1. Dialectic understands the world on the basis of special laws .
Law – these are objective, independent of human will, general, stable, necessary, recurring connections between entities and within entities.
The laws of dialectics differ from the laws of other sciences (physics, mathematics, etc.) its universality and universality, because they:
- cover all spheres of the surrounding reality;
- reveal the deep foundations of movement and development, their source, the mechanism of transition from the old to the new, the connection between the old and the new.
stand out three basic laws of dialectics:
– unity and struggle of opposites;
- the transition of quantity into quality;
- negation of negation.
2. The law of unity And struggle of opposites lies in the fact that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being one in nature, are in conflict and contradict each other, for example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer, youth and old age and etc.
You can also highlight different types of wrestling
- a struggle that benefits both sides, for example, constant competition, where each side “catches up” with the other and moves to a higher qualitative stage of development;
- a fight where one side regularly gains the upper hand over the other, but the defeated side remains and is an "irritant" for the winning side. Thanks to this, the winning side moves to a higher stage of development;
- antagonistic struggle, where one side can only survive by completely destroying the other.
In addition to the struggle, other types of interaction are possible:
– assistance when both sides provide mutual assistance to each other without a fight;
– solidarity, alliance, when the parties do not provide each other with direct assistance, but have common interests and act in the same direction;
– neutrality, when the parties have different interests, do not assist each other, but do not fight among themselves;
– mutualism- a complete relationship, when, in order to complete a business, the parties must act only together and cannot act independently from each other.
3. The second law of dialectics is the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
Quality - a stable system of certain characteristics and relationships of an object.
Quantity - quantifiable parameters of an object or phenomenon (number, size, volume, weight, size, etc.).
Measure - unity of quantity and quality.
With certain quantitative changes, the quality necessarily changes. At the same time, the quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a moment when a change in quality leads to a radical transformation of the essence of the object. Such moments are called "nodes", and the transition itself to another state is understood in philosophy as " jump."
For example, if you heat water sequentially by one degree Celsius, that is, change the quantitative parameters - the temperature, then the water will change its quality - it will become hot. When the temperature reaches 100 degrees, a fundamental change in the quality of water will occur - it will turn into steam. A temperature of 100 degrees in this case will be knot, and the transition of water into steam, i.e. transition from one measure of quality to another jump. The same can be said about the cooling of water and its transformation at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius into ice.
In nature, it is not always possible to determine the key moment. The transition of quantity into a fundamentally new quality may happen:
- sharply, at once;
- imperceptibly, evolutionarily.
4. The law of negation of negation lies in the fact that the new always negates the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from the new into the old and is denied by more and more new.
Examples:
– change of socio-economic formations;
- "relay race of generations";
– change of tastes in culture, music;
- the daily death of old blood cells, the emergence of new ones.
The denial of old forms by new ones is the cause and mechanism of progressive development. However the question of the direction of development – debatable in philosophy. The following main points of view:
- development is only a progressive process, the transition from lower to higher forms, that is, ascending development;
- development can be both ascending and descending;
- development is chaotic, has no direction.
Practice shows that of the three points of view, the second one is closest to the true one: development can be both upward and downward, although the general trend is still upward. For example:
a) the human body develops, grows stronger - ascending development;
b) then developing, weakening, decrepit - downward development.
Thus, development is underway not linearly in a straight line, but in a spiral moreover, each turn of the spiral repeats the previous ones, but at a new, higher level.
Principles of dialectics
The main principles of dialectics are:
– universal connection principle. Universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, the interdependence of all its components, such as objects, phenomena, processes. The most common form of communication is external and internal. For example:
a) internal connections of the human body as a biological system;
b) external relations of a person as elements of a social system.
