Preliminary remarks. The concept of Old Russian literature designates in a strict terminological sense the literature of the Eastern Slavs of the 11th - 13th centuries. before their subsequent division into Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. From the 14th century distinct book traditions are clearly manifested, which led to the formation of Russian (Great Russian) literature, and from the 15th century. - Ukrainian and Belarusian. In philology, the concept of Old Russian literature is traditionally used in relation to all periods in the history of Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries.
All attempts to find traces of East Slavic literature before the baptism of Rus' in 988 ended in failure. The evidence cited is either gross fakes (the pagan chronicle "Vlesova book" covering a huge era from the 9th century BC to the 9th century AD inclusive), or untenable hypotheses (the so-called "Askold's Chronicle" in the Nikon code of the 16th century. among the articles of 867-89). The foregoing does not mean at all that writing was completely absent in pre-Christian Rus'. Treaties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium in 911, 944 and 971. as part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" (if we accept the evidence of S. P. Obnorsky) and archaeological finds (an inscription from firing on a GnЈzdovsky korchaga of the first decades or no later than the middle of the 10th century, a Novgorod inscription on a wooden cylinder lock, according to V. L Yanina, 970-80) show that in the 10th century, even before the baptism of Russia, the Cyrillic script could be used in official documents, the state apparatus and everyday life, gradually preparing the ground for the spread of writing after the adoption of Christianity in 988.
§ 1. The emergence of ancient Russian literature
§ 1.1. Folklore and Literature. The forerunner of ancient Russian literature was folklore, which was widespread in the Middle Ages in all strata of society: from peasants to the princely-boyar aristocracy. Long before Christianity it was already litteratura sine litteris, literature without letters. In the written era, folklore and literature with their genre systems existed in parallel, mutually complementing each other, sometimes coming into close contact. Folklore has accompanied ancient Russian literature throughout its history: from the annals of the 11th - early 12th centuries. (see § 2.3) to the "Tale of Woe-Misfortune" of the transitional era (see § 7.2), although on the whole it was poorly reflected in writing. In turn, literature influenced folklore. The most striking example of this is spiritual poetry, folk songs of religious content. They were strongly influenced by ecclesiastical canonical literature (biblical and liturgical books, lives of saints, etc.) and apocrypha. Spiritual verses retain a vivid imprint of dual faith and are a motley mixture of Christian and pagan ideas.
§ 1.2. The Baptism of Rus' and the Beginning of the "Book Teaching". The adoption of Christianity in 988 under the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Svyatoslavich brought Rus' into the orbit of influence of the Byzantine world. After baptism, the country was transferred from the southern and, to a lesser extent, from the western Slavs, rich Old Slavonic literature, created by the Thessalonica brothers Constantine the Philosopher, Methodius and their students in the second half of the 9th-10th centuries. A huge corpus of translated (mainly from Greek) and original monuments included biblical and liturgical books, patristics and church teaching literature, dogmatic-polemical and legal writings, etc. This book fund, common to the entire Byzantine-Slavic Orthodox world , ensured within it the consciousness of religious, cultural and linguistic unity for centuries. From Byzantium, the Slavs learned primarily church and monastic book culture. The rich secular literature of Byzantium, which continued the traditions of ancient, with a few exceptions, was not in demand by the Slavs. South Slavic influence at the end of the 10th - 11th centuries. marked the beginning of ancient Russian literature and book language.
Ancient Rus' was the last of the Slavic countries to adopt Christianity and became acquainted with the Cyril and Methodius book heritage. However, in a surprisingly short time, she turned it into her national treasure. Compared with other Orthodox Slavic countries, Ancient Rus' created a much more developed and genre-diverse national literature and immeasurably better preserved the pan-Slavic book fund.
§ 1.3. Worldview principles and artistic method of ancient Russian literature. For all its originality, ancient Russian literature possessed the same basic features and developed according to the same general laws as other medieval European literatures. Her artistic method was determined by the peculiarities of medieval thinking. He was distinguished by theocentrism - faith in God as the root cause of all being, goodness, wisdom and beauty; providentialism, according to which the course of world history and the behavior of each person is determined by God and is the implementation of his predetermined plan; understanding of man as a creature in the image and likeness of God, endowed with reason and free will in the choice of good and evil. In medieval consciousness, the world was divided into heavenly, higher, eternal, inaccessible to touch, opening up to the elect in a moment of spiritual insight ("a hedgehog does not see the eyes of the flesh, but listens to the spirit and mind"), and the earthly, lower, temporary. This faint reflection of the spiritual, ideal world contained images and similarities of divine ideas, by which man cognized the Creator. The mediaeval worldview ultimately predetermined the artistic method of ancient Russian literature, which was basically religious and symbolic.
Old Russian literature is imbued with a Christian moralistic and didactic spirit. Imitation and likeness to God were understood as the highest goal of human life, and serving him was considered as the basis of morality. The literature of Ancient Rus' had a pronounced historical (and even factual) character and for a long time did not allow fiction. She was characterized by etiquette, tradition and retrospectiveness, when reality was assessed on the basis of ideas about the past and the events of the sacred history of the Old and New Testaments.
§ 1.4. Genre system of ancient Russian literature. In the ancient Russian era, literary samples were of exceptionally great importance. First of all, translated Church Slavonic biblical and liturgical books were considered such. Exemplary works contained rhetorical and structural models of different types of texts, defined a written tradition, or, in other words, codified the literary and linguistic norm. They replaced grammars, rhetorics and other theoretical guides to the art of the word, common in medieval Western Europe, but absent in Rus' for a long time. Reading Church Slavonic samples, many generations of ancient Russian scribes comprehended the secrets of literary technique. The medieval author constantly turned to exemplary texts, using their vocabulary and grammar, lofty symbols and images, figures of speech and tropes. Sanctified by hoary antiquity and the authority of holiness, they seemed unshakable and served as a measure of writing skills. This rule was the alpha and omega of ancient Russian creativity.
The Belarusian educator and humanist Francysk Skaryna argued in the preface to the Bible (Prague, 1519) that the books of the Old and New Testaments are an analogue of the "seven free arts" that formed the basis of medieval Western European education. Psalter teaches grammar, logic, or dialectics, the Book of Job and the Epistle of the Apostle Paul, rhetoric - the works of Solomon, music - biblical chants, arithmetic - the Book of Numbers, geometry - the Book of Joshua, astronomy - the Book of Genesis and other sacred tech-s-you.
Bible books were also perceived as ideal genre examples. In the Izbornik of 1073, an Old Russian manuscript dating back to the translation from the Greek collection of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon (893-927), in the article "from the Apostolic Rules" it is stated that the Books of Kings are the standard of historical and narrative works, an example in the genre of church hymns is the Psalter , exemplary "cunning and creative" works (that is, related to the writing of the wise and poetic) are the instructive Books of Job and the Proverbs of Solomon. Almost four centuries later, around 1453, the Tver monk Foma called in the "Word of Praise about the Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich" an example of the historical and narrative works of the Book of Kings, the epistolary genre - the apostolic epistles, and "soul-saving books" - lives.
Such ideas, which came to Rus' from Byzantium, were spread throughout medieval Europe. In the preface to the Bible, Francis Skorina sent those wishing to "know about the military" and "about heroic deeds" to the Books of Judges, noting that they are more truthful and useful than "Alexandria" and "Troy" - medieval novels with adventure stories about Alexander Macedonian and Trojan Wars, known in Rus' (see § 5.3 and § 6.3). By the way, the canon says the same thing in M. Cervantes, urging Don Quixote to leave folly and take up his mind: "If ... you are drawn to books about exploits and chivalrous deeds, then open the Holy Scripture and read the Book of Judges: here you you will find great and genuine events and deeds as true as they are brave" (part 1, 1605).
The hierarchy of church books, as it was understood in Ancient Rus', is set forth in the preface of Metropolitan Macarius to the Great Menaion Chetiyim (completed c. 1554). The monuments that formed the core of traditional literacy are arranged in strict accordance with their place on the hierarchical ladder. Its upper steps are occupied by the most revered biblical books with theological interpretations. At the top of the book hierarchy is the Gospel, followed by the Apostle and the Psalter (which in Ancient Rus' was also used as an educational book - people learned to read from it). This is followed by the works of the Church Fathers: collections of works by John Chrysostom "Chrystostom", "Margaret", "Golden Mouth", the works of Basil the Great, the words of Gregory the Theologian with interpretations of Metropolitan Nikita of Iraq-liysky, "Pandects" and "Taktikon" by Nikon Chernogorets etc. The next level is oratorical prose with its genre subsystem: 1) prophetic words, 2) apostolic, 3) patristic, 4) festive, 5) praiseworthy. At the last stage is hagiographic literature with a special genre hierarchy: 1) the lives of the martyrs, 2) the saints, 3) the ABC, Jerusalem, Egyptian, Sinai, Skete, Kiev-Pechersk patericons, 4) the lives of Russian saints, canonized by the cathedrals of 1547 and 1549.
The ancient Russian genre system, formed under the influence of the Byzantine system, was rebuilt and developed over the course of seven centuries of its existence. Nevertheless, it was preserved in its main features until the New Age.
§ 1.5. Literary language of ancient Rus'. Together with Old Slavonic books to Rus' at the end of the 10th-11th centuries. the Old Church Slavonic language was transferred - the first common Slavic literary language, supranational and international, created on the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialect basis in the process of translating church books (mainly Greek) by Constantine the Philosopher, Methodius and their students in the second half of the 9th century. in the West and South Slavic lands. From the first years of its existence in Rus', the Old Slavonic language began to adapt to the living speech of the Eastern Slavs. Under its influence, some specific South Slavisms were forced out of the book norm by Russianisms, while others became acceptable options within it. As a result of the adaptation of the Old Church Slavonic language to the peculiarities of Old Russian speech, a local (Old Russian) version of the Church Slavonic language has developed. Its formation was close to completion in the second half of the 11th century, as the oldest East Slavic written monuments show: the Ostromir Gospel (1056-57), the Arkhangelsk Gospel (1092), the Novgorod service Menaia (1095-96, 1096, 1097) and other contemporary manuscripts.
The linguistic situation of Kievan Rus is assessed differently in the works of researchers. Some of them recognize the existence of bilingualism, in which the spoken language was Old Russian, and the literary language was Church Slavonic (Old Church Slavonic in origin), which was only gradually Russified (A. A. Shakhmatov). Opponents of this hypothesis prove the originality of the literary language in Kievan Rus, the strength and depth of its folk East Slavic speech base and, accordingly, the weakness and superficiality of the Old Slavonic influence (S. P. Obnorsky). There is a compromise concept of two types of a single Old Russian literary language: book-Slavonic and folk-literary, widely and versatile interacting with each other in the process of historical development (V. V. Vinogradov). According to the theory of literary bilingualism, in Ancient Rus' there were two bookish languages: Church Slavonic and Old Russian (this point of view was close to F. I. Buslaev, and then it was developed by L. P. Yakubinsky and D. S. Likhachev).
In the last decades of the XX century. The theory of diglossia gained great popularity (G. Hütl-Folter, A. V. Isachenko, B. A. Uspensky). In contrast to bilingualism, in diglossia, the functional spheres of the bookish (Church Slavonic) and non-bookish (Old Russian) languages are strictly distributed, almost do not intersect and require speakers to assess their idioms on the scale of "high - low", "solemn - ordinary", "church - secular" . Church Slavonic, for example, being a literary and liturgical language, could not serve as a means of colloquial communication, while Old Russian had one of its main functions. Under diglossia, Church Slavonic and Old Russian were perceived in Ancient Rus' as two functional varieties of one language. There are other views on the origin of the Russian literary language, but all of them are debatable. Obviously, the Old Russian literary language was formed from the very beginning as a language of complex composition (B.A. Larin, V.V. Vinogradov) and organically included Church Slavonic and Old Russian elements.
Already in the XI century. different written traditions develop and a business language appears, Old Russian in origin. It was a special written, but not a literary, not actually bookish language. It was used to draw up official documents (letters, petitions, etc.), legal codes (for example, Russkaya Pravda, see § 2.8), and order clerical work was carried out in the 16th - 17th centuries. Everyday texts were also written in Old Russian: birch bark letters (see § 2.8), graffiti inscriptions drawn with a sharp object on the plaster of ancient buildings, mainly churches, etc. At first, the business language interacted weakly with the literary one. However, over time, the once clear boundaries between them began to collapse. The rapprochement of literature and business writing took place mutually and was clearly manifested in a number of works of the 15th–17th centuries: “Domostroy”, the messages of Ivan the Terrible, Grigory Kotoshikhin’s essay “On Russia in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich”, “The Tale of Ersh Ershovich”, “Kalyazinskaya petition" and others.
