"I prefer a harmful truth to a useful error, the truth itself heals the evil it has caused." (J. W. Goethe)
The term "chemistry" of Egyptian origin - in ancient times, Egypt was called the Country of Kemi - the Black Earth. The priests of ancient Egypt were outstanding masters of chemical crafts, and chemistry gradually began to be called "Egyptian science".
Two hundred years before our era, in the city of Alexandria in Egypt, there was already an Academy of Sciences, where a special building was assigned to the "sacred art of chemistry", the temple of Serapis - the temple of life, death and healing.
This temple was destroyed by Christian fanatics in 391 AD, and the nomadic Arabs who captured Alexandria in 640 AD completed its destruction. They followed a simple rule: all ideas that are not in the Qur'an are erroneous and harmful, and therefore they must be eradicated. Moreover, works that are in agreement with the Qur'an should also be destroyed as completely superfluous.
Much later, at the beginning of the 1st century AD, Arab chemists introduced another name instead of "chemistry" - "alchemy". It is believed that this word is closer to the concept of "noble chemistry", since alchemy was considered "the art of turning base metals (iron, lead, copper) into noble ones" - gold and silver with the help of a special substance - the "philosopher's stone".
ZOSIMA FROM PANOPOLIS AND THE SECRET OF THE “EMERALD TABLET”
One of the founders of alchemy is considered Zosima, a native of the Greek city of Panopolis, who lived in the 4th century AD in Alexandria of Egypt and taught students of the Academy.
In his writings, Zosima repeatedly mentioned the name of the legendary teacher of alchemists Hermes and called him Hermes Trismegistus - three times the greatest, the lord of souls and the divine magician. The writings attributed to Hermes, apparently, belonged to the 5th-6th century BC.
According to legend, the soldiers of Alexander the Great found the tomb of Hermes Trismegistus with a stone slab - the Emerald Tablet of Hermes. Thirteen instructions to descendants were carved on it.
The seventh commandment said: “Separate the earth from the fire, the subtle from the coarse, with the greatest care, with tremulous care.” . This mysterious advice was supposed to help those who are busy looking for the "philosopher's stone" that turns one substance into another.
It is often believed that Hermes Trismegistus is a legendary figure and even identified with the ancient Egyptian sorcerer god Thoth.
From the very beginning of the birth of alchemy, from the first laboratories of the Egyptian priests, it was a secret science, full of mysticism. Alchemists ciphered their results, spoke in a special allegorical language, incomprehensible to the uninitiated.
True, at that time there were no symbols of chemical elements and chemical formulas of substances that are now familiar, no one compiled the equation of reactions. In addition, alchemists who were looking for ways to obtain gold from simple metals were afraid that someone would reveal their secrets.
FROM ALBERT THE GREAT TO ISAAC NEWTON
"My father, unsociable-original,
I spent my whole life thinking about nature...
The alchemy of those days is a forgotten pillar,
He locked himself with the faithful in a closet
And with them there he distilled from flasks
Compounds of all sorts of rubbish.
There they called the silver lily,
A lion is gold, and a mixture of them is a bond in marriage.
(J. W. Goethe, "Faust")
The most enlightened of the alchemists of his time was German Bishop Albert von Bolstedt - Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) . He wrote Set of rules, which stated that the alchemist “should be silent and modest and not tell anyone the results of his operations; he should live in a house separate from the people.
Albert the Great, like his other alchemist contemporaries, believed that all metals were created from mercury, that mercury was the “matter” of metals, and four “spirits” determined their color - mercury, sulfur, arsenic and ammonia (ammonium chloride NH4Cl).
Nevertheless, alchemy was historically the first science to combine theory and experiment. For almost two millennia - from the time of Zosima to the 17th century AD - alchemists conducted numerous experiments on the transformation of substances. The science of chemistry then grew out of these experiments.
Among the alchemists was English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton (1643-1727). He devoted much time and energy to the search for the philosopher's stone and the universal solvent. But Newton was interested not so much in the methods of obtaining gold as in the study of the interconversions of substances.
An alchemist was also an outstanding English philosopher, monk of the Franciscan order Roger Bacon (1214-1292). He conducted many experiments in search of ways to transform some substances into others. For refusing to give out the secrets of obtaining gold, which he did not know, Bacon was condemned by fellow believers and spent 15 long years in a church dungeon. His writings, at the behest of the General of the Order of the Franciscans, were chained to a table in the monastery library in Oxford as punishment.
ALCHEMISTS OF RUSSIA
In Russia, alchemy was not widely used: neither the authorities nor the people had confidence in alchemists. Instead of alchemists, there were alchemists at pharmacies and at the royal court. They prepared conventional medicines, being essentially laboratory chemists.
Alchemists received and purified a wide variety of substances, mixed them according to the instructions of the pharmacist. Together with the pharmacist, they took part in the analysis and examination (“biting”) of new drugs. In the 18th century, the name of the profession "alchemist" was gradually replaced by "chemist".
The position of a chemist at factories in Russia first appeared under Catherine II. The "Regulations on the Tula Arms Plant" dated 1782 says: "A Chemist, Mechanic and Architect are supposed to be at the plant." At that time, nitric acid was produced in small quantities at this plant.
In one of the works of the Spanish alchemist Raymond Lull (1236-1315) there is such a definition: “Alchemy is a very necessary divine part of the secret heavenly natural philosophy, constituting and forming a single, but well-known science ... to turn all metals into real silver, and then into true gold through the one universal remedy."
And here is how Roger Bacon defined alchemy: “Alchemy is a science that indicates how to prepare and receive a certain remedy (elixir) which, thrown onto a metal or an imperfect substance, makes them perfect at the moment of touch.”
Albert the Great considered such an elixir or enzyme (this name was used by the Greeks and Romans) a mixture of sulfur, mercury, arsenic, ammonia and arsenic sulfide As2S3.
SEARCH FOR THE PHILOSOPHICAL STONE
For millennia, alchemists have tried to find "philosopher's Stone"- some solid or liquid substance capable of transmuting the transformation of a simple metal into silver or gold.
There was a legend that King Midas, who ruled in the Asia Minor country of Phrygia from 738 to 696. BC, allegedly received from the god Dionysus the ability to turn everything into gold, no matter what he touches with some mysterious magic stone. Midas was indeed fabulously rich, but not because he possessed a stone: he owned all the gold deposits of Phrygia.
Alchemists considered nature to be alive and animated, so they were sure that metals grow and mature in the bowels of the Earth from mixing sulfur with silver. Gold was considered by them as a fully mature metal, and iron - as unripe.
Alchemists did not see a significant difference between animate and inanimate nature and believed that the same processes take place in inanimate nature as in the plant and animal world. According to them, the difference between gold and silver is only that sulfur in gold is healthy - red, and in silver - white. When the spoiled red sulfur in the bowels of the Earth comes into contact with silver, copper is conceived. When sulfur, both black and corrupted, is mixed with silver, lead is conceived: according to Aristotle, lead is leprous gold.