– principle of consistency. Consistency means that numerous connections in the surrounding world do not exist chaotically, but in an orderly manner, form an integral system. As a result, the environment has internal expediency;
– the principle of causation. Causality means the presence of such connections, where one gives rise to another. Objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world have either an external or internal cause. The cause gives rise to the effect, and the connections are called causal;
– historicism principle. historicism implies two aspects of the environment:
a) eternity, indestructibility of history and the world;
b) its existence and development in time, which lasts forever.
- essence and phenomenon;
- cause and investigation;
- single, special, universal;
- possibility and reality;
- necessity and chance.
Determinism and teleology
1. All phenomena and processes in the world are interconnected. ontological principle determinism expresses this relationship and answers the question whether there is order and conditionality of all phenomena in the world, or whether the world is disordered chaos. Determinism is the doctrine of the universal conditionality of phenomena and events.
2. Initial ideas about the connection between phenomena and events appeared due to the peculiarities of human practical activity. Everyday experience convinced that events and phenomena are connected with each other, and some of them mutually determine each other. This ordinary observation was expressed in the ancient maxim: nothing comes from nothing and does not turn into nothing.
The central core of determinism is the proposition of the existence causality, i.e., such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause) under quite definite conditions necessarily generates, produces another phenomenon (consequence).
3. Absolutely correct and adequate ideas about the interconnection of all phenomena and events in philosophy led to the wrong conclusion about the existence of total necessity in the world and the absence of chance. This form of determinism is called mechanistic.
Mechanistic determinism interprets all types of interconnection and interactions as mechanical and denies the objective nature of chance. One of the proponents of this type of determinism Benedict Spinoza believed that we call a phenomenon random only because of the lack of our knowledge about it.
One consequence of mechanistic determinism is fatalism- the doctrine of the universal predestination of phenomena and events, and predestination is not necessarily of a divine nature.
4. The limitations of mechanistic determinism have been clearly shown in connection with the discoveries in quantum physics . It turned out that the patterns of interactions in the microcosm cannot be described from the point of view of the principles of mechanistic determinism. New discoveries in physics at first led to the rejection of determinism, but later contributed to the formation of a new content of this principle.
5. New physical discoveries and the appeal of the philosophy of the 20th century to the problems of human existence clarified the content of the principle of indeterminism.
Indeterminism- this is an ontological principle, according to which there is no general and universal relationship between phenomena and events. Indeterminism denies the universal nature of causality. According to this principle, there are phenomena and events in the world that appear without any reason, i.e. unrelated to other phenomena and events.
In the philosophy of the 20th century, which turned to the problems of human freedom, to the study of the unconscious psyche, and refused to identify the individual only with the mind, the positions of indeterminism were noticeably strengthened. Indeterminism became an extreme reaction to mechanism and fatalism. Philosophy of life and philosophy of will, existentialism And pragmatism limited the scope of determinism to nature; to understand events and phenomena in culture, they proposed the principle of indeterminism.
6. Close, but not identical to determinism, the concept used in philosophy is the concept of teleology. Teleology- This is the doctrine of the expediency of everything that exists. The term itself was introduced into wide use by Kant, however, the principles of an expedient explanation of the world order were already widely used in mythology (anthropomorphism) and are clearly represented in the philosophy of ancient Greece, in particular in Aristotle.
Main question teleology - for what, for the sake of what purpose this or that process is performed. The main thing for teleology is the attribution of a goal to nature, the transfer to it of the ability to set goals, which in reality is inherent only in human activity.
Questions and tasks
1. What is the essence of the philosophical category "being"?
2. To reveal the essence of the concept of "matter" as a philosophical category.
3. Make a table “Consciousness. General concept, basic approaches, origin.
4. To reveal the concept of dialectics as a theory of the development of everything that exists.
5. Make a table "Basic laws, principles and categories of dialectics."
6. Explain the difference between determinism and teleology.
Topic 2.2. Gnoseology - the theory of knowledge
1. Epistemology as a direction in philosophy.
2. The concept of knowledge.
3. Points of view on the process of cognition.
4. Principles of modern epistemology.
5. Practice as a criterion of truth.
The development of all processes in the world is subject to certain laws. A law is a stable, repetitive relationship common to many phenomena. The law expresses the objective need for change.