§ 2. Literature of Kievan Rus
(XI - first third of the XII century)
§ 2.1. The oldest book of Rus' and the first monuments of writing. "Book teaching", begun by Vladimir Svyatoslavich, quickly achieved significant success. The oldest surviving book of Rus' is the Novgorod Code (no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century) - a triptych of three waxed tablets, found in 2000 during the work of the Novgorod archaeological expedition. In addition to the main text - two psalms, the codex contains "hidden" texts, scratched on wood or preserved in the form of faint imprints on tablets under wax. Among the "hidden" texts read by A. A. Zaliznyak, a previously unknown work of four separate articles about the gradual movement of people from the darkness of paganism through the limited good of the law of Moses to the light of the teachings of Christ is especially interesting (tetralogy "From paganism to Christ").
In 1056-57. The oldest surviving exactly dated Slavic manuscript was created - the Ostromir Gospel with an afterword by the scribe Deacon Gregory. Gregory, together with his assistants, rewrote and decorated the book in eight months for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir (Joseph in baptism), whence the name of the Gospel comes from. The manuscript is luxuriously decorated, written in large calligraphic charter in two columns, and is a wonderful example of book writing. Of the other most ancient precisely dated manuscripts, the philosophical and didactic Izbornik of 1073, rewritten in Kiev, should be mentioned - a richly decorated folio containing more than 380 articles by 25 authors (including the essay "On Images", on rhetorical figures and tropes, by the Byzantine grammarian George Hirovoska, c. 750-825), a small and modest Izbornik of 1076, copied in Kiev by the scribe John and, perhaps, compiled by him mainly from articles of religious and moral content, the Archangel Gospel of 1092, copied in the south of Kievan Rus, as well as three Novgorod list of official Menaia: for September - 1095-96, for October - 1096 and for November - 1097
These seven manuscripts exhaust the surviving Old Russian books of the 11th century, which indicate the time of their creation. Other ancient Russian manuscripts of the 11th century. or do not have exact dates, or have been preserved in later lists of lists. So, it has reached our time in the lists not earlier than the 15th century. a book of 16 Old Testament prophets with interpretations, rewritten in 1047 by a Novgorod priest who had a "worldly" name Ghoul Likhoy. (In Ancient Rus', the custom of giving two names, Christian and "worldly", was widespread not only in the world, cf. the name of the mayor Joseph-Ostromir, but also among the clergy and monasticism.)
§ 2.2. Yaroslav the Wise and a new stage in the development of ancient Russian literature. The enlightening activity of Vladimir Svyatoslavich was continued by his son Yaroslav the Wise († 1054), who finally established himself on the throne of Kiev in 1019 after the victory over Svyatopolk (see § 2.5). The reign of Yaroslav the Wise was marked by foreign policy and military successes, the establishment of broad ties with the countries of Western Europe (including dynastic ones), a rapid rise in culture and extensive construction in Kiev, transferring to the Dnieper, at least by name, the main shrines of Constantinople (St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate and etc.).
Under Yaroslav the Wise, "Russian Truth" arose (see § 2.8), annals were written, and, according to A. A. Shakhmatov, around 1039, the most ancient annalistic code was compiled at the metropolitan see in Kiev. In the Kyiv metropolis, administratively subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople, Yaroslav the Wise sought to nominate his people to the highest church positions. With his support, the first Old Russian hierarchs from among the local clergy were Luka Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 (see § 2.8), and Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kiev from 1051 (from the priests in the village of Berestovo, Yaroslav's country palace near Kiev). During the entire pre-Mongolian period, only two metropolitans of Kiev, Hilarion (1051-54) and Kliment Smolyatich (see § 3.1), came from among the local clergy, were elected and installed in Rus' by a council of bishops without intercourse with the patriarch of Constantinople. All other metropolitans of Kyiv were Greeks, elected and consecrated by the patriarch in Constantinople.
Hilarion owns one of the deepest works of the Slavic Middle Ages - "The Word of Law and Grace", pronounced by him between 1037 and 1050. Among Hilarion's listeners there could well be people who remembered Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich and the baptism of the Russian land. However, the writer turned not to the ignorant and the simple, but to those experienced in theology and book wisdom. Using the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Galatians (4: 21-31), he proves with dogmatic impeccability the superiority of Christianity over Judaism, the New Testament - Grace, bringing salvation to the whole world and affirming the equality of peoples before God, over the Old Testament - the Law given to one people. The triumph of the Christian faith in Rus' has world significance in the eyes of Hilarion. He glorifies the Russian land, a full power in the family of Christian states, and its princes - Vladimir and Yaroslav. Hilarion was an outstanding orator, he was well aware of the methods and rules of Byzantine preaching. The "Sermon on Law and Grace" in rhetorical and theological merits is not inferior to the best examples of Greek and Latin church eloquence. It became known outside Rus' and influenced the work of the Serbian hagiographer Domentian (XIII century).
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, Yaroslav the Wise organized large-scale translation and book-writing works in Kyiv. In pre-Mongol Rus', there were various translation schools and centers. The vast majority of texts were translated from Greek. In the XI-XII centuries. wonderful examples of ancient Russian translation art appear. For centuries, they have enjoyed constant reader success and have influenced ancient Russian literature, folklore, and visual arts.
The Northern Russian translation of the "Life of Andrei the Holy Fool" (XI century or not later than the beginning of the XII century) had a noticeable influence on the development of the ideas of foolishness in Ancient Rus' (see also § 3.1). The outstanding book of world medieval literature, "The Tale of Varlaam and Joasaph" (no later than the first half of the 12th century, possibly Kiev), vividly and figuratively told the Old Russian reader about the Indian prince Joasaph, who, under the influence of the hermit Varlaam, abdicated the throne and worldly joys and became an ascetic hermit. "The Life of Basil the New" (XI - XII centuries) amazed the imagination of a medieval person with impressive pictures of hellish torments, paradise and the Last Judgment, like those Western European legends (for example, "The Vision of Tnugdal", mid-XII century), which subsequently fed " Divine Comedy Dante.
Not later than the beginning of the XII century. in Rus' was translated from Greek and supplemented with new articles Prologue, dating back to the Byzantine Synaxar (Greek uhnbobsyn) - a collection of brief information about the life of saints and church holidays. (According to M.N. Speransky, the translation was made on Athos or in Constantinople by the joint works of ancient Russian and South Slavic scribes.) The prologue contains in abridged editions of life, words for Christian holidays and other church teaching texts, arranged in the order of the church month-word starting from first day of September. In Rus', the Prologue was one of the most beloved books, repeatedly edited, revised, supplemented by Russian and Slavic articles.
Historical writings received special attention. Not later than the 12th century, obviously, in the south-west of Rus', in the Principality of Galicia, the famous monument of ancient historiography was translated in a free manner - "The History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius, a fascinating and dramatic story about the uprising in Judea in 67-73 years. against Rome. According to V. M. Istrin, in the XI century. In Kyiv, the Byzantine World Chronicle of the monk George Amartol was translated. However, it is also assumed that this is a Bulgarian translation or a translation made by a Bulgarian in Rus'. Due to the lack of originals and the linguistic proximity of Old Russian and South Slavic texts, their localization is often hypothetical and gives rise to scientific disputes. It is far from always possible to say which Russianisms in the text should be attributed to the share of the East Slavic author or translator and which - to the account of later scribes.
In the XI century. on the basis of the translated Greek chronicles of Georgy Amartol, the Syrian John Malala (Bulgarian translation, probably, the 10th century) and other sources, the "Chronograph according to the great exposition" was compiled. The monument covered the era from biblical times to the history of Byzantium in the 10th century. and was already reflected in the Primary Chronicle around 1095 (see § 2.3). The "Chronograph according to the great presentation" has not been preserved, but it existed in the first half of the 15th century, when it was used in the "Chronograph of Hellenic and Roman" Second Edition - the largest ancient Russian compilation chronographic code containing a presentation of world history from the creation of the world.
To Old Russian translations of the XI-XII centuries. usually include "Deed of Devgen" and "The Tale of Akira the Wise". Both works have come down to our time in the late lists of the XV-XVIII centuries. and occupy a special place in ancient Russian literature. "Deed of Devgen" is a translation of the Byzantine heroic epic, which over time underwent processing in Rus' under the influence of military stories and heroic epics. The Assyrian "The Tale of Akira the Wise" is an example of an entertaining, instructive and semi-fairytale short story, so beloved in the ancient literatures of the Middle East. Its oldest edition has been preserved in fragments in an Aramaic papyrus of the end of the 5th century BC. BC e. from Egypt. It is assumed that "The Tale of Akira the Wise" was translated into Rus' from the Syrian or Armenian original dating back to it.
The love for didactic sententiousness, characteristic of the Middle Ages, led to the translation of "Bees" (no later than the 12th-13th centuries) - a popular Byzantine collection of moralizing aphorisms by ancient, biblical and Christian authors. "Bee" not only contained ethical instructions, but also significantly expanded the historical and cultural horizons of the Old Russian reader.
Translation work was carried out, obviously, at the metropolitan department in Kyiv. Translations of dogmatic, ecclesiastical teaching, epistolary and anti-Latin writings by the Metropolitans of Kiev John II (1077-89) and Nicephorus (1104-21), Greeks by origin, who wrote in their native language, have been preserved. Nikifor's epistle to Vladimir Monomakh "on fasting and abstinence of feelings" is marked by high literary merit and professional translation technique. In the first half of the XII century. Theodosius the Greek was engaged in translations. By order of the monk-prince Nicholas (Holy One), he translated the message of Pope Leo I the Great to Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople about the heresy of Eutychius. The Greek original of the epistle was received from Rome.
The ties with Rome that have not yet died out after the church schism in 1054 are due to the origin of one of the main holidays of the Russian Church (not recognized by Byzantium and the Orthodox southern Slavs) - the transfer of the relics of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker from the World of Lycia in Asia Minor to the Italian city of Bari in 1087 (9 May). Installed in Rus' at the end of the 11th century, it contributed to the development of a cycle of translated and original works in honor of Nicholas of Myra, which includes "A word of praise for the transfer of the relics of Nicholas the Wonderworker", stories about the miracles of the saint, preserved in the lists of the 12th century, etc.
§ 2.3. Kiev-Pechersky Monastery and Old Russian Chronicle. The most important literary and translational center of pre-Mongol Rus was the Kiev Caves Monastery, which brought up a bright galaxy of original writers, preachers and church leaders. Quite early, in the second half of the 11th century, the monastery established book connections with Athos and Constantinople. Under the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978-1015), Anthony († 1072-73), the founder of Russian monastic life, one of the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery, was tonsured on Athos. His disciple Theodosius Pechersky became the "father of Russian monasticism." During his abbess in the Kiev Caves Monastery (1062-74), the number of brethren reached an unprecedented figure in Rus' - 100 people. Theodosius was not only a spiritual writer (author of ecclesiastical and anti-Latin writings), but also an organizer of translation works. On his initiative, the communal rule of the Studian monastery of John the Baptist in Constantinople was translated, sent to Rus' by monk Ephraim, a tonsured monk of Anthony, who lived in one of the Constantinople monasteries. Adopted in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, the Studian Rule was then introduced in all ancient Russian monasteries.
From the last third of the XI century. The Kiev-Pechersky Monastery becomes the center of ancient Russian chronicle writing. The history of early chronicle writing is brilliantly reconstructed in the works of A. A. Shakhmatov, although not all researchers share certain provisions of his concept. In 1073, in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, on the basis of the Most Ancient code (see § 2.2), a code of Nikon the Great, an associate of Anthony and Theodosius of the Caves, was compiled. Nikon was the first to turn historical records into weather articles. Not known to the Byzantine chronicles, it has firmly established itself in ancient Russian chronicles. His work formed the basis for the Primary Code (c. 1095), which appeared under the Igumen of the Caves, was the first all-Russian chronicle monument in character.
During the second decade of the XII century. one after another, editions of a new annalistic code appear - "The Tale of Bygone Years". All of them were compiled by scribes, reflecting the interests of one or another prince. The first edition was created by the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor, the chronicler of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (according to A. A. Shakhmatov - 1110-12, according to M. D. Priselkov - 1113). Nestor took the Primary Code as the basis of his work, supplementing it with numerous written sources and folk legends. After the death in 1113 of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, his political opponent Vladimir Monomakh ascended the throne of Kiev. The new Grand Duke transferred the chronicle to his family Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky Monastery near Kiev. There, in 1116, Abbot Sylvester created the Second Edition of the Tale of Bygone Years, positively evaluating Monomakh's activities in the fight against Svyatopolk. The third edition of the "Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled in 1118 on behalf of the eldest son of Vladimir Monomakh Mstislav.
"The Tale of Bygone Years" is the most valuable monument of ancient Russian historical thought, literature and language, complex in composition and sources. The structure of the chronicle text is heterogeneous. "The Tale of Bygone Years" includes retinue-epic legends (about the death of Prince Oleg the Prophet from the bite of a snake crawling out of the skull of his beloved horse, under 912, about the revenge of Princess Olga on the Drevlyans under 945-46), folk tales ( about the elder who saved Belgorod from the Pechenegs, under 997), toponymic legends (about the youth-kozhemyak who defeated the Pecheneg hero, under 992), testimonies of contemporaries (governor Vyshata and his son, governor Yan), peace treaties with Byzantium 911 , 944 and 971, church teachings (the speech of the Greek philosopher under 986), hagiographic stories (about the murder of princes Boris and Gleb under 1015), military stories, etc. The heterogeneity of the chronicle determined the special, hybrid nature of its language : a complex interpenetration in the text of the Church Slavonic and Russian language elements, a mixture of bookish and non-bookish elements. "The Tale of Bygone Years" became for centuries an unsurpassed role model and formed the basis for further ancient Russian chronicle writing.