Alchemists believed that with the help of the philosopher's stone it was possible to accelerate the process of "ripening" of immature and "healing" of diseased metals, which in nature proceed rather slowly. The mythical "philosopher's stone" can be considered a prototype of future enzymes and catalysts.
Since it was believed that the main component of any of the metals was mercury, and the second component was sulfur, the alchemists had a firm belief that by changing the content of mercury and sulfur in the mixture, one metal could be arbitrarily converted into another.
Having set themselves a fantastic goal - the search for the "philosopher's stone" - alchemists achieved quite real practical success. They created the first apparatus for distillation (distillation) of liquids, sublimation (sublimation) of solids, recrystallization of salts and their thermal decomposition.
The famous Tajik doctor, alchemist and philosopher Abu Ali al-Hussein ibn Sina (980-1037), better known as Avicenna, already knew how to obtain hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids (HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3), potassium and sodium hydroxides (KOH and NaOH).
Alchemists were the first to use gold amalgam (a solution of gold in mercury) for gilding copper and iron items. They learned how to extract gold from poor gold sands using mercury. The fact is that gold (a chemically inert metal) in nature is mainly in its native state. When processing gold sands with mercury, it dissolves grains of gold, forming a heavy and liquid amalgam. The amalgam was separated from the sand and heated in furnaces, the mercury evaporated and pure gold remained.
Another method of extracting gold from poor rock was also invented. In ancient Egypt, alchemist priests treated gold-bearing rock with molten lead, which dissolved gold and silver, then the melt was poured and fired in special pots. The lead turned into lead oxide PbO and soaked into the walls of the pot, taking with it all random impurities, and an alloy of gold and silver remained at the bottom of the pot. The main secret of such firing is the material of the pots; they were made from bone ash.
Alchemists learned to use nitric acid to separate silver and copper, with which gold often forms natural alloys. Gold does not interact with nitric acid, while silver and copper form water-soluble salts - AgNO3 and Cu(NO3)2 nitrates. In these reactions, nitrogen dioxide NO2 is also formed, which is released in the form of a red-brown gas.
COURT ALCHEMISTS
Many crowned persons, princes, sultans and khans kept alchemists in their entourage, hoping to increase their wealth with their help. But already at the end of the 3rd century AD, it became clear that alchemists were full of charlatans and swindlers. It is no coincidence that the emperor Diocletian (245-316) ordered all alchemists to be expelled from Rome and their manuscripts to be burned.
A thousand years later, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), in The Divine Comedy, places the alchemists in hell as malicious deceivers. And then there was a poem:
“Everyone is happy to comprehend alchemy:
Brainless idiot, old man and young fat,
Tailor, old woman, nimble lawyer,
A bald-headed monk, a shepherd and a soldier.”
Nevertheless, interest in the "philosopher's stone" continued into the Middle Ages. The Habsburg monarchs were especially thirsty for gold. The hobby for alchemy started here Emperor Rudolf II (1552-1612), who gained considerable fame as the patron saint of alchemists. Another Monarch of the Roman-German Empire Ferdinand III (1608-1657) contained the alchemist Johann von Richthausen, who promised to make a "philosopher's stone". In the presence of the emperor, he “turned” mercury into gold, causing delight among the courtiers, but then it turned out that the alchemist had previously dissolved gold in mercury and, adding a pinch of “stone” ground into powder, evaporated the mercury by heating. What happened to Richthausen next, history is silent ...
encouraged alchemists and Emperor Leopold I (1640-1705). His favorite alchemist-monk Wenzel Seiler, using the "philosopher's stone", a mysterious red powder, turned zinc into gold, from which ducats were minted - Venetian gold coins that were in circulation throughout Europe. On one side of the ducats, there was supposedly an inscription: “By the power of Wenzel Seiler’s powder, I turned from zinc to gold. 1675". However, not a single such coin has survived to this day. Impressed by the successful acquisition of gold, the emperor even elevated Sailer to the nobility.
THE ART OF THE ALCHEMIST SAILER
This happened in 1676. The monk-alchemist Seiler conducted an experiment on obtaining gold from mercury in the presence of Emperor Leopold I and several of his courtiers. The place of the experiment was the emperor's secret laboratory - an alchemy lover, which was located in a gloomy basement with narrow windows and was lit by torches on the walls.
Seiler waxed a pinch of red powder, which he called the "philosopher's stone" and threw it into the mercury boiling in the crucible, then he began to stir it with a rather thick wooden stick. A thick acrid smoke poured out, which forced everyone to turn away from the crucible and move away. Sailer ordered the servant to fan the fire under the crucible even more with bellows, and threw some coals into the mercury, which immediately burned out with a sparkling flame.
When the liquid was poured from the crucible into a flat bowl, everyone saw that there was much less mercury ... Gradually, the molten metal solidified and sparkled with a golden yellow color; instead of mercury, the bowl contained gold. Immediately, a sample of the resulting metal was taken to the court jeweler. After a while, he announced: the purest gold has been received!
Sailer was given the title of "royal court chemist", knighted and appointed Obermeister of the Mint of Bohemia.
How did Sailer manage to deceive the emperor himself and his servants?
Apparently, the stick with which the fraudster stirred the boiling mercury was hollow at the bottom, gold powder was hidden in it, and Seiler covered the hole with wax. The lower part of the stick - physical evidence of deception - burned down. The coals that Sailer threw into the crucible were also probably hollow, and some gold powder was hidden inside them. And the wax and soot were the perfect camouflage.
Gold powder quickly dissolves in mercury to form a liquid mercury-precious metal alloy (amalgam), which can contain up to 10% gold. When the mercury was heated to a boil, it evaporated and only pure gold remained in the crucible. Mercury oxide HgO, which at high temperature completely decomposes into mercury (which also evaporates) and oxygen, could well pass for the “philosopher's stone”: 2 HgO = 2 Hg + O2.
This is how the rogue alchemist turned mercury into gold in front of noble simpletons - the emperor and his entourage ...
THE HISTORY OF OTTO VON PAYKUL
One more story of an adventurer can be cited. It will be about Swedish General Otto von Paikule.
He served in the troops of the Polish king August II of Saxony, who fought on the side of Peter I with Sweden. In 1705, near Warsaw, Paikul was captured by the Swedes and was sentenced to death. The general turned to the Swedish king Charles XII (1697-1718) with a request for pardon and, being an alchemist, promised to obtain gold in large quantities from antimony, iron oxide and antimony sulfide.
Paikul was given the opportunity to show his art. In the presence of the king, he received gold by acting on the indicated mixture with the powder of the “philosopher's stone”. His experience lasted 140 days, and at night he took the mixture "to rest" to his home, where, apparently, he mixed gold powder into it. Paikul could not escape the death penalty...