The main difference between the laws of dialectics is their universality. Dialectical laws have no boundaries. They operate both in nature and in society. They are subject to human activity - both practical and spiritual. They do not have the laws of dialectics and time limits.
The laws of dialectics play a crucial role in characterizing development. The three basic laws of dialectics reveal precisely these parameters of development. The law of unity and struggle of opposites explains why everything moves, changes. The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative Changes answers the question of how things change. The law of negation of negation shows what is the direction of change, to which everything is moving.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
Among the basic dialectical laws, this law is rightfully considered the main one. He establishes the nature of the most fundamental relationships in the world - cause-and-effect, arguing that the cause and driving force of all changes are in the interdependence and interaction, unity and struggle of dialectical opposites.
The study of the law of unity and struggle of opposites involves consideration of the categories "unity", "struggle", "opposites", "identity", "difference", "contradiction".
The category "struggle" reflects the active interaction of opposites. The unity of opposites does not mean the abolition of their alternativeness. It rather determines the form of their coexistence. The struggle of opposites is absolute, while their unity is relative. For example, the introduction of a single European currency does not indicate that the contradictions in the economic interests of the countries that are members of the EEC have been overcome. The opposition of national interests is obvious, only the real threat of falling under dollar pressure forces us to pacify national ambitions and seek a compromise.
The category of "opposites" indicates the mutual exclusion of phenomena. Production and consumption are mutually exclusive processes, but from the point of view of the economy, their opposite is relative: they are two sides of the same phenomenon.
The category "identity" of opposites expresses such a level of correlation of opposites as their partial coincidence, correspondence. The identity of opposites is a temporary, relative state. Thus, the interests of the employer and the employee in a market, liberal economy are opposite. The employer seeks to reduce the cost of production by reducing wage costs in order to increase its competitiveness and obtain additional profit.
The worker, demanding higher wages, at the same time opposes the policy of reducing employment. The struggle includes trade unions and the state, which is interested in the implementation of social programs. As a result of the work of tripartite commissions, parity of interests is achieved. For a while, peace is established. The term of the contract expires - and everything starts all over again.
The category "difference" of opposites characterizes the relations of opposites that appear after the violation of identity. Strictly speaking, differences also exist at the stage of identity of opposites. Essentially, the differences of opposites are universal. Differences may be minor or significant. Growing, differences turn into contradictions.
The development and resolution of contradictions goes through a number of stages. The first of them is dominated by the identity of opposites. The differences are insignificant and do not violate the stability of the existence of the phenomenon. Contradictions are hidden, but they exist and develop.
The second stage reveals inconsistencies in the being of the phenomenon. Balance and harmony are replaced by tension, conflicts arise. If the growth of contradictions continues, then development enters the final third stage for this phenomenon, culminating in the resolution of contradictions through its transition (transformation) into another state or into another phenomenon. With the transformation of a phenomenon, old contradictions are replaced by new ones, since a new phenomenon must also have a new source of development.
The resolution of contradictions is accompanied by the birth of a new quality.
The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative.
Metaphysical thinking recognizes changes either quantitative or qualitative. The relationship of quantitative and qualitative changes is the discovery of dialectical philosophy. This relationship is represented by the corresponding law, which establishes that changes in the quality, essence of an object occur as a result of a change in its quantitative characteristics, growing in a certain direction. The new quality of an object is born from the old one due to quantitative changes.
Understanding the mechanism of action and the meaning of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones requires an analysis of the philosophical categories "property", "quantity", "quality", "measure", "jump".