§ 2.4. Literary monuments in "The Tale of Bygone Years". The chronicle includes "The Tale of the Blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovlsky" (1110s), which arose as an independent work about princely crimes. Its author, Basil, was an eyewitness and participant in dramatic events, he knew perfectly well all the internecine wars of 1097-1100. The whole scene of the reception by the princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and David Igorevich Vasilko, his arrest and blinding, the subsequent torment of the blinded man (the episode with the bloodied shirt washed out of the bottom) are written with deep psychologism, great concrete accuracy and exciting drama. In this respect, Vasily's work anticipates "The Tale of the Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky" with its vivid psychological and realistic sketches (see § 3.1).
Organically included in the "Tale of Bygone Years" is a selection of works by Vladimir Monomakh († 1125) - the fruit of many years of life and deep reflections of the wisest of the princes of the appanage-veche period. Known as "Instruction", it consists of three different works: instructions to children, autobiography - annals of military and hunting exploits of Monomakh and a letter in 1096 to his political rival, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov. In "Instruction" the author summarized his life principles and the prince's code of honor. The ideal of the "Instruction" is a wise, just and merciful sovereign, sacredly faithful to treaties and the kiss of the cross, a brave prince-warrior, sharing work with his retinue in everything, and a pious Christian. The combination of elements of teaching and autobiography finds a direct parallel in the apocryphal "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs", known in medieval Byzantine, Latin and Slavic literature. Included in the apocryphal "Testament of Judas on Courage" had a direct impact on Monomakh.
His work is on a par with medieval Western European teachings to children - heirs to the throne. The most famous among them are the "Testament", attributed to the Byzantine emperor Basil I the Macedonian, the Anglo-Saxon "Teachings" of King Alfred the Great and "Father's Teachings" (VIII century), used to educate royal children. It cannot be argued that Monomakh was familiar with these writings. However, it is impossible not to remember that his mother came from the family of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, and his wife was Hyda († 1098/9), the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald, who died at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
§ 2.5. Development of hagiographic genres. One of the first works of ancient Russian hagiography is "The Life of Anthony of the Caves" (§ 2.3). Although it has not survived to our time, it can be argued that it was an outstanding work of its kind. The Life contained valuable historical and legendary information about the emergence of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, influenced the chronicle, served as a source for the Primary Code, and was later used in the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon.
One of the oldest monuments of our literature, the rhetorically embellished "Memory and Praise to Prince Vladimir of Russia" (XI century) by monk Jacob, combines the features of life and historical laudatory words. The work is dedicated to the solemn glorification of the Baptist of Rus', the proof of his God's chosenness. Jacob had access to the ancient chronicle that preceded the "Tale of Bygone Years" and the Primary Code, and used its unique information, which more accurately conveys the chronology of events during the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
The lives of the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor (not earlier than 1057 - the beginning of the 12th century), created on the basis of Byzantine hagiography, are distinguished by outstanding literary merits. His "Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb" together with other monuments of the XI-XII centuries. (more dramatic and emotional "The Tale of Boris and Gleb" and its continuation "The Tale of the Miracles of Roman and David") form a widespread cycle about the bloody internecine war of the sons of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich for the throne of Kiev. Boris and Gleb (in baptism Roman and David) are depicted as martyrs not so much of a religious as of a political idea. Preferring death in 1015 to the fight against their older brother Svyatopolk, who seized power in Kiev after the death of his father, they assert with all their behavior and death the triumph of brotherly love and the need to subordinate the younger princes to the eldest in the family in order to preserve the unity of the Russian land. The passion-bearing princes Boris and Gleb, the first canonized saints in Rus', became her heavenly patrons and defenders.
After the "Reading" Nestor created, based on the memoirs of his contemporaries, a detailed biography of Theodosius of the Caves, which became a model in the genre of the venerable life. The work contains precious information about monastic life and customs, about the attitude of ordinary laymen, boyars and the Grand Duke towards the monks. Later, "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves" was included in the "Kiev-Pechersk Paterik" - the last major work of pre-Mongolian Rus.
In Byzantine literature, pateriks (cf. Greek rbfesykn, Old Russian otchnik 'father, patericon') were collections of edifying short stories about ascetics of monastic and hermit life (some locality famous for monasticism), as well as collections of their moralizing and ascetic sayings and short words . The golden fund of medieval Western European literatures included the Skete, Sinai, Egyptian, Roman patericons, known in translations from Greek in ancient Slavic writing. Created in imitation of the translated "fathers" "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" adequately continues this series.
Even in the XI - XII centuries. in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, legends were written about its history and the ascetics of piety who labored in it, reflected in the "Tale of Bygone Years" under 1051 and 1074. In the 20s-30s. 13th century begins to take shape "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" - a collection of short stories about the history of this monastery, its monks, their ascetic life and spiritual exploits. The monument was based on the epistles and accompanying patericon tales of two Kiev-Pechersk monks: Simon († 1226), who in 1214 became the first bishop of Vladimir and Suzdal, and Polycarp († 1st half of the 13th century). The sources of their stories about the events of the XI - the first half of the XII century. monastic and tribal traditions, folk tales, the Kiev-Pechersk chronicle, the lives of Anthony and Theodosius of the Caves appeared. The formation of the patericon genre took place at the intersection of oral and written traditions: folklore, hagiography, annals, oratorical prose.
"Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" is one of the most beloved books of Orthodox Rus'. For centuries it has been read and rewritten willingly. 300 years before the appearance of the "Volokolamsk patericon" in the 30s-40s. 16th century (see § 6.5), it remained the only original monument of this genre in ancient Russian literature.
§ 2.6. The emergence of the genre of "walking". At the beginning of the XII century. (in 1104-07), hegumen of one of the Chernigov monasteries Daniel made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and stayed there for a year and a half. Daniel's mission was politically motivated. He arrived in the Holy Land after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders in 1099 and the formation of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Daniel was twice granted an audience with the King of Jerusalem by Baldwin (Baudouin) I (1100-18), one of the leaders of the First Crusade, who more than once showed him other exceptional signs of attention. In "Journey" Daniel appears before us as a messenger of the entire Russian land as a kind of political entity.
Daniel's "Walking" is an example of pilgrimage notes, a valuable source of historical information about Palestine and Jerusalem. In form and content, it resembles numerous medieval itineraria (lat. itinerarium ‘description of the journey’) of Western European pilgrims. He described in detail the route, the sights he saw, retold traditions and legends about the shrines of Palestine and Jerusalem, sometimes not distinguishing church canonical stories from apocryphal ones. Daniel is the largest representative of the pilgrimage literature not only of Ancient Rus', but of all medieval Europe.
§ 2.7. Apocrypha. As in medieval Europe, in Rus' already in the 11th century, in addition to orthodox literature, apocrypha (Greek ? rkkh f pt 'secret, secret') became widespread - semi-bookish, semi-folk tales on religious topics that are not included in the church canon (in history, the meaning of the concept of apocrypha has changed). Their main flow went to Rus' from Bulgaria, where in the X century. the dualistic heresy of the Bogomils was strong, preaching equal participation in the creation of the world of God and the devil, their eternal struggle in world history and human life.
Apocrypha form a kind of common people's Bible and for the most part are divided into Old Testament ("The Tale of How God Created Adam", "The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs", Apocrypha about Solomon, in which demonological motifs predominate, "The Book of Enoch the Righteous"), New Testament ("The Gospel of Thomas "," The First Gospel of Jacob "," The Gospel of Nicodemus "," The Tale of Aphrodite "), eschatological - about the afterlife and the final destinies of the world ("Vision of the prophet Isaiah", "Walking of the Virgin through the torments", "Revelation" by Methodius of Patara, used already in "The Tale of Bygone Years" under 1096).
Apocryphal lives, torments, words, epistles, conversations, etc. are known. The “Conversation of the Three Hierarchs” (Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom), preserved in ancient Russian lists from the 12th century, enjoyed great love among the people. Written in the form of questions and answers on a wide variety of topics, from biblical to "natural science", it reveals, on the one hand, clear points of contact with medieval Greek and Latin literature (for example, Joca monachorum 'Monastic games'), and on the other - has experienced a strong influence of folk superstitions, pagan ideas, riddles throughout its manuscript history. Many apocrypha are included in the dogmatic-polemical compilation "Explanatory Palea" (probably XIII century) and in its revision "Chronographic Palea".
In the Middle Ages, there were special lists (indexes) of renounced, that is, books forbidden by the Church. The oldest Slavic index, translated from Greek, is in the Izbornik of 1073. Independent lists of renounced books, reflecting the real circle of reading in Ancient Rus', appear at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries. and have a recommendatory, and not strictly prohibitive (with subsequent punitive sanctions) character. Many apocrypha ("The Gospel of Thomas", "The First Gospel of James", "The Gospel of Nicodemus", "The Tale of Aphroditian", which significantly supplement the information of the New Testament about the earthly life of Jesus Christ) could not be perceived as "false writings" and were revered on a par with church canonical works . Apocrypha left noticeable traces in the literature and art of all medieval Europe (in church painting, architectural decorations, book ornaments, etc.).
§ 2.8. Literature and writing of Veliky Novgorod. Even in the most ancient period, literary life was not concentrated in Kyiv alone. In the north of Rus', the largest cultural center and trade and craft center was Veliky Novgorod, which early, already at the beginning of the 11th century, showed a tendency to separate from Kyiv and achieved political independence in 1136.
In the middle of the XI century. in Novgorod, chronicles were already being written at the church of St. Sophia. The Novgorod chronicles are generally distinguished by their brevity, businesslike tone, simple language, and the absence of rhetorical embellishments and colorful descriptions. They are designed for the Novgorod reader, and not for general Russian distribution, they tell about local history, rarely affect events in other lands, and then mainly in their relation to Novgorod. One of the first ancient Russian writers known to us by name was Luka Zhidyata († 1059-60), Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 (The nickname is a diminutive formation from the worldly name Zhidoslav or the church name George: Gyurgiy> Gyurat> Zhydyata.) His "Instruction to the brethren "on the foundations of the Christian faith and piety represents a completely different type of rhetorical strategy in comparison with Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace". It is devoid of oratorical tricks, written in a generally accessible language, simply and briefly.
In 1015, an uprising broke out in Novgorod, caused by the shameless management of the prince's retinue, which largely consisted of Varangian mercenaries. To prevent such clashes, at the behest of Yaroslav the Wise and with his participation, in 1016 the first written judicial code in Rus' was compiled - "The Ancient Truth", or "The Truth of Yaroslav". This is a fundamental document in the history of ancient Russian law in the 11th - early 12th centuries. In the first half of the XI century. he entered the Brief edition of "Russian Truth" - the legislation of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. "Brief Truth" has come down to us in two lists of the middle of the XV century. in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the younger version. In the first third of the XII century. the "Brief Pravda" was replaced by a new legislative code - the lengthy edition of the "Russian Truth". This is an independent monument, which includes various legal documents, including the "Brief Truth". The oldest copy of the "Various Truth" was preserved in the Novgorod helmsman in 1280. The appearance at the very beginning of our writing of an exemplary legislative code written in Old Russian was of exceptionally great importance for the development of the business language.
The most important sources of everyday writing XI-XV centuries. are birch bark letters. Their cultural and historical significance is extremely great. Texts on birch bark made it possible to put an end to the myth of almost universal illiteracy in Ancient Rus'. For the first time birch-bark letters were discovered in 1951 during archaeological excavations in Novgorod. Then they were found in Staraya Russa, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Torzhok, Moscow, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, Zvenigorod Galitsky (near Lvov). Currently, their collection includes over a thousand documents. The vast majority of sources come from Novgorod and its lands.
Unlike expensive parchment, birch bark was the most democratic and easily accessible writing material. On soft birch bark, letters were squeezed out or scratched with a sharp metal or bone rod, which was called writing. Only rarely was pen and ink used. The oldest birch-bark writings found today date from the first half to the middle of the 11th century. The social composition of the authors and addressees of birch bark letters is very wide. Among them are not only representatives of the titled nobility, clergy and monasticism, which is understandable in itself, but also merchants, elders, housekeepers, warriors, artisans, peasants, etc., which indicates the widespread literacy in Rus' already in the 11th-12th centuries. Women took part in the correspondence on birch bark. Sometimes they are the addressees or authors of the messages. There are several letters sent from woman to woman. Almost all birch-bark writings were written in Old Russian, and only a few were written in Church Slavonic.