In 1802, the famous Swedish chemist Jens-Jakob Berzelius tried to repeat his experience using Paikul's notes and, of course, did not receive gold.
Already in the 20th century, it became clear that natural mercury and mercury obtained from the mineral cinnabar (mercury sulfide HgS) always contain a small admixture of gold. Mercury forms a number of compounds with gold, and some of them are able to pass together with mercury into vapor and then condense. Therefore, mercury cannot be freed from the impurity of gold even by repeated distillation.
Only by a prolonged electric discharge in mercury vapor can a black coating of finely crushed gold be isolated on the walls of the reaction tube. This phenomenon was the reason for the revival in the twenties and thirties of our century of the old alchemical tale about the possibility of turning mercury into gold - now under the influence of electricity ... Alas, this gold was an impurity in mercury.
In vanishingly small quantities, gold can be obtained from mercury in nuclear reactors. For example, from the radioactive isotope of mercury-197 in a nuclear reaction, when, as a result of the capture by the nucleus of an electron from the electron shell of the mercury atom (the so-called K-capture), one of the protons of the nucleus of the mercury atom turns into a neutron with the emission of a photon.
ELIXIR OF LONGEVITY
The most famous alchemist who claimed the possibility of obtaining a mysterious substance that would allow a person to live long, almost forever, was Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815) from Baghdad. In Europe, he was known for many centuries under the name Geber. His name is covered with legends. In Baghdad, Jabir created a scientific school, just as Aristotle created the Lyceum in his time, and Plato created the Academy.
Jabir left one of the recipes for longevity. “It is only necessary,” he wrote, “to find a toad that has lived ten thousand years, then catch a thousand-year-old bat, dry them, crush and grind into powder, dissolve it in water and take a tablespoon every day”.
It is clear that Jabir put his own irony into the description of the recipe, emphasizing its unreality. But he, like other alchemists, firmly believed that metals were formed in the earth from sulfur and mercury under the influence of the planets, and this idea outlived its creator by 700 years.
The legend about the elixir of longevity originated about two and a half thousand years BC in the Sumerian kingdom, located between the Tigris and Euphrates. It was an epic about Gilgamesh, the son of the goddess Ninsun and a mortal man. At the end of his life, Gilgamesh wanted to gain immortality and was advised to eat the "grass of life" that grows on the seabed. Having obtained grass, on the way to the house, Gilgamesh decided to swim. The snake found the "grass of life" on the shore, swallowed it and became immortal, and Gilgamesh died.
Talented philosopher and alchemist Roger Bacon quite seriously believed that thanks to the "elixir of longevity" a person would be able to live a thousand years.
Doctor of the French King Louis XIII Alchemist David Campi in 1583 he recommended his "elixir of longevity" - a colloidal solution of gold in water to prolong life. In one of the works of Campi there are the words: "Gold is all nature, gold is the seed of the earth."
Reformer of Alchemy physician Theophrastus Paracelsus (1493-1541) predicted that the "elixir of longevity", if obtained, should lengthen a person's life to six hundred years.
In Russia, an ally of Peter I was engaged in obtaining the "elixir of longevity" Jacob Bruce (1670-1735), who had a laboratory in Moscow at the Sukharev Tower. For illiterate Muscovites, Bruce was known as a warlock, and they bypassed the Sukharev Tower for a mile. According to one of the legends that went around Moscow at that time, Bruce received "living" and "dead" water and bequeathed to the servant to revive himself after death. This is hardly true: after all, Bruce was solemnly buried after his death. Yakov Bruce was one of the most enlightened people in Russia. He was engaged not only in chemical experiments, but also in astronomy and mathematics.
Chinese alchemist Wei Po-yang, who lived in the second century AD, prepared immortality pills (in Chinese "hu-sha" and "tang-sha") from mercury sulfide HgS. The legend says that Wei Po-yang took these pills himself and gave them to his students and his beloved dog. They all died, but then allegedly resurrected and lived forever. However, for some reason no one followed his example.
In the Middle Ages, somewhere around 1600, the legendary monk-alchemist Vasily Valentine decided to achieve the longevity of the monks of his monastery of the Benedictine order. He began to “cleanse their body of harmful principles” by adding antimony oxide Sb2O3 pills to food. Some monks from such a "purification" died in agony. From here came the second name of antimony - "antimonium", which means "antimonastic".
Creating an "elixir of longevity" is a fantastic task, but the synthesis of substances with the help of which a person could live up to a hundred years is quite within the reach of modern biochemists.
UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
At the same time there was a search "alkagest" - a universal solvent, with which alchemists hoped to isolate the "philosopher's stone" from natural and artificial substances. They believed that by dissolving metals and minerals in such a solvent, it would be possible to precipitate gold or silver by evaporating the resulting solution.
At one time it seemed that such a solvent had been found.
In 1270 the Italian Alchemist Cardinal Giovanni Fadanzi, known by the name of Bonaventure, selecting liquid mixtures to obtain a universal solvent, poured together concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids and tried the effect of this mixture on gold powder. The gold disappeared before his eyes...
Excited, Bonaventure could not stand on his feet. “Has the universal solvent been obtained?” he thought. The mixture was called "royal vodka" for its ability to dissolve the "king of metals" - gold.
And Bonaventure set about isolating the "philosopher's stone".
However, ten years have passed, hundreds of experiments have been carried out, but the goal has not been achieved. It turned out that aqua regia does not affect glass, ceramics, sea sand (silicon dioxide), tin stone (tin dioxide) and many other substances, and therefore does not have universal properties. Bonaventure abandoned alchemical experiments and took up the preparation of medicines ...
The decline of alchemy began in Europe at the end of the 16th century and continued until the end of the 18th century, which was largely facilitated by chemists from many countries, primarily Germany, France, Holland, England and Russia.
Information source: www.alhimik.ru
At the beginning of the twentieth century, a French schoolboy who dreamed of becoming a scientist began to notice oddities in the chickens in his father's chicken coop. Raking the ground with their paws, they constantly pecked at grains of mica, a siliceous substance present in the soil. No one could explain to him, Louis Kervran (Lois
Kervran), why chickens prefer mica and why every time a bird was slaughtered for soup, there was no trace of mica in its stomach; or why the hens laid daily calcium-shelled eggs when they apparently did not take in any calcium from the soil, which was constantly deficient in lime. Many years passed before Ker-vran realized that chickens could transform one element into another.
P.S. In 1873, Von Herzel published The Origin of Inorganic Substances. He owns the phrase: "It is not the earth that gives birth to plants, but plants to the earth."
Conducted by him from 1875 to 1883, several hundred experiments convinced him of the possibility of biological transmutations. It is worth noting that experiments on growing plants from seeds (or other parts of the plant) in sealed flasks, in hydroponics with control of the composition of the nutrient solution, etc., as well as the chemical analysis of ash, were performed at a fairly high professional level.