The category "property" occupies a special place in the philosophical worldview. One world is diverse. The diversity of the world is revealed through the differences of phenomena that form it as an infinite multitude. At the same time, each phenomenon also represents a certain variety: it changes its state, it is multifaceted. Philosophy uses the category "property" to express one of the sides, facets of the phenomenon. The property, strictly speaking, is equal not to this side itself, but to what it is in the process of interaction with other sides and other phenomena.
The category "quality" reflects the totality of the basic, that is, necessary, stable, recurring, general properties of phenomena. They are usually called essential, since they determine the essence and dynamics of the development of phenomena. The category "quality" largely coincides with the category "essence".
G. Hegel noted that quality is that, if it is lost, the phenomenon ceases to be itself. Indeed, quality characterizes not only the essence of the phenomenon, but also its integrity. Quality is not reduced to the sum of the essential properties of a phenomenon. It defines the way they interact. To know quality means to highlight the essential properties and present them in the form of a system.
The category "quantity" determines the subject, the process in terms of its size, duration, intensity and involves numerical methods of evaluation. Unlike quality, which remains invariant (unchanged) in the development of a phenomenon up to a certain point, quantity can change without changing the essence of the phenomenon.
The relationship between quantity and quality illustrates the dialectic of the unity of opposites. Quality expresses the sustainable side of development. The number confirms the variability in development. Their unity is due to the existence of the phenomenon that they characterize.
The category "jump" reflects the process of transition from one quality to another. A jump is a form of such a transition. The new quality is the result of resolving contradictions. At a certain point, quantitative changes are interrupted. The continuous movement is replaced by a stepwise (discrete) one.
The forms of the jump are manifold. They differ in scale, content and mode of expression. The concrete form of the jump depends on the nature of the developing phenomenon, on the nature of the contradictions and the conditions under which the evolutionary process is interrupted. Knowing the conditions, we are able to control some forms of the jump. A clear example of this is the creation of nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, and skillful anti-crisis management in the economy.
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones reflects the order of interconnection of continuous and spasmodic changes in the world, in the development of knowledge about it. It is essential that not only quantitative changes cause qualitative ones, but also qualitative - quantitative ones. Thus, the transition of transport to electric traction inevitably leads to an increase in the speed and volume of transportation, to a new organization of the traffic system, a new regulatory framework.
The law of negation of negation.
This law characterizes the most important aspect of development - its direction. The peculiarity of the law lies in the fact that it reveals itself in time, and we are talking about significant time intervals.
It is not difficult to explain this feature of the law of negation of negation. The double negation contained in the law testifies to the cyclical nature of the development reflected in the law. The need for repeated denial implies a length of time, and no small one.
Outside of a philosophical interpretation, negation is presented in a simplified way - as a refusal to accept something, to agree with something, or as the opposite of an affirmation. Someone expresses some consideration, the other, disagreeing, rejects (denies) it. Negative attitude is identified with a negative attitude towards something.
In a philosophical sense, negation was originally understood as a change in phenomena. "Change" - a concept that reflects any deviation from the existing state - has acquired a new meaning over time. Further, "negation" became a concept expressing a fundamental change in the phenomenon as a whole, and not in its individual features. It is associated with destruction, abolition, loss of an object, a process as such, the cessation of its existence. The internal combustion engine left steam locomotives out of work, sending them into the past. The electric motor replaces diesel locomotives.
Metaphysical philosophy defines negation as the cessation of being. Death denies life. The default buries the economy's hopes for investment. Grain, once in the mill, becomes flour. Metaphysics reflects the external, visible side of negation.
Dialectics considers negation as the most important element in the development of the world. Therefore, in the dialectical understanding, negation is not the cessation of being, but a change in a specific form of being. Development does not end with negation. It continues in two directions, depending on the nature of the negation. If denial destroys the source of development, for example, there is a closure of an enterprise due to bankruptcy, then the movement temporarily takes the form of entropic changes. The property remaining after the payment of debts is being sold, employees are dismissed. However, this does not mean the end. The proceeds will be involved in the turnover, there will be another production.