Birch bark letters, mostly private letters. Everyday life and worries of a medieval person appear in them in great detail. The authors of the messages talk about their affairs: family, economic, commercial, monetary, judicial, about trips, military campaigns, expeditions for tribute, etc. Business documents are not uncommon: invoices, receipts, records of promissory notes, owner's labels, wills, bills of sale , petitions from the peasants to the feudal lord, etc. Educational texts are interesting: exercises, alphabets, lists of numbers, lists of syllables by which they learned to read. Conspiracies, a riddle, a school joke have also been preserved. All this everyday side of the medieval way of life, all these trifles of life, so obvious to contemporaries and constantly eluding researchers, are poorly reflected in the literature of the 11th-15th centuries.
Occasionally there are birch bark letters of ecclesiastical and literary content: fragments of liturgical texts, prayers and teachings, for example, two quotations from Cyril of Turov's "Word on Wisdom" (see § 3.1) in the birch bark copy of the first 20th anniversary of the 13th century. from Torzhok.
§ 3. Decentralization of Old Russian literature
(second third of the 12th - first quarter of the 13th century)
§ 3.1. Old and new literary centers. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh's son Mstislav the Great († 1132), Kyiv lost power over most of the Russian lands. Kievan Rus broke up into a dozen and a half sovereign and semi-sovereign states. Feudal fragmentation was accompanied by cultural decentralization. Although the largest ecclesiastical, political and cultural centers were still Kyiv and Novgorod, literary life awakened and developed in other lands: Vladimir, Smolensk, Turov, Polotsk, etc.
A prominent representative of Byzantine influence in the pre-Mongolian period is Kliment Smolyatich, the second after Hilarion Metropolitan of Kiev (1147-55, with short breaks), elected and installed in Rus' from local natives. (His nickname comes from the name Smolyat and does not indicate an origin from the Smolensk land.) In the polemical letter of Clement to the Smolensk presbyter Thomas (mid-12th century), Homer, Aristotle, Plato, the interpretation of Holy Scripture with the help of parables and allegories, the search for spiritual meaning are discussed in objects of material nature, as well as schedography - the highest course of literacy in Greek education, which consisted in grammatical analysis and memorization of exercises (words, forms, etc.) for each letter of the alphabet.
Skillful rhetorical technique is distinguished by a solemn thankful speech to the Grand Duke of Kiev Rurik Rostislavich, written by Moses, hegumen of the Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky Monastery near Kiev, on the occasion of the completion of construction work in 1199 on the erection of a wall that strengthens the shore under the ancient St. Michael's Cathedral. It is assumed that Moses was the chronicler of Rurik Rostislavich and the compiler of the Kyiv Grand Duke's code of 1200, preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle.
One of the most learned scribes was the hierodeacon and domestik (church regent) of the Antoniev Monastery in Novgorod Kirik, the first ancient Russian mathematician. He wrote mathematical and chronological works, united in "The Doctrine of Numbers" (1136) and "Questioning" (mid-XII century) - a work of complex composition in the form of questions to the local Archbishop Nifont, Metropolitan Kliment Smolyatich and other persons concerning various aspects of church ritual and secular life and discussed among the Novgorod parishioners and clergy. It is possible that Kirik participated in the local archiepiscopal annals. At the end of the 1160s. priest Herman Voyata, having revised the previous chronicle, compiled the archiepiscopal code. The early Novgorod chronicle and the Kiev-Pechersk Initial Code were reflected in the Synodal List of the 13th-14th centuries. Novgorod First Chronicle.
Before his monastic vows, Dobrynya Yadreikovich from Novgorod (since 1211 Archbishop Anthony of Novgorod) traveled to the holy places in Constantinople until it was captured by the crusaders in 1204. What he saw during the journey is briefly described by him in the "Book of the Pilgrim" - a kind of guide to the Tsargrad shrines . The fall of Constantinople in 1204 is dedicated to the testimony of an unknown eyewitness, included in the Novgorod First Chronicle - "The Tale of the Capture of Tsargrad by the Friags." Written with external impartiality and objectivity, the story significantly complements the picture of the defeat of Constantinople by the Crusaders of the Fourth Campaign, drawn by Latin and Byzantine historians and memoirists.
Bishop Cyril of Turov († c. 1182), the "chrysostom" of Ancient Rus', brilliantly mastered the techniques of Byzantine oratory. The loftiness of religious feelings and thoughts, the depth of theological interpretations, expressive language, visual comparisons, a subtle sense of nature - all this made the sermons of Cyril of Turov a wonderful monument of ancient Russian eloquence. They can be put on a par with the best works of contemporary Byzantine preaching. The creations of Cyril of Turov gained distribution in Rus' and beyond its borders - among the Orthodox southern Slavs, caused numerous alterations and imitations. In total, more than 30 works are attributed to him: a cycle of 8 words for the holidays of the Colored Triodion, a cycle of weekly prayers, "The Tale of the Belorussian and the Minish and the Soul and Repentance", etc. According to I. P. Eremin, in an allegorical form " Parables about the human soul and body "(between 1160-69) Cyril of Turovsky wrote an accusatory pamphlet against Bishop Feodor of Rostov, who fought with the support of the appanage prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky, for the independence of his department from the Kiev Metropolis.
Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which had been one of the youngest and most insignificant destinies before him, experienced a political and cultural flourishing. Having become the most powerful prince in Rus', Andrei Bogolyubsky dreamed of uniting the Russian lands under his power. In the struggle for ecclesiastical independence from Kiev, he either thought of separating the Suzdal region from the diocese of Rostov and establishing in Rus' a second (after Kiev) metropolis in Vladimir, then after the refusal of the Patriarch of Constantinople, he tried to obtain autocephaly from him for the Rostov bishopric. Significant assistance in this struggle was provided to him by literature glorifying his deeds and local shrines, proving the special patronage of the heavenly forces of North-Eastern Rus'.
Andrei Bogolyubsky was distinguished by a deep reverence for the Mother of God. Having left for Vladimir from Vyshgorod near Kiev, he took with him an ancient icon of the Mother of God (according to legend, painted by the Evangelist Luke), and then ordered to compose a legend about her miracles. The work affirms the chosenness of the Vladimir-Suzdal state among other Russian principalities and the primacy of the political importance of its sovereign. The legend marked the beginning of a popular cycle of monuments about one of the most beloved Russian shrines - the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, which later included "The Tale of Temir Aksak" (beginning of the 15th century; see § 5.2 and § 7.8) and the compilation "The Tale of the Vladimir Icon Mother of God" (middle of the 16th century). In the 1160s under Andrei Bogolyubsky, the feast of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos was established on October 1 in memory of the appearance of the Mother of God to Andrei the Holy Fool and Epiphanius in the Blachernae Church in Constantinople, praying for Christians and covering them with her headdress - omophorion (see § 2.2). Old Russian works created in honor of this holiday (prologue, service, words on the Intercession) explain it as a special intercession and patronage of the Mother of God of the Russian land.
Having defeated the Volga Bulgarians on August 1, 1164, Andrei Bogolyubsky composed a thankful "Sermon on the Mercy of God" (First edition - 1164) and established a feast for the All-Merciful Savior and the Most Holy Theotokos. These events are also dedicated to the "Legend of the victory over the Volga Bulgarians in 1164 and the feast of the All-Merciful Savior and the Most Holy Theotokos" (1164-65), celebrated on August 1 in memory of the victories on this day of the Byzantine emperor Manuel Komnenos (1143-80) over the Saratsins and Andrei Bogolyubsky over the Volga Bulgarians. The legend reflected the growing military and political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal state and portrayed Manuel Komnenos and Andrei Bogolyubsky as equal in glory and dignity.
After the discovery in Rostov in 1164 of the relics of Bishop Leonty, who preached Christianity in the Rostov land and was killed by pagans around 1076, a short edition of his life was written (until 1174). "The Life of Leonty of Rostov", one of the most widespread works of ancient Russian hagiography, glorifies the holy martyr as the heavenly patron of Vladimir Rus'.
The strengthening of princely power led to a clash between Andrei Bogolyubsky and the boyar opposition. The death of the prince in 1174 as a result of a palace conspiracy was vividly captured by the dramatic "The Tale of the Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky" (probably between 1174-77), combining high literary merit with historically important and accurate details. The author was an eyewitness to the events, which does not exclude the recording of the story from his words (one of the possible authors is the servant of the murdered prince Kuzmishch Kiyanin).
Daniil Zatochnik, one of the most enigmatic ancient Russian authors (12th or 13th century), also develops the eternal theme of "woe from wit". His work has been preserved in several editions in the lists of the 16th - 17th centuries, apparently reflecting a late stage in the history of the monument. "Word" and "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik, in fact, are two independent works created at the intersection of book, primarily biblical, and folklore traditions. In the figurative form of allegories and aphorisms, close to the maxims of "Bees", the author sarcastically depicted the life and customs of his time, the tragedy of an outstanding person who is haunted by need and trouble. Daniil Zatochnik is a supporter of the strong and "formidable" princely power, to which he turns with a request for help and protection. In genre terms, the work can be compared with Western European "prayers" for pardon, for release from prison, often written in verse in the form of aphorisms and parables (for example, Byzantine monuments of the 12th century. "Works of Prodrom, Mr. Theodore", "Poems by the grammarian Mikhail Glyka" ).
§ 3.2. Swan song of the literature of Kievan Rus: "A word about Igor's regiment". In line with the medieval pan-European literary process, there is also "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (end of the 12th century), a lyrical-epic work associated with the retinue milieu and poetry. The reason for its creation was the unsuccessful campaign of 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians. The defeat of Igor is dedicated to military stories that have come down in the Laurentian Chronicle (1377) and the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 10s - early 20s of the 15th century). However, only the author of the "Word" managed to turn a private episode of numerous wars with the Steppe into a great poetic monument, standing on a par with such masterpieces of the medieval epic as the French "Song of Roland" (apparently, the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century), the Spanish "Song of my Side" (c. 1140), the German "Song of the Nibelungs" (c. 1200), "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" by the Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli (late XII - early XIII century).
The poetic imagery of the "Word" is closely connected with pagan ideas that were alive in the 12th century. The author managed to combine the rhetorical devices of church literature with the traditions of epic poetry of the retinue, the model of which, in his eyes, was the creation of the poet-singer of the 11th century. Boyana. The political ideals of the Slovo are connected with the fading Kievan Rus. Its creator is a staunch opponent of princely "seditions" - civil strife that ruined the Russian land. "The Word" is imbued with a passionate patriotic pathos of the unity of the princes for protection from external enemies. In this respect, the "Sermon about the princes" is close to him, directed against the civil strife that torn apart Rus' (possibly, the XII century).
"The Word about Igor's Campaign" was discovered by Count AI Musin-Pushkin in the early 1790s. and published by him according to the only surviving list in 1800 (By the way, in a single manuscript, moreover, extremely faulty and incomplete, the "Song of my Sid" has come down to us.) During the Patriotic War of 1812, the collection with the "Word" burned down in the Moscow fire. The artistic perfection of the "Word", its mysterious fate and death gave rise to doubts about the authenticity of the monument. All attempts to challenge the antiquity of the Lay, to declare it a forgery of the 18th century. (French Slavist A. Mazon, Moscow historian A. A. Zimin, American historian E. Keenan, etc.) are scientifically untenable.
§ 4. Literature of the era of the struggle against the foreign yoke
(second quarter of the 13th - end of the 14th century)
§ 4.1. The tragic theme of ancient Russian literature. The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to ancient Russian literature, led to its noticeable reduction and decline, and interrupted book ties with other Slavs for a long time. The first tragic battle with the conquerors on the Kalka River in 1223 is dedicated to the stories preserved in the Novgorod First, Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. In 1237-40. hordes of nomads, led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, poured into Rus', sowing death and destruction everywhere. The stubborn resistance of Rus', which held a "shield between two hostile races of the Mongols and Europe" ("Scythians" by A. A. Blok), undermined the military power of the Mongol-Tatar horde, which ruined, but no longer held Hungary, Poland and Dalmatia in their hands.
The foreign invasion was perceived in Rus' as a sign of the end of the world and God's punishment for the grave sins of all the people. The former greatness, power and beauty of the country is mourned by the lyrical "Sermon about the destruction of the Russian land". The time of Vladimir Monomakh is portrayed as the era of the highest glory and prosperity of Rus'. The work vividly conveys the feelings of contemporaries - the idealization of the past and deep sorrow for the bleak present. "The Word" is a rhetorical fragment (beginning) of a lost work about the Mongol-Tatar invasion (according to the most likely opinion, between 1238-46). The excerpt has been preserved in two lists, but not in a separate form, but as a kind of prologue to the original edition of the Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.