Although the topic of biological transmutation is perceived today exclusively as pseudoscience, for more than 130 years no one has tried (at least not mentioned in the scientific literature) to conduct such experiments in order to determine the validity (prove or disprove) of Herzel's results.
January 31st, 2015
In 1666, in The Hague, in Holland, a stranger appeared to Helvetius, the physician of Prince William of Orange, and showed him a substance that, according to him, could turn lead into gold. Helvetius quietly scraped off a few crumbs and conducted the experiment. Nothing succeeded. Soon the guest returned, and Helvetius asked for a larger piece. The stranger complied with the request, but never returned. Helvetius repeated the experiment and got gold ...
The word Alchemy (Late Latin alchemia, alchimia, alchymia) goes back through Arabic to the Greek chemeia from cheo - pour, pour, which indicates the connection of alchemy with the art of melting and casting metals. Another interpretation is from the Egyptian hieroglyph hmi, meaning black (fertile) land, as opposed to barren sands.
This hieroglyph denoted Egypt, the place where alchemy, which was often called "Egyptian art", may have originated. For the first time the term "alchemy" is found in the manuscript of Julius Firmicus, an astrologer of the 4th century.
The alchemists considered the most important task to be the transformation (transmutation) of base metals into noble (valuable) ones, which, in fact, was the main task of chemistry until the 16th century. This idea was based on the ideas of Greek philosophy that the material world consists of one or more "primary elements" that, under certain conditions, can transform into each other.
The spread of alchemy falls on the 4th - 16th centuries, the time of the development of not only "speculative" alchemy, but also practical chemistry. There is no doubt that these two branches of knowledge influenced each other. The famous German chemist Liebig wrote about alchemy that it "has never been anything other than chemistry."
Thus alchemy is to modern chemistry what astrology is to astronomy. The task of medieval alchemists was the preparation of two mysterious substances, with the help of which it would be possible to achieve the desired refinement (transmutation) of metals.
The most important of these two drugs, which was supposed to have the property of turning into gold not only silver, but also metals such as lead, mercury, etc., was called the philosopher's stone, the red lion, the great elixir (from Arab al-iksir - philosopher's stone).
It has also been called the philosophical egg, the red tincture, the panacea, and the elixir of life. This tool was not only to ennoble metals, but also to serve as a universal medicine; its solution, the so-called golden drink, was supposed to heal all diseases, rejuvenate the old body and lengthen life.
Another mysterious remedy, already secondary in its properties, called the white lion, white tincture, had the ability to turn all base metals into silver. Fearing that the discoveries would fall into unworthy hands and be used for evil, the alchemists hid their secrets using secret symbols for writing.
In Europe, alchemy appeared only in the XII century. Western alchemists shared the views of Aristotle, who believed that the material world consists of primary matter in various forms. The "primary substances" were the elements - earth, air, fire and water, each of which was characterized by two qualities (of two pairs): dry - wet and hot - cold. Therefore, air (hot and wet) could be turned into fire (hot and dry) by simply drying it.
The ratio of "primary substances" and quality determined the shape of the object. So, it was possible to turn one form of matter into another by changing the ratio of the elements. This was achieved by repeated heating, burning, evaporation and distillation.
In the East, alchemy was associated with Taoism and the search for the elixir of immortality. It recognized the existence of five elements: water, fire, wood, metal and earth - and two principles: yin (female, passive, water) and yang (male, active, fiery). Alchemists made progress in obtaining alloys, and the distillation method laid the foundation for the production of alcohol and perfumes.
There were also alchemists in Russia. In the 17th century, Old Believer monks of the Vygovskaya Hermitage, located near Lake Onega, were engaged in alchemy. Under the auspices of the founder of the desert, Andrei Denisov, the work of the famous 13th-century alchemist Raymond Lull "Great Art" was translated into Russian.
True, the Old Believers were attracted not so much by the possibility of obtaining the Philosopher's Stone, but by the "great Kabbalistic science", which explained the unity of divine creation. The book of Lull was read both in Moscow and in St. Petersburg.
The alchemical tradition suggests that everything in the world consists of salt, mercury and sulfur (the sacred triad). At the same time, we are not talking about ordinary salt, sulfur and mercury, which can be bought in a store, but “philosophical” substances. Only by learning how to prepare them from available reagents could the alchemist succeed.
Searching for hints on how to obtain the sacred triad in treatises and experiments took decades from the alchemist. Not surprisingly, many Philosopher's Stone adepts reported success when they were already very old.
There is evidence that the Count of Saint-Germain could synthesize pearls, was able to increase their size and give them a beautiful sheen. In the memoirs of the court lady Madame du Hosse, it is described how the count corrected a defect (crack) on the pearl of Louis XV in front of her eyes.
In connection with this incident, the count said that pearls appeared in the shell as a result of illness and that he knew how to cause this illness. Modern science considers the formation of pearls to be a disease of the mollusc - but at that time they did not know about it yet!
The reputation of madmen, ready to throw the last coin into the furnace for the sake of mythical gold and mix anything, was acquired by alchemists thanks to puffers. So in the Middle Ages they called people obsessed with a thirst for gold. They did not waste time reading ancient manuscripts, but tirelessly experimented with mixtures of various substances: heated, dissolved and evaporated.
Often such experiments ended in failure: explosions, fires or poisoning. Puffers made a living by making poisons and love spells.
Few people know that the Egyptian queen Cleopatra was engaged in alchemy - she tried to get gold artificially. Although she is considered the author of the Chrysopeia manuscript, that is, Goldmaking, nowhere is it mentioned how successful she was in this matter.
But it is known for certain that some of the Egyptian alchemists quite successfully mastered this craft, and in 292 the Roman emperor Diocletian was even forced to issue a special decree on the burning of all manuscripts that contained recipes for obtaining artificial gold and silver.
And this step of his is quite understandable - after all, an overabundance of gold posed a threat to the existing trade turnover. Not to mention the fact that, having accumulated a large amount of money, the Egyptians could well raise an uprising against the Romans.
Not only books and manuscripts were destroyed at different times. Mobs of fanatics pursued and killed scientists. Only a few of them found refuge in Byzantium.
But "hermetic" (named after the god Hermes) science did not perish. In the 9th century, the Greek library fell into the hands of the Arabs, in which there were also a few surviving treatises on alchemy. The Arabs immediately appreciated the practical side of the doctrine, and soon the production of alkalis, the distillation of vegetable oils, the crystallization and sublimation of many substances were mastered in Baghdad (this is where the well-known word “alcohol” came to us).
The idea of "treatment" has also developed - the transformation of base, "sick" metals with the help of a "medicine" - the Philosopher's Stone, into higher ones: gold and silver. This task became the guiding star of the alchemists. With the light hand of the Arabs, the "mother of metals" alchemists began to consider mercury - the only liquid
metal.
Nimble droplets of mercury, as if alive, could slip through the fingers, and covered with amalgam (by the way, also an Arabic word) - copper products rubbed with mercury became like silver.