When the negation is not connected with the source of development (for example, the restructuring of an enterprise), then development continues as a progressive movement.
Dialectical negation is a natural process of renewal, replacement of an old quality by a new one, the result of self-development of phenomena. It keeps the connection between the old and the new.
In the process of dialectical negation, the obsolete, which hinders development, is abolished in the old. At the same time, the sprouts of the new, the rational, are preserved and strengthened. Negation cannot be absolute. It is always relative (not in form, but in essence). The phenomenon does not disappear without a trace, does not turn into nothing. It changes the forms of its movement, its specific appearance.
The law of negation of negation indicates that development is carried out through continuity. Through double negation, the progressive nature of development is revealed: a new, more perfect one appears naturally (first negation) and just as naturally, having developed, it will give way to something that is more reasonable, perfect (second negation).
Visually, the manifestation of the law of "negation of negation" is usually compared with the movement in a spiral, demonstrating the ascending moment of development. Movement in a spiral, partly repeats the form of the phenomenon, but the content changes. It is improved, based on the experience of previous development.
Dialectics is the doctrine of the development of the world. Dialectics was originally “the art of conversation, reasoning”. Dialectics is the doctrine of the laws of development of matter and consciousness in objective and subjective reality. The concept of dialectics has been used in the history of philosophy in different meanings. It was born in ancient Greek culture. At that time, dialectics was understood as the art of dispute, discussion, the ability to fruitfully develop the topic under discussion. Dialectics as an art of argument developed in the Middle Ages. The art of dialogue was then cultivated as a means of preaching skill, developing methods for refuting the arguments of dissenters. Over time, it was realized that the methods of clash of opinions and dialectical resolution of contradictions are applicable not only in situations of a live dispute between real people. They are also important in the analysis of opposing views, positions, directions of thought. Texts and other media allow us to engage in real or mental polemics with people who are far away or who live long before us. A dialogue of generations, epochs, cultural, national, political, religious, philosophical traditions, schools is possible. Dialectics in its mature theoretical form first appeared as a coherent theoretical system in the idealistic philosophy of Hegel. Dialectics is such an understanding of the world and such a way of thinking in which various phenomena are considered in the variety of their connections, the interaction of opposing forces, trends, in the processes of change and development. D. is the doctrine of the most general regular connections and formation, the development of being and cognition, and the method of creatively cognizing thinking based on this doctrine. Materialistic D. - a method of studying differences. phenomena, disclosure of patterns, trends in development and transformation of reality. Through the dialogue of forms, methods, techniques of cognition, revealing. world. Main D.'s principles are a universal connection, formation and development, to-rye are comprehended with the help of the entire historically established system of categories and laws.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites. In accordance with this law, every object contains a contradiction, i.e. the unity of opposites, the struggle, the interaction of which causes the object to change in a certain way. Categories: Identity expresses sameness, unity, symmetry. The identity of the poles, right - left, plus or minus, - the subject as a single integral system; Difference, dissimilarity, dissimilarity, negation in each other. – Difference; The opposite, as the side of incompatibility with each other, brought to the limit; A contradiction is a system of relations within which opposites give rise to each other, pass into each other.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes reveals the mechanism of development. According to this law, the qualitative transformation of an object occurs if and only if the change in the quantitative characteristics of this object reaches a certain limit. The category of quality reflects a certain existence of an object, which determines its differences from all other objects and at the same time forms its integrity. Quantity - this category reflects the certainty of the existence of an object, which determines its similarity, identity, with all other objects. Quality and quantity, being sides of the certainty of an object, form a unity, which is expressed by the category of measure, i.e. quantity is always qualitative and vice versa. Quantitative changes in an object entail qualitative ones, i.e. this item acquires new ones and loses any properties. There is a jump - a breakthrough in the continuity of the movement of this object. For example: at present, they are undergoing changes (jump) in their development - the transition from an industrial society to an information one, which is caused by a sharp increase in the flow of information produced and consumed by people. (number of changes). In this case, the social parameters of human existence change qualitatively, while biological parameters change only quantitatively.