The most prominent church preacher of that time was Serapion. In 1274, shortly before his death († 1275), he was made Bishop of Vladimir from among the archimandrites of the Kiev Caves Monastery. From his work, 5 teachings have been preserved - a vivid monument of the tragic era. In three of them, the author paints a vivid picture of the defeat and disasters that have befallen Rus', considers them God's punishment for sins, and preaches the path of salvation in popular repentance and moral cleansing. In two other teachings, he denounces belief in witchcraft and gross superstitions. The works of Serapion are distinguished by deep sincerity, sincerity of feelings, simplicity and at the same time skillful rhetorical technique. This is not only one of the fine examples of ancient Russian ecclesiastical eloquence, but also a valuable historical source, revealing with particular force and brightness life and moods during the "destruction of the Russian land."
13th century gave an outstanding monument of South Russian annals - the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, consisting of two independent parts: "The chronicler Daniel of Galicia" (until 1260) and the annals of the Vladimir-Volyn principality (from 1261 to 1290). The court historiographer of Daniil Galitsky was a man of high book culture and literary skill, an innovator in the field of chronicle writing. For the first time, he compiled not a traditional weather chronicle, but created a coherent and coherent historical story, not bound by records over the years. His work is a vivid biography of the warrior prince Daniel of Galicia, who fought against the Mongol-Tatars, Polish and Hungarian feudal lords, and the rebellious Galician boyars. The author used the traditions of squad epic poetry, folk legends, subtly understood the poetry of the steppe, as evidenced by the beautiful Polovtsian legend he retold about the grass evshan ‘wormwood’ and Khan Otr o ke.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion revived the ideals of a wise sovereign, a courageous defender of his native land and the Orthodox faith, ready to sacrifice himself for them. A typical example of a martyr's life (or martyria) is the "Legend of the murder in the Horde of Prince Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Theodore." In 1246, they were both executed by order of Batu Khan for refusing to bow to pagan idols. A short (prologue) edition of the monument appeared no later than 1271 in Rostov, where Maria Mikhailovna, the daughter of the murdered prince, and his grandsons Boris and Gleb ruled. Subsequently, on its basis, more extensive editions of the work arose, the author of one of which was the priest Andrei (no later than the end of the 13th century).
The conflict in the oldest monument of Tver hagiography - "The Life of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver" (late 1319 - early 1320 or 1322-27) has a pronounced political background. In 1318, Mikhail of Tverskoy was killed in the Golden Horde with the approval of the Tatars by the people of Prince Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, his rival in the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. The life portrayed Yuri Danilovich in the most unfavorable light and contained anti-Moscow attacks. In the official literature of the XVI century. it was subjected to strong pro-Moscow censorship. Under the son of the martyr, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, a popular uprising broke out in Tver in 1327 against the Khan's Baskak Chol Khan. The response to these events was "The Tale of Shevkal", which appeared shortly after them, included in the Tver chronicles, and the folk historical song "About Shchelkan Dudentevich".
The "military-heroic" direction in hagiography is developed by "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". Its original edition was probably created in the 1280s. in the Vladimir Monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin, where Alexander Nevsky was originally buried. An unknown author, who was fluent in various literary techniques, skillfully combined the traditions of a military story and life. The bright face of the young hero of the Battle of the Neva in 1240 and the Battle of the Ice in 1242, the winner of the Swedish and German knights, the defender of Rus' from foreign invaders and Orthodoxy from Roman Catholic expansion, a pious Christian became a model for subsequent princely biographies and military stories. The work influenced the "Tale of Dovmont" (2nd quarter of the 14th century). The reign of Dovmont (1266-99), who fled to Rus' from Lithuania because of civil strife and was baptized, became for Pskov a time of prosperity and victories over external enemies, Lithuanians and Livonian knights. The story is connected with the Pskov chronicle writing, which began in the 13th century. (see § 5.3).
Two interesting works of the end of the 13th century are devoted to princely power. The image of the ideal ruler is presented in the message-admonition of the monk Jacob to his spiritual son, Prince Dmitry Borisovich of Rostov (possibly, 1281). The responsibility of the prince for the affairs of his administration, the question of justice and truth is considered in the "Punishment" of the first Bishop of Tver Simeon (+ 1289) to Prince Konstantin of Polotsk.
Stories about the foreign invasion and the heroic struggle of the Russian people overgrown with legendary details over time. The Tale of Nikol Zarazsky, a lyrical-epic masterpiece of regional Ryazan literature, is distinguished by high artistic merit. The work dedicated to the local shrine - the icon of Nikola Zarazsky, includes the story of its transfer from Korsun to Ryazan land in 1225 and the story of the devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan in 1237 with praise to the Ryazan princes. One of the main places in the story about the capture of Ryazan is occupied by the image of the epic knight Evpaty Kolovrat. On the example of his valiant deeds and death, it is proved that the heroes in Rus' did not disappear, the heroism and greatness of the spirit of the Russian people, not broken by the enemy and cruelly avenging him for the desecrated land, are glorified. In its final form, the monument was apparently formed in 1560, while it should be borne in mind that over the centuries its ancient core could be subjected and, presumably, was subjected to processing, acquiring actual inaccuracies and anachronisms.
In Smolensk literature of the XIII century. only muffled echoes of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which did not affect Smolensk, are heard. He calls on God to destroy the Ishmaelites, that is, the Tatars, the well-read and educated scribe Ephraim in the life of his teacher Abraham of Smolensk, a valuable monument of local hagiography (apparently, the 2nd half of the 13th century). For understanding the spiritual life of that time, the clash of Abraham, the ascetic scribe, with an environment that does not accept him, is important, depicted by Ephraim. The erudition and preaching gift of Abraham, who read "deep books" (possibly the Apocrypha), became the cause of envy and persecution of him by the local clergy.
The miraculous deliverance of Smolensk from the troops of Batu, who did not besiege or plunder the city, but passed away from it, seemed to contemporaries, was understood as a manifestation of divine intercession. Over time, a local legend developed, completely rethinking historical facts. In it, the young man Mercury is represented as the savior of Smolensk - an epic hero who, with the help of heavenly forces, defeated countless hordes of enemies. In the "Tale of Mercury of Smolensk" (copies from the 16th century), a "wandering" story about a saint carrying his severed head in his hands is used (cf. the same legend about the first bishop of Gaul, Dionysius, who was executed by pagans).
Such later literary adaptations of oral legends about Batyevism include the legend of the invisible city of Kitezh, after its devastation by the Mongol-Tatars, hidden by God until the second coming of Christ. The work was preserved in the late Old Believer literature (2nd half of the 18th century). Faith in the hidden city of the righteous lived among the Old Believers and other religious seekers from the people as early as the 20th century. (See, for example, "At the walls of the invisible city. (Light Lake)" by M. M. Prishvin, 1909).
§ 4.2. Literature of Veliky Novgorod. In Novgorod, which retained its independence, the archbishop's annals continued in a relatively calm atmosphere (its most significant literary part belongs to the sexton of the 13th century Timothy, the manner of presentation of which is distinguished by an abundance of edifying digressions, emotionality, and the widespread use of church-book linguistic means), travel notes appeared - " The Wanderer of Stephen the Novgorodian, who visited Constantinople in 1348 or 1349, created biographies of local saints. Ancient oral traditions preceded the lives of two of the most revered Novgorod saints who lived in the 12th century: Varlaam Khutynsky, founder of the Transfiguration Monastery of the Savior (original version - 13th century), and Archbishop Ilya John of Novgorod (Basic version - between 1471-78). In the "Life of John of Novgorod" the central place is occupied by the legend created at different times about the victory of the Novgorodians over the united Suzdal troops on November 25, 1170 and the establishment of the feast of the Sign of the Virgin, celebrated on November 27 (it is believed that the 40s-50s of the XIV c.), as well as a story about the journey of Archbishop John on a demon to Jerusalem (possibly, the 1st half of the 15th century), using a "wandering" story about a line sworn by a cross or sign of the cross.
For understanding the medieval religious worldview, the message of the Archbishop of Novgorod Vasily Kaliki to the Bishop of Tver Fyodor the Good about paradise (perhaps 1347) is important. It was written in response to the theological disputes in Tver about whether paradise exists only as a special spiritual substance or, in addition to it, in the east of the earth there is a material paradise created for Adam and Eve. Central to the evidence of Vasily Kalika is the story of the acquisition by Novgorod seafarers of an earthly paradise surrounded by high mountains, and an earthly hell. Typologically, this story is close to Western European medieval legends, for example, about Abbot Brendan, who founded many monasteries in England and sailed away to the Paradise Islands. (In turn, the legends of St. Brendan absorbed the ancient Celtic traditions of King Bran's voyage to the otherworldly wonderland.)
Around the middle of the XIV century. in Novgorod, the first significant heretical movement in Rus' appeared - strigolism, which then engulfed Pskov, where in the first quarter of the 15th century. has flourished. Strigolniki denied the clergy and monasticism, church sacraments and rituals. Against them, the "Write-off from the rule of the holy apostles and holy fathers ... to the strigolniks" is directed, among the possible authors of which Bishop Stephen of Perm is named.
§ 5. Revival of Russian literature
(late XIV-XV century)
§ 5.1. "The Second South Slavic Influence". In the XIV century. Byzantium, and after it Bulgaria and Serbia, experienced a cultural upsurge that affected various areas of spiritual life: literature, bookish language, icon painting, theology in the form of the mystical teachings of hesychast monks, that is, silencers (from the Greek. ?uhchYab 'peace, silence, silence '). At this time, the southern Slavs are undergoing a reform of the book language, major translation and editing work is underway in book centers on Mount Athos, in Constantinople, and after that in the capital of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom, Tarnov under Patriarch Euthymius (c. 1375-93). The purpose of the South Slavic book reform of the XIV century. there was a desire to restore the ancient norms of the common Slavic literary language, dating back to the Cyril and Methodius tradition, in the XII-XI V centuries. more and more isolated by national izvoda, to streamline the graphic and orthographic system, to bring it closer to the Greek spelling.
By the end of the XIV century. among the southern Slavs, a large corpus of church monuments was translated from Greek. The translations were caused by the increased needs of cenobitic monasteries and hesychast monks in ascetic and theological literature, the rules of monastic life and religious controversy. In the main, works not known in Slavic writing were translated: Isaac the Syrian, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Peter Damaskin, Abba Dorotheus, Simeon the New Theologian, preachers of renewed hesychast ideas Gregory of Sinai and Gregory Palamas, etc. Such old translations as the "Ladder" of John of the Ladder , were checked against the Greek originals and thoroughly revised. The revival of translation activity was facilitated by the church reform - the replacement of the Studian church charter by the Jerusalem one, carried out first in Byzantium, and then, by the middle of the 14th century, in Bulgaria and Serbia. The church reform demanded from the South Slavs the translation of new texts, the reading of which was provided for by the Jerusalem Rule during worship. This is how the verse Prologue, the Triode Synaxarion, the Menaion and the Triode Solemnist, the Teaching Gospel of Patriarch Callistus, and others appeared. All this literature was not known in Rus' (or existed in old translations). Ancient Rus' was in dire need of the book treasures of the southern Slavs.
In the XIV century. Rus''s ties with Athos and Constantinople, the largest centers of cultural contacts between Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs and Russians, interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, resumed. In the last decades of the XIV century. and in the first half of the fifteenth century. The Jerusalem Charter was widely used in Ancient Rus'. At the same time, the South Slavic manuscripts were transferred to Rus', where, under their influence, "book writing on the right" began - editing church texts and reforming the literary language. The main directions of the reform were to "purify" the bookish language from "corruption" (rapprochement with colloquial speech), its archaization and Greekization. The renewal of bookishness was caused by the internal needs of Russian life. Simultaneously with the "second South Slavic influence" and independently of it, the revival of Old Russian literature took place. Diligently searched for, copied and distributed works that had survived from the era of Kievan Rus. The revival of pre-Mongolian literature, combined with the "second South Slavic influence" ensured the rapid rise of Russian literature in the 15th century.
From the end of the XIV century. rhetorical changes are taking place in Russian literature. At this time, a special rhetorically decorated manner of presentation appears and develops, which contemporaries called "word weaving". "Weaving words" revived the rhetorical devices known in the eloquence of Kievan Rus ("The Word of Law and Grace" by Hilarion, "Memory and Praise to the Russian Prince Vladimir" by Jacob, works by Cyril of Turov), but gave them even more solemnity and emotionality. In the XIV-XV centuries. Old Russian rhetorical traditions were enriched as a result of increased ties with South Slavic literatures. Russian scribes got acquainted with the rhetorically decorated works of Serbian hagiographers of the 13th-14th centuries. Domentian, Theodosius and Archbishop Danila II, with monuments of the Bulgarian Tarnovo literary school (primarily with the lives and laudatory words of Patriarch Evfimy Tyrnovskiy), with the Chronicle of Constantine Manasseh and "Dioptra" by Philip the Hermit - South Slavic translations of Byzantine poetic works, made in the XIV century. ornamental, rhythmic prose.
"Weaving of words" reached its highest development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise. This style was most clearly manifested in the "Life of Stephen of Perm" (1396-98 or 1406-10), the enlightener of the pagan Komi-Zyryans, the creator of the Perm alphabet and literary language, the first bishop of Perm. Less emotional and rhetorical is Epiphanius the Wise in the biography of the spiritual educator of the Russian people Sergius of Radonezh (completed in 1418-19). Life shows in the person of Sergius of Radonezh the ideal of humility, love, meekness, poverty and non-acquisitiveness.