In Europe, alchemy was revived only in the XI century, where there was close contact with the Arabs - in Spain and on the island of Sicily. It was here that Arabic manuscripts were first translated into Latin. The first alchemical schools also arose here. The golden age of arcane science began.
Friendship with alchemists - encyclopedic scientists, naturalists, healers and astrologers - was achieved by influential nobles, they were accepted by monarchs. They were surrounded by students and followers. A certain code of conduct has even been established.
One of the instructions says that the alchemist should be silent and not tell anyone the results of his experiments. He should live away from people, in a house where there is a good laboratory. The following recommendation was also made: Choose the right weather and hours for work. Be patient, diligent and enduring ... It's not bad to be rich in order to acquire everything necessary for work.
The great scientists of the Middle Ages, such as Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina, better known to us as Avicenna, Francis Bacon, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried-Wilhelm Leibniz, believed that if the Philosopher's Stone is added to silver or mercury in small quantities and the resulting mixture is heated, it will turn to gold.
This belief was so strong that the English King Henry VI issued a proclamation to the people, in which he swore by royal word that the day was near when enough gold would be obtained in his laboratories to redeem all the mortgages of his subjects.
And Charles II, in order to increase capital, created an alchemical laboratory under his bedroom, not paying any attention to the fact that explosions woke him up at night. Even in more recent times, Isaac Newton conducted experiments on the transmutation (transformation) of metals. And for the benefit of science: as a result of his experiments, he invented a special alloy for telescope mirrors.
Rumors about the capabilities of the owners of the Philosopher's Stone, which were fueled by reports of successful experiments, increased the fame of alchemists, and a real hunt began for them throughout Europe. Who would refuse the services of a sorcerer who makes gold? And there were many stories about their art. Here are some of them.
At the beginning of the 14th century, the English king Edward managed to get into his service the sage-artist Raymond Lull, who promised the monarch to make 60 thousand pounds of gold from mercury for sending an armada of ships for a holy war against the infidels. The alchemist fulfilled his promise. From the received gold, coins were minted with the image of the king and the inscription: "Edward, King of England and France."
But the king deceived Lull - he spent the money not on the fight against the Muslims, but on a campaign against the French that was more important for him. These coins, called nobles, can still be seen on the stands of many museums...
In 1675, stories about the free life of alchemists at the court of Emperor Leopold I reached the monk Wenzel Seyler. He decided, having stolen the Philosopher's Stone - a kind of red powder from one of his brothers, to change his seclusion in a dark cell to a career at court. As the first demonstration of his skill, the monk promised the emperor to turn the copper vessel into gold in front of everyone present.
With the help of a miraculous powder, indistinct muttering and theatrical gestures, he actually performed a transmutation, which was confirmed by the royal jeweler. The alchemist also succeeded in another trick - he successfully turned ordinary tin into gold. And in this case, coins were minted from the noble metal, on the reverse side of which there was a date of issue - 1675 and the inscription: "I am turned from tin into gold by the power of the powder of Wenzel Seiler."
For these merits, the successful alchemist was awarded the title of royal court chemist, and a year later he was knighted and appointed, obviously with great hope for further growth of the treasury, Obermeister of the Mint of Bohemia.
However, the deeds of alchemists did not always end happily. Rather, on the contrary. As a rule, the fate of "craftsmen" is tragic.
In the X century in the East, the name of the scientist and alchemist, the creator of the treatise "The Book of the Secret of Secrets", the scientist ar-Razi was widely known. (It contained chemical reactions that were considered then a terrible secret, but now known to any schoolchild.) The demonstration of the transformation of silver into gold ended in failure - the precious metal did not work out.
The enraged lord, not listening at all to the alchemist's arguments that some kind of mistake had occurred in the experiment and he could repeat it, went to the door with curses. This served as a signal to the guards for reprisal. Blinded by beatings, the scientist ended his days in poverty and oblivion.
As a rule, alchemists caught cheating were executed as counterfeiters. Moreover, the execution was carried out magnificently, on a gilded gallows, and the doomed were dressed in special hoodies strewn with sparkles.
As a warning to others, the alchemist Bragadino was hanged in Munich in 1590, having previously received large sums of money for his imaginary secret of the Philosopher's Stone from the Venetian Doge and other great people of this world. To raise his authority, he boasted that Satan was his slave, and the two dogs that accompanied him everywhere were demons.
When his inability to make gold became apparent, he was executed and the dogs were shot under the gallows. Seven years later, the same fate befell Georg Gonauer in Württemberg, Kronemann in Prussia, Kelttenberg in Poland, etc., etc.
If the alchemist was not convicted of deception, another prospect awaited him - imprisonment for refusing to reveal the secret of the Philosopher's Stone. Louis von Neus died in prison in 1483. For the same crime, the female alchemist Maria Zigleria was burned alive in an iron cage by order of the Duke of Luxembourg. This list goes on and on.
There were many who wanted to warm their hands on simpletons, eager to get rich quick. And this is not surprising - any business that promises benefits is overgrown with a mass of charlatans. While scientists, driven by a thirst for knowledge, spent days and nights at the furnaces, studying chemical reactions, others were no less persistently looking for roundabout and not always honest ways to success.
Europe was flooded with a crowd of swindlers who fell for not only dupes, but even educated nobles and kings. Often the gold of the alchemists turned out to be a hoax - brass, tompac or bronze, although Aristotle wrote that golden-yellow alloys are formed from copper, when heated with zinc or tin. "Not all that glitters is gold."
There were craftsmen who received "silver" by adding arsenic to the copper melt. The main thing is that the base metal acquires the desired color. In other cases, only the dexterity of a magician was required to imperceptibly throw a piece of gold into the melt for color. How exactly to implement this - depended on the imagination of the craftsman.
Some "masters of the golden kitchen" preferred to use a hollow stick to stir the melt, inside which they hid several pieces of gold, sealing them with wax. If the stick was wooden, then its lower, hollow part was completely burned in the melt. In such an elegant way, the material evidence itself was destroyed before anyone could have a desire to examine the "magic wand" closer.
In their experiments, the "goldsmiths" showed extraordinary resourcefulness. They used crucibles with a double bottom, from which gold poured out when heated, or coals with gold hidden inside. Sometimes gold dust contributed to success - it was blown into the melt together with air pumped by a blower.
Thanks to various rogues from science in the 16th-17th centuries, the famous "hermetic science" began to decline. They began to laugh at the scientists-alchemists. In 1526, a certain Atrippa wrote scathingly to his friend:
“Glory to Thee, Lord, if there is truth in this tale, I am rich ... My old friend got me seeds of gold and planted them in vessels with a long neck over my hearth, lighting a fire in it no hotter than the heat of the sun. And just as a hen incubates her eggs day and night, so do we keep the furnace warm, waiting for huge golden chickens to hatch from the vessels. If all are hatched, we will surpass Midas in wealth, or at least in the length of the ears ... "
In 1610, in one of the London theaters, the comedy The Alchemist was staged, in which a “smoky cognizant of the world” in a ridiculous hoodie with long sleeves crawled out of the basement. Raising his hands to the sky, he, to the laughter and whistling of the audience, recited:
Today I have to make a talisman,
My pearl of creation is the Philosopher's Stone...
