
The main laws of architectural composition were symmetry, emphasizing the center, the general harmony of parts and the whole. The main entrance to the building was located in the center and was designed in the form of a portico (the protruding part of the building with columns and a pediment).
Architectural monuments of classicism are distinguished by:
Clarity and geometric correctness of volumes;
Clear and calm rhythm;
Balance, logical layout, alignment of proportions;
The combination of a smooth wall with a warrant and discreet decor; the use of elements of ancient architecture: porticos, colonnades, statues and reliefs on the surface of the walls;
Solemnity.
The norms of classicism were reduced to a strict system. All this together made it possible to fully and accurately master the style according to the drawings and texts of theoretical treatises. Classicism therefore easily spread to the provinces. There were few talented and skillful architects; they could not design all the buildings in many cities and suburban noble estates. The general character and level of architectural solutions was maintained through the use of exemplary projects carried out by the largest masters. They were engraved and sent to all cities of Russia.
Glossary of terms
Apse, apse- the ledge of a building, semicircular, faceted or rectangular in plan, covered with a semi-dome or closed semi-arch. Apses appeared in ancient Roman basilicas. In Christian churches, an apse is an altar ledge, usually oriented to the east.
Architrave(from Greek archi - elder and lat. trabs - beam), the lower of the three horizontal parts of the entablature, lying on the capitals of the columns; has the form of a beam - wide, smooth (in Doric and Tuscan orders) or divided into three horizontal ledges - fascia (in Ionic and Corinthian orders)
Doric order, the oldest of the three main architectural orders. It got its name from the Doric tribes that created it. The Doric column has no base, the trunk is cut with flutes; the capital consists of two stone slabs - echinus and abacus. The bottom plate is round and the top one is square. The entablature is divided into architrave, frieze and cornice. The Doric frieze consists of alternating plates: one has two vertical depressions, the other usually has reliefs. The frieze is horizontally divided into triglyphs and metopes. The Doric column is heavy, slightly below the middle - thickened. The aspiration of the column upwards is emphasized by vertical grooves. Protruding cornices run along the edge of the roof: triangles are formed under the roof on both narrow sides of the temple - pediments, which were decorated with sculptures. Today, parts of the temples of white color have been preserved: the paints that covered them crumbled over time. Once their friezes and cornices were painted red and blue.
Caissons, cassettes, - square or polygonal recesses on the ceiling or the inner surface of the arch, vault. They play a constructive and decorative role.
Console- a ledge in the wall or a beam embedded in the wall at one end, supporting a cornice, balcony, figure, vase, etc.
Corinthian order- one of the three main architectural orders. It has a high column with a base, a trunk cut with grooves (flutes), and a magnificent capital, consisting of rows of acanthus leaves and small volutes.
Pilaster, pilaster- a flat vertical ledge of rectangular section on the surface of a wall or pillar. The pilaster has the same parts (stem, capital, base) and proportions as the column; serves to divide the plane of the wall.
Rustic- facing the walls of the structure with stones with a roughly chipped or convex front surface ("rustic") or relief masonry imitating it.
Refectory, 1) in monasteries a dining room with a church attached to it; Russian refectory 16-17 centuries - large halls with open terraces and stairs. 2) Western extension to the church.
Gable- in architecture, the crowning of the facade of a building, which most often has the shape of a triangle, bounded on the sides by two inclined cornices, and from below by the main cornice of the building. The narrow sides of ancient temples always ended at the top with a low flint, the triangular field or tympanum of which was sometimes decorated with sculptural figures, and the side cornices carried the edges of the gable roof of the structure. In the last period of Roman art, fountains of a different form appeared, which later passed into the architecture of the Renaissance, namely, those in which inclined cornices are replaced by one continuous arcuate cornice, so that a tympanum is formed in the form of a segment of a circle (circular finial). In later times, the form of fountains became even more diverse: fountains appeared in the form of a trapezoid, fountains with side cornices that did not converge at the top and left free space between their upper ends (sometimes turning into volutes) for placing a pedestal for a vase, bust, or some other - any other decoration (interrupted f., fronton brise), f. in the form of an equilateral triangle, etc. Such f. are arranged mainly not over facades, but under windows, doors and porches.
Choirs (empora)- the upper open gallery, a balcony inside the church, in the main hall.
Classicism is an artistic style of speech and an aesthetic trend in the literature of the 17th-18th centuries, which was formed in France in the 17th century, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the images of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached a high development - the fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as "the legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in a poetic treatise " poetic art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.
Artistic principles of classicism
The most important features of classicism:
- Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
- The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
- The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.
The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres:
- "High" genres - tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture.
- "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable, genre painting. (The exception is the best comedies of Moliere, they were assigned to the "high" genres).
Representatives of classicism attached great importance to the educational function of art, striving in their works to create images of heroes worthy of imitation: resistant to the harshness of fate and the vicissitudes of life, guided in their actions by duty and reason. Literature created the image of a new man who was confident that he needed to live for the good of society, to be a citizen and a patriot. The hero penetrates the secrets of the universe, becomes an active creative nature, such literary works turn into a textbook of life. Literature posed and solved the burning questions of its time, helped readers figure out how to live. By creating new heroes, diverse in character, representing different classes, the writers of classicism made it possible for the next generation to find out how the people of the 18th century lived, what worried them, what they felt.
Classicism as an artistic movement has its own features, its own principles.