The spread of South Slavic influence was facilitated by some Bulgarian and Serbian scribes who moved to Rus'. Prominent representatives of the literary school of Patriarch Evfimy Tyrnovskiy were Metropolitan of All Rus' Cyprian, who finally settled in Moscow in 1390, and Grigory Tsamblak, Metropolitan of Lithuanian Rus (since 1415). Serb Pakhomiy Logofet became famous as the author and editor of many lives, church services, canons, words of praise. Pakhomiy Logofet revised the "Life of Sergius of Radonezh" by Epiphanius the Wise and created several new editions of this monument (1438-50s). Later, he wrote "The Life of Kirill Belozersky" (1462), making extensive use of eyewitness accounts. The lives of Pachomius Logofet, built according to a clear scheme and decorated with "weaving of words", stand at the origins of a special trend in Russian hagiography with its rigid etiquette and magnificent eloquence.
§ 5.2. The collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Moscow. During the Turkish invasion of the Balkans and Byzantium, an interesting monument appeared - "The Legend of the Babylonian Kingdom" (1390s - until 1439). Going back to oral legend, it substantiates the succession of the Byzantine imperial power from the Babylonian monarchy, the arbiter of the destinies of the world, and at the same time proves the equality of Byzantium, Rus' and Abkhazia-Georgia. The subtext was probably in the call for joint actions of Orthodox countries in support of Byzantium, which was dying under the blows of the Turks.
The threat of the Turkish conquest forced the authorities of Constantinople to seek help in the Catholic West and, in order to save the empire, make important concessions in the field of religious dogma, agree to submit to the Pope of Rome and unite the churches. The Florentine Union of 1439, rejected by Moscow and all Orthodox countries, undermined the influence of the Greek Church on Rus'. The Russian participants in the embassy to the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral (Bishop Abraham of Suzdal and scribes in his retinue) left notes telling about the journey through Western Europe and its sights. Literary merits are distinguished by "Going to the Cathedral of Florence" by an unknown Suzdal scribe (1437-40) and, obviously, his "Note on Rome". Also of interest are the Exodus by Bishop Abraham of Suzdal and the Tale of the Florentine Cathedral by Hieromonk Simeon of Suzdal (1447).
In 1453, after a 52-day siege, Constantinople fell under the blows of the Turks, the second Rome - the heart of the once huge Byzantine Empire. In Rus', the collapse of the empire and the conquest of the entire Orthodox East by Muslims were considered God's punishment for the great sin of the Union of Florence. The translated "Sobbing" by the Byzantine writer John Eugenikos (50s-60s of the XV century) and the original "The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Turks" (2nd half of the XV century) are dedicated to the fall of Constantinople - a talented literary monument and valuable historical source attributed to Nestor Iskander. At the end of the story, there is a prophecy about the future liberation of Constantinople by the "Rus" - an idea that was later repeatedly discussed in Russian literature.
The conquest of the Orthodox countries by the Turks took place against the backdrop of the gradual rise of Moscow as a spiritual and political center. Of exceptional importance was the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow under Metropolitan Peter (1308-26), the first Moscow saint and heavenly patron of the capital. Based on the Brief Edition of the "Life of Metropolitan Peter" (1327-28), the earliest monument of Moscow hagiography, Metropolitan Cyprian compiled a lengthy edition (end of the 14th century), which included Peter's prophecy about the future greatness of Moscow.
The great victory over the Tatars on the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380 meant a radical turning point in the struggle against foreign domination, was of exceptional importance for the formation of Russian national identity, and was a unifying beginning in the era of fragmentation of Russian lands. She convinced her contemporaries that the wrath of God had passed, that the Tatars could be defeated, that complete liberation from the hated yoke was not far off.
The echo of the Kulikovo victory did not cease in literature for more than a century. The cycle about the heroes and events of the "battle on the Don" includes a short (original) and lengthy story about the Battle of Kulikovo as part of the chronicles under 1380. The author of the lyric-epic "Zadonshchina" (1380s or, in any case, not later 1470s) turned in search of literary samples to the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", but rethought his source. The writer saw in the defeat of the Tatars a fulfilled call of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" to put an end to internecine strife and unite in the fight against nomads. The "Tale of the Battle of Mamaev" (no later than the end of the 15th century) was widely used in the manuscript tradition - the most extensive and fascinating story about the Battle of Kulikovo, however, containing obvious anachronisms, epic and legendary details. Adjacent to the Kulikovo cycle is the "Sermon on the Life and Repose of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia" (perhaps 1412-19) - a solemn panegyric in honor of the winner of the Tatars Dmitry Donskoy, close in language and rhetorical devices to the literary manner of Epiphanius the Wise and, probably written by him.
The events after the Battle of Kulikovo are told in "The Tale of the Invasion of Khan Tokhtamysh", who captured and plundered Moscow in 1382, and "The Tale of Temir Aksak" (beginning of the 15th century). The last work is dedicated to the invasion of Rus' in 1395 by the hordes of the Central Asian conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) and the miraculous salvation of the country after the transfer of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, the "sovereign intercessor" of the Russian land, to Moscow (after standing at the Oka for 15 days, Timur unexpectedly turned back to the south). "The Tale of Temir Aksak", proving the special patronage of the Mother of God of Moscow Russia, was included in the monumental grand ducal Moscow chronicle of 1479. This monument, compiled shortly after the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow under Ivan III (see § 5.3), formed the basis of all official of the all-Russian chronicle of the end of the 15th-16th centuries, grand-ducal and tsarist.
The reign of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III (1462-1505), married to Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog - the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, was marked by the cultural upsurge of Russia, its return to Europe, the unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the liberation from the Tatar yoke in 1480 At the moment of the highest confrontation between Moscow and the Golden Horde, Archbishop Vassian of Rostov sent the rhetorically embellished "Message to the Ugra" (1480) - an important historical document and publicistic monument. Following the example of Sergius of Radonezh, who, according to legend, blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the battle, Vassian called on Ivan III to decisively fight the Tatars, declaring his power royal and God-affirmed.
§ 5.3. local literary centers. By the second half of the XV century. the first surviving Pskov chronicles are included, and at the same time three branches of local chronicle writing are distinguished, different in their ideological and political views: the Pskov first, beginning with the "Tale of Dovmont" (see § 4.1), the second and third chronicles. Already in the XIV century. Dovmont was revered as a local saint and heavenly patron of Pskov, which in 1348 separated from the Novgorod feudal republic and was the center of an independent principality until 1510, when it was subordinated to Moscow, as an eyewitness of events, well-read and talented, tells in a deeply lyrical and figurative form the author, in "The Tale of the Pskov Capture" (1510s) as part of the Pskov First Chronicle.
In the XV century. in the literature of Veliky Novgorod, conquered by Ivan III in 1478, the "Tale of the Posadnik Shchile" appears (apparently, not earlier than 1462) - a legend about a usurer who fell into a hellhole, proving the saving power of prayer for dead sinners; a simple, unadorned "Life of Mikhail Klopsky" (1478-79); a chronicle story about the campaign of Ivan III against Novgorod in 1471, opposed to the official position of Moscow in covering this event. In the Moscow Chronicle of 1479, the main content of the story about Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod in 1471 lies in the idea of the greatness of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands and the succession of grand ducal power since the time of Rurik.
The swan song to the mighty Tver principality (shortly before its annexation to Moscow in 1485) was composed by the court writer monk Foma in a rhetorically decorated panegyric "A word of praise for the Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich" (c. 1453). Depicting Boris Alexandrovich as the political leader of the Russian land, Thomas called him "autocratic sovereign" and "tsar", in relation to whom the Grand Duke of Moscow acted as a junior.
The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote about the lack of brotherly love between the princes and justice in Rus', switching to a mixed Turkic-Persian language for safety. Abandoned by fate in a foreign land, he spoke in a simple and expressive language about wanderings in distant countries and his stay in India in 1471-74. in travel notes "Journey beyond three seas". Before Nikitin, there was an image of India in Russian literature as the fabulously rich kingdom of Prester John, as a mysterious country located not far from the earthly paradise, inhabited by blessed sages, where amazing miracles are encountered at every step. This fantastic image was formed by the "Tale of the Indian Kingdom" - a translation of the Greek work of the XII century, "Alexandria" - a Christian alteration of the Hellenistic novel by Pseudo-Kallisfen about Alexander the Great (in the South Slavic translation no later than the XIV century), "The Word about the Rahmans", ascending to the Chronicle of George Amartol and preserved in the list of the end of the 15th century. In contrast, Afanasy Nikitin created a real portrait of India, showed her brilliance and poverty, described her life, customs and folk legends (legends about the gukuk bird and the prince of monkeys).
In passing, it should be noted that the deeply personal content of the "Journey", the simplicity and immediacy of his story, are close to the notes of the monk Innokenty on the death of Pafnuty Borovsky (apparently, 1477-78), the spiritual teacher of Joseph Volotsky, who created a major literary and book center in the Joseph-Volokolamsk founded by him monastery and became one of the leaders of the "Militant Church".
§ 6. Literature of the "Third Rome"
(late 15th - 16th century)
§ 6.1. "Heretical Storm" in Rus'. End of the 15th century was engulfed in religious ferment, generated, among other reasons, by the uncertainty of religious and cultural guidelines in the minds of the educated part of Russian society after the fall of Constantinople and the expectation of the end of the world in 7000 from the Creation of the world (in 1492 from the Nativity of Christ). The heresy of the "Judaizers" originated in the 1470s. in Novgorod, shortly before the loss of independence, and then spread to Moscow, which defeated him. The heretics questioned the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and did not consider the Virgin Mary to be the Theotokos. They did not recognize church sacraments, condemned the worship of sacred objects, and sharply opposed the veneration of relics and icons. Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod and abbot Joseph Volotsky led the fight against freethinkers. An important monument of theological thought and religious struggle of that time is the "Book on the Novgorod heretics" by Joseph Volotsky (Short edition - no earlier than 1502, Lengthy - 1510-11). This "hammer of the Jews" (cf. the name of the book of the Inquisitor John of Frankfurt, published around 1420) or, more precisely, the "hammer of heretics" was renamed in the lists of the 17th century. in "Illuminator".
At the archbishop's court in Novgorod, Gennady created a large book center open to Western European influences. He gathered a whole staff of employees who translated from Latin and German. Among them were the Dominican monk Veniamin, obviously a Croat by nationality, the German Nikolai Bulev, Vlas Ignatov, Dmitry Gerasimov. Under the leadership of Gennady, the first complete biblical collection among the Orthodox Slavs was compiled and translated - the Bible of 1499. In addition to Slavic sources, the Latin (Vulgate) and German Bibles were used in its preparation. The theocratic program of Gennady is substantiated in the work of Benjamin (probably 1497), written in defense of church property from attempts on them by Ivan III and asserting the superiority of spiritual power over secular.
By order of Gennady, an excerpt (8th chapter) from the calendar treatise by Guillaume Duran (Wilhelm Durandus) "Conference of Divine Affairs" was translated from Latin in connection with the need to compile the Paschalia for the "eighth thousand years" (1495) and the anti-Jewish book "of the teacher Samuel the Jew "(1504). The translation of these works is attributed to Nikolai Bulev or Dmitry Gerasimov. The last of them, also by order of Gennady, translated the Latin anti-Jewish work of Nicholas de Lira "Proof of the Coming of Christ" (1501).
In 1504, at a church council in Moscow, the heretics were found guilty, after which some of them were executed, while others were sent into exile in monasteries. The most prominent figure among the Moscow freethinkers and their leader was the clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn, who was close to the court of Ivan III. Kuritsyn is credited with "The Tale of the Governor Dracula" (1482-85). The historical prototype of this character is Prince Vlad, nicknamed Tepes (literally 'Impaler'), who ruled "in the Muntean land" (the old Russian name for the principality of Wallachia in southern Romania) and died in 1477 shortly before Kuritsyn's embassy to Hungary and Moldova ( 1482-84). There were numerous rumors and anecdotes about the monstrous inhumanity of Dracula, which Russian diplomats got acquainted with. Talking about the numerous cruelties of the "evil-wise" Dracula and comparing him with the devil, the Russian author at the same time emphasizes his justice, merciless fight against evil and crime. Dracula seeks to eradicate evil and establish the "great truth" in the country, but operates with methods of unlimited violence. The question of the limits of supreme power and the moral image of the sovereign became one of the main ones in Russian journalism of the 16th century.