Do you still not believe? In vain!
I will turn all the metal here at night into gold.
And tomorrow morning for tin and lead
I will send my servants to the tinker!
Naturally, at the end of the comedy, both the charlatan-alchemist and his henchmen, who were about to swindle the moneybags, are overtaken by a well-deserved punishment.
The golden age of alchemy was ending. She was dying, surrounded by "inventors" of various "elixirs of immortality" and "mysteriums". On her last journey, she was escorted with ridicule. The blow from which alchemy never recovered came from Robert Boyle, who published The Skeptic Chemist in 1661, in which he convincingly debunked the doctrine of the transmutation of metals.
Alchemy was cursed by the Catholic Church and banned in England, France, and on the territory of Venice. And, as always, real scientists died innocently. This is how the French chemist Jean Barillo died, who was executed only because he studied the chemical properties of substances and had his own laboratory.
A new era began in the history of science, throwing off the fetters of "hermetic science". But the accumulated experience of alchemists was not lost. No wonder one of the greatest minds of his time, Roger Bacon, said this about alchemy:
« It is ... the science of making things out of elements and of all inanimate objects, as of elements and of simple and complex liquids; about ordinary and precious stones and marbles; about gold and other metals; about sulfurs, salts and vitriol; about azure, red lead and other colors; about oils and combustible bitumens and infinitely many things that are not mentioned in the books of Aristotle.
Alchemical terms:
sealing , a religious and philosophical trend of the Hellenistic era, combining elements of popular Greek philosophy, Chaldean astrology, Persian magic, Egyptian alchemy. It is represented by a significant number of works attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (the so-called "Hermetic Corpus", 2-3 centuries).
In a broad sense - a complex of occult sciences (magic, astrology, alchemy). The tradition of Hermeticism was continued in the European Renaissance (M. Ficino, G. Pico della Mirandola), C. Agrippa, Paracelsus, influenced J. Bruno and I. Newton.
Elixir (from Arabic al-iksir - philosopher's stone), life elixir - medieval alchemists have a fantastic drink that prolongs life, preserves youth.
Homunculus (Latin homunculus - little man), according to the ideas of medieval alchemists, a creature similar to a person that can be obtained artificially (in a test tube). Animalculists believed that the homunculus is a small man enclosed in a spermatozoon, and when it enters the mother's body, it only increases in size.
Panacea , alchemists have a medicine that supposedly heals all diseases [named after the ancient Greek goddess Panakia (Panakeia - all-healing)].
Alchemy is understood as a whole system of transformation of metals and the human spirit, existing in various systems. It must be said that alchemy was able to give impetus to the development of many modern sciences, mainly chemistry. Many scientists of the past were persistent researchers in their work, who were looking for hidden possibilities, including the spirit in every inorganic grain of matter.
Alchemy contained not only the banal search for gold, this science was fed by the ideas of Gnosticism, which formally was in oblivion before the beginning of the Renaissance. Carl Jung suggested that alchemical philosophy was actually a proto-psychology aimed at achieving the individual's individuation. So the most famous alchemists were outstanding people of their time, smart and versatile. These individuals will be discussed below.
Albert the Great (1193-1280). The master was born into the wealthy family of Count von Bolstedt. Legends say that as a child, Albert's academic success was rather modest. No one thought that in the future he would become one of the most prominent scientists. The miracle that happened to the young man explains this transformation. The Virgin Mary appeared to Albert, who entered the Dominican order, from whom he begged for a clear mind and prosperity in philosophy. In that era of endless wars, monasteries were a quiet place where one could practice culture. Although Maitre Albert belonged to the Dominicans, he received significant indulgences in the observance of the charter. So that the scientist could do research, he was even allowed to use his personal capital. After spending several years in Cologne, Albert moves to Paris. There, for a master's degree, he begins to lecture, which are wildly successful. Albert was not only a philosopher, he is distinguished by universality. Albert studied plants, minerals, animals. He left work on inorganic chemistry that was way ahead of its time. Five alchemical treatises that have come down to our time are signed in his name. The most famous one is called “On Alchemy”. Since 1244, Thomas Aquinas has become the favorite student of Albert the Great, who is present at the experiments to obtain gold. The alchemist is credited with many miracles, fairy tales were composed about him. At the end of his life, the scientist lost his memory and locked himself in a monastic ket. When Albert died, all Cologne wore mourning clothes. In 1931, the scientist, philosopher, alchemist and sorcerer was officially canonized by Rome.
Arnoldo de Villanova (1240-1311). The great scientist received an excellent education. He studied classical sciences in Aix-en-Provence, in Montpellier - medicine, then there was the Sorbonne. Among Arnoldo's close acquaintances were the English monk Roger Bacon, author of The Mirror of Alchemy, and Albert the Great. It must be said that de Villanova envied his Dominican colleague, who had much more opportunities for experiments. After graduating, Arnoldo traveled all over Europe, becoming a popular and expensive doctor. However, unusual methods and free talk led to persecution by church authorities. Strange potions, amulets, hypnosis - all this pointed to a connection with evil spirits. In medicine, the scientist used gold as a universal medicine, not disdaining also to use the achievements of alchemy (mercury, salts, sulfur compounds). De Villanova's life was different from religious alchemists like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon or Thomas Aquinas. While teaching at the University of Paris, Arnoldo makes such bold speeches that the Inquisition was alarmed. Speaking of alchemy, it is worth noting that the scientist is considered one of those who actually managed to create the philosopher's stone. This is indicated in his treatise "The Great Rosary", however, historical confirmation does not exist. Arnoldo claimed to have succeeded in transmuting lead into gold. Already after the death of the scientist, the church decided to condemn him. Most of de Villanova's writings were burned, and friendship with the pontiff did not help either. It is not clear today which of the compositions that have come down to us, in fact, belong to the master.
Raymond Lully (1235-1314). In addition to the official history of alchemy, there is also a more reliable, oral one, passed down through generations of adepts. Raymond Lull is considered one of the greatest alchemists of all time. Official history disputes this. The fact is that shortly before his death, in 1311, the scientist released something like an autobiography, where he indicated a list of all his works. Alchemical treatises were not found there. But for reasons of a religious nature, Lull preferred not to advertise this side of his activity. The scientist was born into a wealthy family and devoted all his youth to love affairs. However, his next passion, having shown his eaten away by the disease, called for the service of Christ, who can give an eternal reward. This, as well as mystical visions of a religious nature, so shocked Lull that he promised to devote his life to the service of the Lord. In 1289, Arnoldo de Villanova introduced the theologian to alchemy. Legends say that in London, at the request of King Edward, an alchemist transmuted metals, creating six million pounds worth of gold. The Franciscan monk traveled a lot, he learned Arabic, wrote works on physics and astrology. In addition to the activities of the alchemist, Lull did a lot to spread Christianity, he founded many educational institutions. It is said that the gold coins he created still exist, they are called Raymundini. Legends say that the alchemist was even able to get the elixir of immortality, but refused to take it.