Cult, the dominance of reason as the highest criterion of truth and beauty, the subordination of personal interests to high ideas of civic duty, state laws. The philosophical basis of classicism was rationalism (from Latin - reason, rationality, expediency, rational validity of everything, the harmony of the Universe, due to its spiritual beginning), the founder of which was R. Descartes.
Exposure from the positions of statehood and enlightenment of ignorance, selfishness, despotism of the feudal order; the glorification of the monarchy, wisely governing the people, caring about education; affirmation of human dignity, civic and moral duty.
In other words, classicism formulated the goal of literature as an impact on the mind to correct vices and educate virtue, and this clearly expressed the author's position (for example, Corneille glorifies the heroes who defend the state, the absolute monarch; Lomonosov glorifies Peter the Great as an ideal monarch).
The heroes of the works of classicism, mainly tragedies, were "high": kings, princes, generals, leaders, nobles, higher clergy, noble citizens who care about the fate of the fatherland and serve it.
In comedies, not only high-ranking persons were depicted, but also commoners, serf servants.
The characters were divided strictly into positive and negative, into virtuous, ideal, devoid of individuality, acting at the behest of the mind, and carriers of vice, who are in the grip of selfish passions. At the same time, in the depiction of positive characters, there was schematism, reasoning, that is, a tendency to moralizing reasoning from the author's positions.
The characters were unilinear: the hero personified any one quality (passion) - intelligence, courage, courage, nobility, honesty or greed, deceit, stinginess, cruelty, flattery, hypocrisy, boasting (Pushkin noted: “At Molière, the mean is mean - and only...”; the leading feature of Mitrofan in “Undergrowth” is laziness).
Heroes were portrayed statically, without the evolution of characters. In fact, these were only images-masks (in Belinsky's words, "images without faces").
"Talking" names of characters (Tartuffe, Skotinin, Pravdin).
The conflict of good and evil, reason and stupidity, duty and feeling, in which good, reason, and duty have always won. In other words, in the works of classicism, vice was always punished, and virtue triumphed (for example, in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"). Hence the abstractness, conventionality of the image of reality, the conventionality of the method of the classicists.
The heroes spoke in high-sounding, solemn, upbeat language; used such poetic means as Slavicisms, hyperbole, metaphor, personification, metonymy, comparison, antithesis, emotional epithets (“cold corpse”, “pale brow”), rhetorical questions and exclamations, appeals, mythological similes (Apollo, Zeus, Minerva, Neptune, Boreas). Syllabic versification dominated, Alexandrian verse was used.
The actors uttered long monologues in order to more fully reveal their views, beliefs, principles. Such monologues slowed down the action of the play.
Classicism and its artistic principles in Russian literature
The main features of Russian classicism
- Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
- Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative, have speaking names.
- The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover (unsuccessful).
- At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.
- The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).
Russian classicism expressed the worldview, psychology and tastes of the enlightened Russian nobility, who rose to prominence under Peter the Great.
The originality of Russian classicism
High civil-patriotic pathos, manifested in the appeal, mainly to national themes, to plots from Russian reality, from national history.
In the preaching of national ideas, in the formation of socially useful, civic qualities of a person, in the development of an anti-despotic orientation, tyrannical motives, in educational tendencies (in the struggle for national culture, science, education), the objectively progressive significance of Russian classicism was contained, its connection with life was closer, people. (It is no coincidence that Pushkin called Fonvizin "a friend of freedom".).
A more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, expressed in satire, comedy, fable, which violated the principle of abstract depiction of reality inherent in classicism, that is, elements of realism were significant in Russian classicism.
Start
The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Kantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely, satires, epigrams, and others).
The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:
- 1st period: literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - the intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.
- Period 2: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.
- 3rd period: 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
- 4 period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Idea, idea of presentation, image).
Trediakovsky and Lomonosov
Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabo-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.). The syllabo-tonic system of versification is a system of syllable-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - a syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate in a certain regular way with unstressed ones. It is within the framework of this system that most of the Russian poetry was written.
Derzhavin
Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, continuing the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.
For him, the purpose of the poet is the glorification of great deeds and the condemnation of bad ones. In the ode "Felitsa" he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which personifies the reign of Catherine II. The smart, fair empress is opposed to the greedy and mercenary nobles of the court: You only don’t offend, You don’t offend anyone, You see foolishness through your fingers, Only you don’t tolerate evil alone ...
The main object of Derzhavin's poetics is a person as a unique individuality in all the richness of personal tastes and predilections. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of the worlds that exist everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, The trait of the initial deity; I decay in the dust with my body, I command the thunders with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, Where did I come from? unknown: I couldn't be myself. Ode "God", (1784)
Derzhavin creates a number of samples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical intensity of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem "Snigir" (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a song like a military flute, like a sweet snigir? With whom shall we go to war against the Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the rich man? Where is strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunders lie in a coffin.
Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to the RUIN OF HORROR, from which only the beginning has come down to us: The river of time in its aspiration Carries away all the deeds of people And drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings in the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and the trumpet, Then eternity will be devoured by the mouth And the common fate will not go away!
The fall of classicism
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism with its characteristic heaviness began to die out, and it was replaced by a new direction - sentimentalism.
one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in the work, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Molière. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).
Derzhavin K. Theater of the French Revolution 17891799, 2nd ed. M., 1937
Danilin Yu. The Paris Commune and the French Theater.
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Literary Manifestos of Western European Classicists.
M., 1980