§ 6.2. The rise of journalism. On the 16th century there was an unprecedented rise in journalism. One of the most remarkable and mysterious publicists, the authenticity of whose writings and personality itself has repeatedly raised doubts, is Ivan Peresvetov, a native of Lithuanian Rus', who served in mercenary troops in Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. Arriving in Moscow in the late 30s. In the 16th century, during the boyar "autocracy" under the young Ivan IV, Peresvetov took an active part in the discussion of the burning issues of Russian life. He filed petitions to the king, spoke with political treatises, wrote journalistic works (tales "about Magmet-saltan" and Tsar Constantine Palaiologos). Peresvetov's political treatise, containing an extensive program of state reforms, is in the form of a large petition to Ivan IV (1540s). The writer is a staunch supporter of a strong autocracy. His ideal is a military monarchy modeled after the Ottoman Empire. The basis of its power is the military class. The king is obliged to take care of the well-being of the service nobility. Anticipating the oprichnina terror, Peresvetov advised Ivan IV to put an end to the arbitrariness of the nobles who ruined the state with the help of a "storm".
Russian writers understood that from a strong one-man power to Dracula's "human rule" there was only one step. They tried to limit the "royal storm" by law and mercy. In a letter to Metropolitan Daniel (until 1539), Fyodor Karpov saw the state ideal in a monarchy based on law, truth and mercy.
Church writers were divided into two camps - Josephites and non-possessors, or Trans-Volga elders. Metropolitan Gennady, Joseph Volotsky and his followers, the Josephites (Metropolitans Daniel and Macarius, Zinovy Otensky, and others) defended the right of cenobitic monasteries to own land and peasants, accept rich donations, while not allowing any personal property of a monk. They demanded the death penalty for stubborn heretics, rooted in their delusions ("Sermon on the Condemnation of Heretics" in the Lengthy Edition of the "Illuminator" by Joseph Volotsky 1510-11).
The spiritual father of the non-possessors, the "great old man" Nil Sorsky (c. 1433-7. V. 1508), a preacher of the skete's silent life, did not take part in the church-political struggle - this was contrary, first of all, to his inner convictions. However, his writings, moral authority and spiritual experience had a great influence on the Trans-Volga elders. Nil Sorsky was an opponent of monastic estates and rich contributions, he considered the skete way of life to be the best type of monasticism, understanding it under the influence of hesychasm as an ascetic feat, a path of silence, contemplation and prayer. The dispute with the Josephites was led by his follower, the Monk Prince Vassian Patrikeyev, and later the elder Artemy became a prominent representative of non-covetousness (see § 6.7). The non-possessors believed that repentant freethinkers should be forgiven, and hardened criminals should be sent to prison, but not executed ("Answer of the Kirillov elders to the message of Joseph Volotsky about the condemnation of heretics", possibly 1504). The Josephite party, which occupied the highest church posts, used lawsuits in 1525 and 1531. over Patrikeyev and Maxim the Greek and in 1553-54. over the heretic boyar son Matvey Bashkin and the elder Artemy to deal with non-possessors.
Monuments of the religious struggle are the treatise by Zinovy Otensky "Truth testimony to those who questioned the new teaching" (after 1566) and the anonymous "Message verbose" created approximately at the same time. Both writings are directed against the runaway serf Theodosius Kosoy, the most radical freethinker in the history of ancient Rus', the creator of the "slave doctrine" - the heresy of the masses.
Literature of the first third of the XVI century. developed several ways to connect Russian history with world history. First of all, the Chronograph edition of 1512 (1st quarter of the 16th century), compiled by the nephew and student of Joseph Volotsky, Dosifei Toporkov, should be singled out (see § 6.5). This is a new type of historical work, introducing into the mainstream of world history the history of the Slavs and Rus', understood as a stronghold of Orthodoxy and the heir to the great powers of the past. The legends about the origin of the Moscow sovereigns from the Roman Emperor Augustus (through his mythical relative Prus, one of the ancestors of Prince Rurik) and about Vladimir Monomakh receiving the royal regalia from the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh are combined in the "Message about the Monomakh's Crown" by Spiridon-Sava, the former Metropolitan of Kiev, and in "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". Both legends were used in official documents and Moscow diplomacy in the 16th century.
The answer to Boolev's Catholic propaganda of the church union and the primacy of Rome was the theory "Moscow - the Third Rome", put forward by the elder of the Pskov Eleazarov Monastery Philotheus in a message to the deacon M. G. Misyur Munekhin "against the astrologers" (c. 1523-24). After the falling away of the Catholics from the right faith and the apostasy of the Greeks at the Council of Florence, who were conquered by the Turks as a punishment for this, the center of universal Orthodoxy moved to Moscow. Russia was declared the last world monarchy - the Roman power, the only guardian and defender of the pure faith of Christ. The cycle of main works, united by the theme of the "Third Rome", includes the "Message to the Grand Duke of Moscow about the Sign of the Cross" (between 1524-26), whose belonging to Philotheus is doubtful, and the essay "On the insults of the Church" (30s - early 40s - 16th century) of the so-called successor of Philotheus.
Works that represented Rus' as the last stronghold of true piety and the Christian faith, the heiress of Rome and Constantinople, were created not only in Moscow, but also in Novgorod, which preserved, even after the loss of independence, legends about its former greatness and rivalry with Moscow. "The Tale of the Novgorod White Klobuk" (XVI century) explains the origin of the special headdress of the Novgorod archbishops by the transfer from Constantinople to Novgorod of a white klobuk, given by the first Christian emperor Constantine the Great to Pope Sylvester I. The same path (Rome-Byzantium-Novgorod land) was made the miraculous image of the Mother of God, according to the "Legend of the Icon of the Mother of God of Tikhvin" (end of the 15th - 15th centuries). "The Life of Anthony the Roman" (XVI century) tells about a hermit who, fleeing persecution of Orthodox Christians in Italy, miraculously sailed on a huge stone to Novgorod in 1106 and founded the Nativity Monastery.
A special place in the literature of the XVI century. occupies the work of Tsar Ivan IV. Grozny is a historically colorful type of autocratic author. In the role of "father of the Fatherland" and defender of the right faith, he composed messages, often written with the famous "biting verbs" in a 'mockingly sarcastic manner' (correspondence with Kurbsky, letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery in 1573, to the guardsman Vasily Gryazny in 1574, to the Lithuanian prince Alexander Polubensky in 1577 , Polish King Stefan Batory 1579), gave mandated memory, delivered passionate speeches, rewrote history (additions to the Personal Chronicle, reflecting his political views), participated in the work of church councils, wrote hymnographic works (canon to Angel the Terrible, governor , stichera to Metropolitan Peter, the meeting of the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, etc.), denounced dogmas alien to Orthodoxy, participated in scholarly theological disputes. After an open debate with Jan Rokyta, the pastor of the Bohemian Brethren (an offshoot of Husism), he wrote "Reply to Jan Rokyta" (1570) - one of the best monuments of anti-Protestant controversy.
§ 6.3. Western European influence. Contrary to popular belief, Moscow Rus was not fenced off from Western Europe and the culture of the Latin world. Thanks to Gennady Novgorodsky and his entourage, the repertoire of translated literature, which was previously almost exclusively Greek, changed significantly. The end of the XV - the first decades of the XVI century. marked by an unprecedented interest in the Western European book. There are translations from the German language: "The Debate of the Belly and Death" (end of the 15th century), corresponding to the eschatological moods of its time - the expectations of the end of the world in 7000 (1492); "Lucidarium" (late XV - 1st tr. XVI century) - a general educational book of encyclopedic content, written in the form of a conversation between a teacher and a student; medical treatise "Travnik" (1534), translated by Nikolai Bulev, commissioned by Metropolitan Daniel.
A Westerner was such an original writer as Fyodor Karpov, who was sympathetic (unlike Elder Philotheus and Maxim the Greek) to the Boolean propaganda of astrology. In a letter to Metropolitan Daniel (until 1539), answering the question of what is more important in the state: people's patience or truth, Karpov argued that the social order is based on neither one nor the other, but the law, which should be based on truth and mercy. To prove his ideas, Karpov used Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Ovid's Metamorphoses, The Art of Love and Fasta.
A notable event in the history of Russian translated literature was the secular Latin novel by the Sicilian Guido de Columna (Guido delle Colonne) "The History of the Destruction of Troy" (1270s), in the Old Russian translation - "The History of the Devastation of Troy" (late XV - early 18th century). 16th century). Fascinatingly written book was the forerunner of chivalric novels in Rus'. "The Trojan History" introduced the Russian reader to a wide range of ancient myths (about the campaign of the Argonauts, the history of Paris, the Trojan War, the wanderings of Odysseus, etc.) and romantic plots (stories about the love of Medea and Jason, Paris and Helen, etc.).
The repertoire of translated church literature is also changing dramatically. There are translations of Western European Latin theologians (see § 6.1 and § 6.3), among which the "Book of St. Augustine" stands out (no later than 1564). The collection includes "The Life of Augustine" by Bishop Possidy of Kalamsky, two works of Pseudo-Augustine: "On the Vision of Christ, or on the Word of God" (Manuale), "Teachings, or Prayers" (Meditationes), as well as two Russian stories of the 16th century. about Blessed Augustine, which use "wandering" stories told by Maxim the Greek, who developed humanistic traditions in literature and language.
§ 6.4. Russian humanism. D.S. Likhachev, comparing the second South Slavic influence with the Western European Renaissance, came to the conclusion about the typological homogeneity of these phenomena and the existence in Ancient Rus' of a special East Slavic Pre-Renaissance, which could not pass into the Renaissance. This opinion aroused reasonable objections, which, however, do not mean that in Ancient Rus' there were no correspondences to Western European humanism. As R. Picchio showed, points of contact can be found primarily at the linguistic level: in the field of attitude to the text, to the principles of its translation, transmission and correction. The essence of the Italian Renaissance disputes about language (Questione della lingua) consisted, on the one hand, in the desire to justify the use of the vernacular (Lingua volgare) as a literary one, to affirm its cultural merit, and on the other hand, in the desire to establish its grammatical and stylistic norms. It is indicative that the "book on the right", based on the Western European sciences of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics), originates in Rus' from the activities of Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Trivolis), who lived at the turn of the XIV - XV centuries. in the heyday of the Renaissance in Italy, where he met and collaborated with famous humanists (John Lascaris, Aldus Manutius, etc.).
Having arrived in Moscow from Athos to translate church books in 1518, Maxim the Greek tried to transfer the rich philological experience of Byzantium and Renaissance Italy to Church Slavonic soil. By virtue of his brilliant education, he became the center of intellectual attraction, quickly gaining admirers and students (Vassian Patrikeev, Elder Siluan, Vasily Tuchkov, later Elder Artemy, Andrei Kurbsky, etc.), worthy opponents (Fyodor Karpov) and making such powerful enemies as Metropolitan Daniel. In 1525 and 1531 Maksim Grek, who was close to the nonpossessors and the disgraced diplomat I. N. Bersen Beklemishev, was tried twice, and some of the charges (deliberate damage to church books when editing them) were of a philological nature. Nevertheless, his humanistic views are established both in Russia and in Lithuanian Rus thanks to his followers and like-minded people who moved there: the elder Artemy, Kurbsky and, possibly, Ivan Fedorov (see § 6.6 and § 6.7).
The literary heritage of Maxim the Greek is great and varied. In the history of Russian journalism, a noticeable trace was left by "The Tale is terrible and memorable and about the perfect monastic life" (until 1525) - about the mendicant monastic orders in the West and the Florentine preacher J. Savonarola, "The word, more expansively outlining, with pity for the disorder and outrage of kings and rulers of the last century of this "(between 1533-39 or the middle of the 16th century), exposing the boyar arbitrariness under the young Ivan IV, the ideological program of his reign - "The chapters are instructive to the rulers of the faithful" (c. 1547-48), works against ancient myths, astrology , apocrypha, superstitions, in defense of the "book right" he carried out and the philological principles of text criticism - "The word is responsible for the correction of Russian books" (1540 or 1543), etc.
§ 6.5. Generalizing literary monuments. The centralization of Russian lands and state power was accompanied by the creation of generalizing book monuments of an encyclopedic nature. Literature of the 16th century as if summing up the entire path traveled, seeking to generalize and consolidate the experience of the past, to create models for future times. Gennadiev's Bible of 1499 stands at the origins of generalizing enterprises. Literary collecting was continued by another Archbishop of Novgorod (1526-42) - Macarius, who later became the Metropolitan of All Rus' (1542-63). Under his leadership, the Great Menaion of the Chetia was created - a grandiose collection of soul-beneficial literature in 12 books, arranged in the order of the church menologion. Work on the Makaryev Menaions, begun in 1529/1530 in Novgorod and completed around 1554 in Moscow, was carried out for almost a quarter of a century. One of the most prominent scholars of Ancient Rus', Macarius combined the efforts of well-known church and secular scribes, translators and scribes, and created the largest book center. Its employees searched for manuscripts, selected the best texts, corrected them, composed new works and created new editions of old monuments.