Law of negation of negation determines the direction and continuity in the development process: where, in what direction does development take place, what are its main phases and their relationship. According to this law, any subsequent phase of the development of an object denies the previous one in such a way that it retains and preserves all the necessary positive aspects of the latter. The category of negation expresses the process of transformation of the initial state (phase) of an object into its opposite, i.e. to the next state (phase). The negation of negation, as a category of dialectics, reflects the process of transition of the obtained (second) opposite, i.e. negation of the original phase of the object is now in its opposite. The category of removal is the resolution of the contradiction formed by the unity and struggle of the initial state and its state through the transition to the third state, synthesizing in itself the necessary and essential aspects of the first two, but with other internal contradictions and laws. Repeatability and continuity, being necessary attributes of the development process, determine the spiral form of its implementation. The peculiarity of the O-O law expresses the image of a spiral, and with each new turn of the spiral, the process of development accelerates.
1 - unity of struggle and opposites;
2 - mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
3 - the law of negation of negation.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites called the core of the dialectic. First, it characterizes source and inner content of any movement and development in nature, society and consciousness. Secondly, this law has a special form of universality, since its action permeates not only all the phenomena of the material and spiritual world, but also other laws of dialectics. Main the categories of this law are identity, difference, opposites, contradictions . Identity reflects the relative stability, immutability of the object. The difference fixes the moment of variability of phenomena. The limiting case of a significant difference is the opposite.
Opposites are internal interconnected, the sides and tendencies inherent in the objects and phenomena themselves, which presuppose each other and, at the same time, exclude each other, because differ sharply among themselves in their properties, directions of action and functions performed. Contradiction is a form of interaction of opposites . The specificity of the contradiction is determined by the originality of the process of their occurrence, the degree of their organization, and the peculiarities of their resolution. An internal contradiction is the interaction of opposite sides within a given system. External contradiction is the interaction between different systems.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones answers the question: how, in what way does development take place, i.e. reveals the mechanism of development. The main categories of this law are: quality, property, quantity, measure and leap. Quality is “immediate determinateness identical with being”, i.e. what distinguishes this thing from all others, without which it does not exist. Quality is the certainty of things , which determines their integrity, stability and specific character. Quality is manifested through properties. Properties, in turn, are manifested through the interactions of objects and are a way of showing a certain side of an object in relation to other objects. Quantity - "removed" quality. Quantity reflects the external, formal relationship of objects, their parts, properties and relationships, expresses the number, magnitude, volume, degree manifestations of one property or another.
Hesiod: "Respect the measure in everything and do your deeds in time." Thales: "Measure is the best." Democritus: "If you go over the limit, then the most pleasant will become the most unpleasant." Augustine: “Measure is the quantitative limit of a given quality.” A measure is an interval within which quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative changes. A leap is a transition from one quality to another.
Exists jump classification:
- by flow time: slow and instant.
- implementation mechanism: by "explosion" (the quality changes entirely) and gradually.
- by the depth of qualitative transformations: single (within the boundaries of the main quality) and general (associated with the transformation of the very basis of things).
Law of negation of negation answers the question: in which direction is developing (in a spiral). Hegel understood negation as "withdrawal", as connection between old and new , i.e. negation, as a philosophical concept, reflects the complex nature of the relationships that arise and exist in the process of changing and developing an object. Can be distinguished two negatives:
- destruction of the old , which does not meet the changed conditions;
- maintaining a new positive corresponding to the new conditions.
Need to to distinguish between the dialectical understanding of negation as a moment of connection between the old and the new from the metaphysical understanding of negation as the complete destruction of the old . The essence of the law of negation of negation expresses Hegel's triad:
1) thesis, or initial statement;
2) negation of the thesis (antithesis);
3) synthesis (negation of the previous stage, i.e. negation of negation).