Vasily Valentine. It is believed that this pseudonym belonged to a certain monk from the Benedictine monastery in Erfurt, Germany. Valentine is without a doubt one of the most famous alchemists. True, they say that his texts actually belong to a whole group of authors. Nevertheless, his treatises are most often translated and republished. The authority of Valentine as a scientist is also high. His name is mentioned in connection with many chemical discoveries. The alchemist is also a rather mysterious person. During his lifetime, Valentine's work was not published. According to legend, in the middle of the 15th century, several decades after the death of the scientist, one of the columns in the Erfurt Cathedral suddenly split. There they found alchemical treatises that belonged to a Benedictine, including the famous Twelve Keys to Philosophy. Nevertheless, the learned monk did exist. From his works, you can even find out some facts about Valentine's biography. In his youth, he visited England and Belgium, contemporaries remembered him as a great scientist in the field of medicine and natural sciences. Vasily Valentin was able to discover antimony and clearly identify the third alchemical element - salt. They wrote that the monk much more clearly outlined the soul of the metal, which he called sulfur, the substance - salt and the spirit - mercury. The well-known maxim of the alchemist says: "Penetrate properly into the bowels of the earth, and you will find the hidden stone, the true medicine." The first letters of this saying in Latin make up the word "vitriol". Valentine gave this name to the secret salt and solvent used in his magistery. Many of the principles of the alchemist were borrowed later by Paracelsus.
Paracelsus (1493-1541). This famous doctor is no less famous as an alchemist. He was one of the first physicians who began to consider the processes occurring in the human body from the point of view of chemistry. Although many deny the role of Paracelsus as an alchemist, the scientist used some of the alchemical techniques to obtain medicines. Paracelsus was born in 1493 in Switzerland, his pseudonym consists of two parts. The Greek word "para" means almost, and Celsus was a Roman physician of the 5th century, who, according to the scientist, was inferior to him in skill. Educated at several universities, the doctor traveled throughout Europe, healing mainly through natural remedies. In 1527, Paracelsus received the title of doctor and professor of medicine at Basel. There he demonstratively burned the books of such authorities as Aristotle and Galen, whose ideas he found obsolete. Paracelsus boldly went against the traditions, developing his own methods. Experience and mysticism helped him. The scientist believed that magic can give the doctor more than all the books. Paracelsus devoted a lot of time to the search for the philosopher's stone, but believed that he could not turn metals into gold. The alchemist needed it to give the elixir of immortality and prepare miraculous medicines. It must be said that this point of view became a turning point from alchemy to chemistry. Alchemy of Paracelsus is the chemistry of life, a science accessible to everyone. You just need to be able to use it. A man endowed with reason can create what nature would take many years to create. Paracelsus also predicted modern homeopathy. Modern medicine in general owes a lot to this scientist. He openly ridiculed the theory that portrayed epileptics as possessed by the devil. The scientist himself stated that he was able to create a philosopher's stone and would live forever. But Paracelsus died at the age of 48, having fallen from a height.
Nicholas Flamel (1330-1418). France has always been famous for its alchemists, but it was this adept who became the most famous. Born into a poor family, Flamel went to Paris at a young age to become a clerk. By marrying an elderly woman, Nikola received capital and opened two workshops. Such a marriage allowed Flamel to enter the ranks of the petty bourgeoisie. He decided to start selling books. Rewriting them, the Frenchman became interested in alchemical works. The beginning of his career was a dream in which an angel appeared to the scribe and showed a book in which secrets still unsolved were hidden. Flamel himself in his work "The Interpretation of Hieroglyphic Signs" told how an ancient large book came to him. Nicola understood little at that time either about primary matter or about the method of obtaining the philosopher's stone. Flamel was convinced that he was to fulfill his prophetic dream. Nicola began to study texts and figurines, he even attracted his wife to his secret occupation. Flamel received the secret of primary matter either through a pilgrimage, or through the initiation and help of another alchemist. Three years later, according to the scientist in his basement, he was able to get a philosopher's stone, thanks to him mercury was turned into silver. Soon the alchemist will transmute the gold. From 1382, Flamel begins to become fabulously rich. He buys houses and land, builds chapels and hospitals. The alchemist gives away money and does charity work. Even King Charles VI found out about the unexpected wealth of Flamel, but with the help of bribes, the alchemist managed to convince everyone of his poverty. In 1418, the death of a wealthy craftsman was recorded. But his story didn't end that easily. The traveler Paul Lucas, who lived in the 17th century, heard from a certain dervish that he knew Paul Flamel. Allegedly, the alchemist, having learned the secret of the philosopher's stone, discovered the secret of immortality. Having staged his death, he and his wife began to travel the world, eventually moving to India.
Bernardo, The Good Man of Treviso (1406-1490). This alchemist deserves special mention among other adepts. This count of a small Italian border state, subordinate to Venice, began his work at the age of 14. And the philosopher's stone was found by him only at the age of 82. Bernardo was introduced to the mysterious alchemy by his father, who allowed him to study ancient compositions. Following the advice of his predecessors, the young earl spent several years and a lot of money, but never achieved success. The first series of experiments took 15 years of life and most of the capital, but success did not happen. Following the advice of an official, Bernardo evaporated the crystals of the philosopher's stone for five years. The poor alchemist tried many ways, turned to various treatises, but all was in vain. By the age of 46, almost nothing remained of the count's former wealth. For the next 8 years, he, along with the monk Geoffroy de Levrier, tried to isolate the primary matter from chicken eggs. Having failed, Bernardo began to travel around Europe, trying to find a true adept. The alchemist even traveled to Persia, Palestine and Egypt in search of a secret. At 62, Bernardo found himself in the Greek Rhodes, without money and friends, but in the belief that the answer was close. The alchemist even borrowed money to continue experiments with another scientist who knew the secret of the philosopher's stone. According to legend, just before his death, the secret was revealed to Bernardo. He also managed to unravel the secret of a serene life - you just had to be content with what you have. The works of Bernardo are full of allegories, they are understandable only to real practicing alchemists. The good man from Treviso was able to perfectly study the theory of the magisterium, which was rewarded to him according to his merits at the end of his life.