Progress there is a form of development that characterizes the direction of development. However, not all development is progress. Progress is a development in which a transition is made from the lower to the higher, from the less perfect to the more perfect. The reverse process is called regression. Social Progress- this is such a form of development of society and its individual aspects, in which there is a transition from a lower to a higher, from a less perfect to a more perfect state of it.
Cause is a phenomenon that brings another phenomenon to life. Consequence is the result of a cause. Determinism - the doctrine of the universal causation of phenomena. Indeterminism - a doctrine that denies the universal causation of phenomena. Cause must be distinguished from reason.
Occasion is a phenomenon that precedes the phenomenon, but does not cause it. Mechanistic determinism denied causality in the microcosm, because the determinism characteristic of the macrocosm is not manifested there: knowing the momentum and coordinates of the body at a given moment of time, it is always possible to determine the momentum and coordinates of the body at any other moment of time. But in the microcosm, there are other regularities that are described by the Schrödinger equation. Cause and effect cannot be interchanged, yet the effect can be the cause of another phenomenon.
Necessity and chance- these are philosophical categories that reflect two types of connections of the material world: necessity follows from the inner essence of phenomena and denotes their law, order and structure. Necessity there is something that should happen in the given conditions. Against, accident - this is a type of connection, which is due to insignificant, external, incidental reasons for this phenomenon. Chance is that which may or may not be; it may happen this way, but it can happen otherwise. However, opinion chance is a form of manifestation and addition of necessity. Rigid determinism of Democritus manifested itself in the fact that he claimed that since all phenomena have a cause, they occur with necessity. This understanding of these categories led to the reduction of necessity to chance ("Turtle"). According to fatalism , All phenomena occur at the behest of fate, fate, fate, i.e. inevitably. Voluntarism is the other extreme. Voluntarism denies objective necessity and relies on the subjective will of people.
Essence- this is something secret, deep, arriving in things, their internal connections and being the basis of all forms of their external manifestation. Essence - a set of fundamental laws and properties of objects that determine the trend of their development. It expresses the inner, stable side of phenomena. Phenomenon is a specific property of the objects in which the entity is found. Essence is general, and phenomenon is singular . Essence appears, and appearance is essential.
Synergetics
The creator of the synergetic direction and the inventor of the term "synergy" is Professor at the University of Stuttgart and Director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics and Synergetics Herman Haken(b. 1927). The term "synergy" itself comes from from the Greek "synergen" - assistance, cooperation, "together".
Synergetics according to the definition of its creator, the German physicist G. Haken deals with the study of systems consisting of many subsystems of a very different nature, such as electrons, atoms, molecules, cells, neutrons, mechanical elements, photons, animal organs and even people ... This is the science of self-organization of complex systems, of the transformation of chaos into order.
G. Haken said that calling the scientific direction he proposed "synergetics" is accidental and unprincipled. The initiative of G. Haken turned out to be fruitful precisely because of the naturally understood associations of synergetics with self-organization.
self-organization, according to G. Haken , – it is "the spontaneous formation of highly ordered structures from nuclei or even from chaos". The transition from a disordered state to an ordered one occurs due to the joint and synchronous action of many subsystems (or elements) that form the system.
Both synergetics and the theory of self-organization investigate the processes of self-organization and self-disorganization in open non-equilibrium systems of physical, chemical, biological, ecological, social and other nature. Today, science considers all known systems from the smallest (elementary particles) to the largest (the Universe) to be open, exchanging energy, (or) matter and (or) information with the environment and, as a rule, in a state far from thermodynamic balance. And the development of such systems, as it became known, proceeds through the formation of increasing orderliness. On this basis, the idea of self-organization of material systems arose.
The idea of self-organizing systems generated by an increase in the number of studies in various fields of natural science devoted to cooperative effects in open non-equilibrium systems. Initially, in the 1960s, such studies were carried out independently in different disciplines, later (in the 70s) they became the subject of comparison, and they found much in common.
It turned out that all multi-scale self-organizing systems, regardless of which branch of science they are studied, whether it be physics, chemistry, biology or social sciences, have a single algorithm for moving from less complex and less ordered states to more complex and more ordered states. This opens up the possibility of a unified theoretical description of such processes in time and space. Development theories of self-organization began in the middle of the twentieth century and continues at the present moment, and according to several converging directions.
B36 3. The concept of nature.
Dialectics(Greek dialextice - to conduct a conversation, dispute) - the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine.
Distinguish objective dialectic studying the development of the real world (nature and society) and subjective dialectics- regularities of dialectical thinking (dialectics of concepts).
In the history of philosophy, there have been three main forms of dialectics:
A) antique
, which was naive and spontaneous, because it relied on everyday experience and individual observations (Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Elea);
b ) German classical
, which was developed by Kant, Fichte, Schelling and especially profoundly by Hegel, on an idealistic basis;
V ) materialistic
, the foundations of which were laid by K. Marx and F. Engels.
Basic principles of dialectics:
- the general interconnection of all phenomena;
- universality of movement and development;
- the source of development - the formation and resolution of contradictions;
- development as negation;
- the contradictory unity of the general and the singular. Essence and phenomena, form and content, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, etc.
The main categories of dialectics- matter, consciousness, development, quality, quantity, negation, contradiction, necessity and chance, cause and effect.
The basic laws that describe the development of the world and the process of cognition are the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation.
The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative reveals the general mechanism of development: how it occurs. The main categories of laws are quality, quantity, measure, leap. The essence of the law is as follows. The gradual accumulation of quantitative changes (the degree and rate of development of objects, the number of its elements, spatial dimensions, temperature, etc.) at a certain point in time leads to the achievement of a measure (the boundaries within which this quality remains itself, for example, for water - 0- 100), a qualitative leap occurs (transition from one qualitative state to another, for example, water, reaching a temperature of 0 degrees, turns into ice), as a result, a new quality arises.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the source of development (contradiction). Everything that exists consists of opposites (good and evil, light and darkness, heredity and variability in living nature, order and chaos, etc.) Opposites are such sides, moments, objects that at the same time
a) are inextricably linked (there is no good without evil, no light without darkness);
b) are mutually exclusive;
c) their struggle - contradictory interaction gives impetus to development (order is born from chaos, good grows stronger in overcoming evil, etc.). The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula: the division of the one into opposites, their struggle, the transformation of the struggle into an insoluble (antagonistic) conflict - a contradiction, the victory of one of their opposites (which in turn also represents a new unity of opposites). Development appears as a process of emergence, growth, aggravation and resolution of diverse contradictions, among which the internal contradictions of a given subject or process play a decisive role. It is they who act as a decisive source, the driving force of their development.
Law of negation of negation expresses the direction of development and its form. Its essence is that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns into the old and is denied by more and more new ones, and so on. For example, a change in socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process), the evolution of the genus (children "deny" their parents, but they themselves become parents and they are already "denied" by their own children, who in turn become parents, etc. ). Therefore double negation is negation of negation.
The most important category of the law is "denial" - the refusal by the developing system of the old quality. However, denial is not just its destruction, the system must preserve its own unity and continuity. Therefore, in dialectics, negation is understood as the rejection of the previous stage of development (of the old quality) with the preservation of the most essential and best moments at the new stage. This is the only way to ensure the continuity of the system. No matter how fundamentally the historical types of economy, politics and morality change over time, their main achievements do not become a thing of the past, but are preserved in the further development of the system, albeit in a significantly changed form.
The law of negation of negation expresses the progressive, successive nature of development and has the form of a spiral, the repetition at the highest stage of some properties of the lower one, "a return supposedly to the old", but already at a higher stage of development.
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