Denis Zasher (1510-1556). The real name of this adept remains unknown. He was born in Guyenne in 1510 in a noble family. After being educated in his parents' castle, Zascher went to study philosophy in Bordeaux. A certain alchemist became his mentor, who introduced a young curious man to this occupation. Instead of academic disciplines at the university, Zasher was looking for recipes for transmutation. Together with a mentor, he moved to the University of Bordeaux, ostensibly to study law. In fact, the couple tried to put their recipes to the test. The money of the future adept quickly ran out, literally flying into the pipe. At 25, Zasher returned home, but only to mortgage his property. With unsuccessful experiments, money quickly melted away. Mortgaging the property again, Zasher went to Paris. There, to his surprise, he found about a hundred practicing alchemists. The scientist spent several years alone, studying the works of ancient philosophers. Finally, in 1550, Zasher managed to obtain gold from mercury. The alchemist thanked the Lord and vowed to use this gift exclusively for his glory. Zasher sold off his property and distributed debts. He moved to Switzerland and then to Germany, where he intended to lead a quiet life. However, Zasher's relative killed him in his sleep, running away with his young wife.
Edward Kelly (1555-1597). The real name of this Englishman is Talbot. His parents dreamed of seeing him as a notary, which is why they sent him to study law and Old English. However, the young man became interested in deciphering old manuscripts. Kelly learned to forge old letters, doing fraud. However, he was quickly caught, sentenced to exile and having his ears cut off. The disgraced Talbot decided to change his name. In Wales, Kelly unexpectedly found an ancient manuscript that spoke of gold and the transmutation of metals. The document was bought for next to nothing, along with the mysterious powder that was in the paper box. But Kelly, having studied the document, quickly realized that his meager knowledge of chemistry would not even allow him to understand the terms. Returning secretly to London, Edward calls for the cooperation of his acquaintance, John Dee, a well-known occultist to this day. After examining the powder, the friends discovered that it was able to turn lead into gold! Dee and Kelly entered into the confidence of the Pole Lasky, continuing their experiments at his home in Krakow. There were no results, in 1585 the alchemists moved to Prague. There, Kelly performed a series of public transmutations that stunned the city. He became the idol of the secular public, a welcome guest at receptions. Even the emperor Maximilian II, who made Kelly a marshal, fell under the spell of a wonderful powder. Only now Kelly himself did not become an adept, using old stocks purchased along with the manuscript. Boasting hastened the collapse. The emperor ordered the alchemist to produce several pounds of magic powder, when Kelly failed to do so, he was sent to prison. Faithful friend John Dee did not help, appeals to the Queen of England. While trying to escape from the fortress, Kelly fell and broke his legs and ribs. These injuries were fatal to him. Although the alchemist was not a real scientist, but rather a clever swindler, history has a lot of evidence of his miraculous transformations of metals into gold.
Alexander Seton. Little is known about this Scot, until recently his work was generally attributed to another, Michael Sendivog. It was to him that Seton gave a little powder before his death, which he began to demonstrate, posing as an adherent of the Cosmopolitan and the author of the treatise "The New World of Chemistry." The first mention of it dates back to the beginning of the 17th century. Seton by that time was already a well-established alchemist. In 1602 he showed friends in Germany the transmutation of an unknown metal into gold. It is only unclear where Setok learned his art from. It is also worth noting his selflessness. Wherever he went, promoting alchemy, his experiments ended in a miraculous transformation. At the same time, the scientist himself did not care about enrichment, but about convincing the doubters. The created precious metals Seton even simply handed out to unbelievers. In those days, the adepts changed the vector of their action. Their actions cease to be directed at themselves. Seton became a missionary of his science, which was then a rather dangerous occupation. The Cosmopolitan traveled through Germany without revealing his real name. After all, both the church and greedy monarchs hunted for him. In the end, the young elector of Saxony Christian II, not satisfied with a small portion of the powder, ordered the alchemist to be seized and demanded that he reveal the secret of the philosopher's stone. Seton refused to do so. At that moment, Sendivog turned up in Dresden, who begged the elector to allow him a meeting with the Cosmopolitan. The alchemist promised to tell his secret in exchange for salvation. Sendivog sold the property, bribed the soldiers and kidnapped the scientist. Dying from wounds received due to torture, Seton still refused to tell his secret. Sendivog got the alchemist's wife and some powder, and later part of the glory. Seton's treatise "The New World of Alchemy" was published by Sendivog in his own name.
Seefeld. For a long time, no one knew anything about this alchemist, who lived in France in the middle of the 18th century. It wasn't until 1963 that Vernard Husson told the Seefeld story in his Alchemical Studies. Those people who could not be suspected of lying wrote about the alchemist, and besides, they received all the information first-hand. Seefeld was born in Austria in the second half of the 18th century. From an early age, he became interested in alchemy and the search for the philosopher's stone. His unsuccessful attempts caused a wave of ridicule, so the scientist had to leave the country. He returned to the country of Seefeld only 10 years later, settling in the small town of Rodau. There, he demonstrated to his master and his family, in gratitude, the transmutation of tin into gold. Soon the whole city knew that a real alchemist settled with them. Quiet life did not last long - the gendarmes from Vienna raided. Everyone in the capital noticed that Seefeld had a lot of gold. The alchemist was accused of fraud and deceit and sentenced to life imprisonment in the fortress. Over time, Emperor Franz I decided to pardon the scientist, but demanded that he continue the experiments exclusively for him alone. Having proved his skill, the alchemist still escaped from Austria. He began to lead an itinerant life and was seen in Amsterdam and Halle. Over time, Seefeld seemed to have vanished into thin air. It is unclear whether he was an adept or a real alchemist. Perhaps, during the years of wandering, he simply met another master, who gave him a wonderful powder. Perhaps Seefeld repeated the fate of Sendivog - possessing the philosopher's stone, never learning how to create it.
Eireney Filaret. This man is one of the most mysterious in history. He was born in England, presumably in 1612. This follows from the fact that when writing his main work in 1645, Filaret was not yet 33 years old. Filaret spent his early years in North America, where he became close to the pharmacist Starkey. In his presence, the alchemist conducted experiments, creating a lot of gold and silver. The Alchemist is similar to the Cosmopolitan in that he broke into History, already possessing a full knowledge of the innermost secret. In the book Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of the King, Filaret himself says that he seeks to help those who are lost in the labyrinth of delusions. This work was intended to light the way for those who want it. With his work, the alchemist wanted to teach people how to create pure gold, since the worship of this metal leads to vanity and luxury. The treatise was to make gold and silver commonplace. It was said that the alchemist demonstrated his talents to the English King Charles I himself. At the same time, Filaret's powder had amazing power. In 1666, the alchemist appeared in Amsterdam, instructing him to translate his work into Latin. At the same time, Filaret claimed that he possessed such a quantity of the philosopher's stone, which was enough to create 20 tons of gold. Even less is known about the end of the alchemist's life than about its beginning. He just disappeared. Many are sure that Filaret used the philosopher's stone to create a potion of immortality. They said even after that Eireney Filaret and Count Saint-Germain are one and the same person. And even Isaac Newton himself appreciated the treatise of the alchemist, leaving many notes in the margins of the book.