Dmitry Gerasimov worked under the direction of Macarius, who translated the Latin Explanatory Psalter of Bishop Brunon of Gerbipolensky, or Würzburg (1535), Vasily Tuchkov, who reworked the simple Novgorod "Life of Mikhail Klopsky" into a rhetorically decorated edition (1537), Novgorod presbyter Ilya, who wrote the life of the Bulgarian martyr George the New (1538-39) based on the oral story of the Athos monks, Dosifey Toporkov - editor of the ancient "Sinai Patericon" (1528-29), which is based on the "Spiritual Meadow" (beginning of the 7th century) by the Byzantine writer John Moskh. Dosifey Toporkov is known as the compiler of two generalizing monuments: the Chronograph edition of 1512 (see § 6.2) and the "Volokolamsk Patericon" (30s-40s of the 16th century), which resumed the tradition of the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" after a long break ". "Volokolamsk Patericon" is a collection of stories about the saints of the Josephite school of Russian monasticism, primarily about Joseph Volotsky himself, his teacher Pafnuty Borovsky, their associates and followers.
In 1547 and 1549 Macarius held church councils, at which 30 new all-Russian saints were canonized - 8 more than in the entire previous period. After the councils, dozens of lives and services were created for the new miracle workers. Among them was the pearl of ancient Russian literature - "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom" (late 1540s) by Yermolai-Erasmus.
The work depicts the love of a peasant girl from the Ryazan land, the daughter of a simple beekeeper, and the prince of Murom - love that overcomes all obstacles and even death. The writer created an exalted image of the ideal Russian woman, wise and pious. The peasant princess stands immeasurably higher than the boyars and their wives, who did not want to come to terms with her low origin. Yermolai-Erasmus used folk-poetic "wandering" stories about the struggle with the werewolf snake and the wise, things maiden, which absorbed the motifs of a fairy tale. His work reworks the same motifs as the medieval legends of Tristan and Isolde, the Serbian youth song "Queen Milica and the Serpent from the Hawk", etc. The story sharply diverges from the hagiographic canon and therefore was not included by Macarius in the Great Menaion of Chetia. Already in the XVI century. they began to correct it, bringing it into line with the requirements of literary etiquette.
Macarius was the inspirer of the church council of 1551, at which many aspects of the church, social and political life of the Moscow kingdom were regulated. The collection of conciliar resolutions, arranged in the form of answers of church hierarchs to one hundred questions of Tsar Ivan IV, was called "Stoglav" and for a century was the main normative document of the Russian Church.
Metropolitan Daniel, who angrily denounced human vices in words and teachings, was the editor-compiler of the extensive Nikon Chronicle (late 1520s) - the most complete collection of news in Russian history. The monument had a great influence on subsequent chronicle writing. It became the main source of information on Russian history in the grandiose Illuminated Chronicle Code, the largest chronicle and chronographic work of Ancient Rus'. This authentic "historical encyclopedia of the 16th century", created by decree of Ivan the Terrible, covers world history from biblical times to 1567. It has come down to our time in 10 luxuriously decorated volumes made in the royal workshops and numbering more than 16,000 magnificent miniatures.
The Nikon chronicle was also used in the famous Book of Powers (1560-63). The monument was compiled by the monk of the Chudov Monastery, the confessor of Ivan the Terrible, Athanasius (Metropolitan of Moscow in 1564-66), but the idea obviously belonged to Macarius. "Book of Powers" - the first attempt to present Russian history on a genealogical basis, in the form of princely biographies, from the baptist of Rus' Vladimir Svyatoslavich to Ivan IV. The introduction to the "Book of Powers" is "The Life of Princess Olga" edited by Sylvester, Archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation.
Sylvester is considered the editor or author-compiler of "Domostroy" - a strictly and detailed "charter" of home life. The monument is a valuable source for studying the life of Russian people of that time, their manners and customs, social and family relations, religious, moral and political views. The ideal of "Domostroy" is a zealous owner who authoritatively manages family affairs in accordance with Christian morality. Wonderful language. In "Domostroy" features of the bookish language, business writing and colloquial speech have merged in a complex alloy with its imagery and ease. Compositions of this kind were common in Western Europe. Almost simultaneously with the final edition of our monument, an extensive work by the Polish writer Mikołaj Rei, "The Life of an Economic Man" (1567), appeared.
§ 6.6. Beginning of typography. Apparently, the emergence of Russian book printing is connected with the generalizing book enterprises of Metropolitan Macarius. In any case, his appearance in Moscow was caused by the needs of worship and was a state initiative supported by Ivan the Terrible. The printing press made it possible to distribute in large numbers correct and unified liturgical texts, free from the mistakes of scribes. In Moscow in the first half of the 1550s - mid-1560s. there was an anonymous printing house that produced professionally prepared publications without imprint. According to the documents of 1556, the "master of printed books" Marusha Nefediev is known.
In 1564, the deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas of Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets, published the Apostle, the first Russian printed book with imprint. In preparing it, the publishers critically used numerous Church Slavonic and Western European sources, did a great deal of thorough textual and editorial work. Perhaps it was on this basis that they had serious disagreements with the traditionally thinking church hierarchs, who accused them of heresy (as before Maximus the Greek, see § 6.4). After two editions of the Clockwork in Moscow in 1565 and no later than the beginning of 1568, Fedorov and Mstislavets were forced to move to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
With their moving abroad, book printing became permanent in the lands of modern Belarus and Ukraine. With the support of Orthodox patrons, Ivan Fedorov worked in Zabludovo, where, together with Peter Mstislavets, he published the Teaching Gospel in 1569, which was intended to oust translated Catholic and Protestant collections of sermons from use, in Lvov, where he founded the first printing house in Ukraine, published a new edition Apostle in 1574 and at the same time the first printed book for elementary education that has come down to us - the ABC, and in Ostrog, where he published another ABC in 1578, as well as the first complete printed Church Slavonic Bible in 1580-81. The epitaph to Fedorov on the tombstone in Lvov is eloquent: "Drukar [printer. - V.K.] of books previously unseen." Fedorov's prefaces and afterwords to his publications are the most interesting monuments of this literary genre, containing valuable information of a cultural-historical and memoir nature.
§ 6.7. Literature of the Moscow emigration. By the time Fedorov and Mstislavets moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, there already existed a circle of Muscovite emigrants who were forced to leave Russia for various reasons, religious and political. The most prominent representatives among them were the elder Artemy and Prince Andrei Kurbsky, both close to Maxim the Greek and continuing his humanistic traditions in literature and language. Moscow emigrants were engaged in creativity, translated and edited books, participated in the creation of printing houses and book centers. They contributed to the revival of Church Slavonic literature and the strengthening of Orthodox consciousness in the religious and cultural struggle against Catholics and religious reformers on the eve of the Union of Brest in 1596.
The work of Kurbsky, a representative of the princely-boyar opposition, became a counterbalance to the official Moscow literature of the 16th century, which deified tsarist power and asserted the originality of autocracy in Rus'. Immediately after his flight to Lithuania, he sent the first message to Ivan the Terrible (1564) with accusations of tyranny and apostasy. Ivan the Terrible responded with a political treatise in epistolary form glorifying "free tsarist autocracy" (1564). After a break, correspondence resumed in the 1570s. The dispute was about the limits of royal power: autocracy or a limited class-representative monarchy. Kurbsky devoted his "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" to the denunciation of Ivan IV and his tyranny (according to I. Auerbach - spring and summer 1581, according to VV Kalugin - 1579-81). If the monuments of official historiography of the 50s-60s. 16th century ("Book of Powers", "Chronicle of the Beginning of the Kingdom", compiled in connection with the conquest of Kazan in 1552, dedicated to this event in the context of three hundred years of Russian-Horde relations "Kazan History") are an apology for Ivan IV and unlimited autocracy, Kurbsky created the exact opposite to them the tragic story of the moral fall of "formerly a kind and deliberate tsar", ending it with an impressive martyrology of the victims of the oprichnina terror, which is impressive in terms of artistic power.
In emigration, Kurbsky maintained close relations with the elder Artemy († 1st half of the 1570s), one of the last adherents of non-covetousness. A follower of Nil Sorsky, Artemy was distinguished by his tolerance for the religious quests of others. Among the scribes close to him were such freethinkers as Theodosius Kosoy and Matvei Bashkin. On January 24, 1554, Artemy was convicted by a church council as a heretic and exiled to imprisonment in the Solovetsky Monastery, from where he soon fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (c. 1554-55). Having settled in Slutsk, he showed himself to be a staunch fighter for Orthodoxy, a debunker of reform movements and heresies. Of his literary heritage, 14 epistles have been preserved.
§ 6.8. In anticipation of the Troubles. The tradition of military stories is continued by the icon painter Vasily (1580s), which tells about the heroic defense of the city from the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1581. In 1589, a patriarchate was established in Russia, which contributed to the revival literary activity and book printing. "The Tale of the Life of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich" (until 1604), written by the first Russian Patriarch Job in the traditional style of idealizing biographism, stands at the origins of the literature of the Time of Troubles.
§ 7. From ancient Russian literature to the literature of modern times
(XVII century)
§ 7.1. Literature of the Time of Troubles. 17th century - a transitional era from ancient to new literature, from the Muscovite kingdom to the Russian Empire. This was the century that paved the way for the comprehensive reforms of Peter the Great.
The "rebellious" century began with the Troubles: a terrible famine, civil war, Polish and Swedish intervention. The events that shook the country gave rise to an urgent need to comprehend them. People of very different views and origins took up the pen: the cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn, the clerk Ivan Timofeev, who in florid language outlined the events from Ivan the Terrible to Mikhail Romanov in the "Vremnik" (work was carried out until the death of the author in 1631), Prince I. A Khvorostinin - Western writer, favorite of False Dmitry I, who composed in his defense "The Words of the Days, and Tsars, and Saints of Moscow" (possibly 1619), Prince S. I. Shakhovskoy - the author of "The Tale of the Great Martyr Tsarevich Dimitri", " Tale of a certain mnis ... "(about False Dmitry I) and, possibly," Tale of the book of sowing from former years ", or" Chronicle book "(1st tr. XVII century), which is also attributed to princes I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, I. A. Khvorostinin and others.
The tragedy of the Time of Troubles brought to life a vivid journalism that served the goals of the liberation movement. A propaganda essay in the form of a letter-appeal against the Polish-Lithuanian interventionists who captured Moscow is "A New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom" (1611). In "Lament for the captivity and final ruin of the Muscovite state" (1612), depicting in a rhetorically decorated form "the fall of sublime Russia", agitation-patriotic letters of patriarchs Job, Hermogenes (1607), leaders of the people's militia, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Procopy Lyapunov ( 1611-12). The sudden death at the age of twenty-three of Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, a talented commander and people's favorite, gave rise to persistent rumors about his poisoning by the boyars out of envy, due to dynastic rivalry. Rumors formed the basis of a folk historical song used in the "Scripture on the Repose and Burial of Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky" (early 1610s).
Among the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is the work of Avraamy Palitsyn "History in memory of the previous generation." Abraham began to write it after the accession of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov in 1613 and worked on it until the end of his life in 1626. With great artistic power and with the authenticity of an eyewitness, he painted a broad picture of the dramatic events of 1584-1618. Most of the book is devoted to the heroic defense of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from the Polish-Lithuanian troops in 1608-10. In 1611-12. Abraham, together with Archimandrite of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Dionysius (Zobninovsky), wrote and sent out patriotic messages calling for the fight against foreign invaders. The energetic activity of Abraham contributed to the victory of the people's militia, the liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612 and the election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.
The events of the Time of Troubles served as an impetus for the creation of numerous regional literary monuments (usually in the form of stories and tales of miracles from locally venerated icons) dedicated to episodes of the struggle against foreign intervention in different regions of the country: in Kursk, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug, Ustyuzhna, Tikhvin, Ryazan Mikhailov monastery and elsewhere.
§ 7.2. Historical truth and fiction. The development of fiction. Feature of the literature of the XVII century. is the use of fictional stories, legends and folk tales in historical stories and tales. The central monument of the legendary historiography of the 17th century. - Novgorod "The Tale of Slovenia and Rus" (no later than 1638). The work is dedicated to the origin of the Slavs and the Russian state (from the descendants of Patriarch Noah to the calling of the Varangians to Novgorod) and includes the mythical charter of Alexander the Great to the Slavic princes, popular in ancient Slavic literatures. The legend was included in the Patriarchal Chronicle of 1652 and became the official version of the initial Russian history. It had a significant impact on subsequent Russian historiography. The historical outline is completely subordinated to a fictional intrigue with elements of an adventurous plot in "The Tale of the Murder of Daniel of Suzdal and the Beginning of Moscow" (between 1652-81).
In the depths of traditional hagiographic genres (tales about the founding of a monastery, about the appearance of the cross, about a repentant sinner, etc.), sprouts of new narrative forms and literary devices were ripening. A fictitious folk-poetic plot was used in "The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery" (2nd half of the 17th century). The work, dedicated to the traditional theme - the founding of the monastery, is turned into a lyrical story about a man, his love and fate. The basis of the collision is the unrequited love of the prince's servant George for the beautiful Xenia, the daughter of a village sexton, who rejected him on her wedding day and "by God's will" married her betrothed - the prince. Grief-stricken, Gregory becomes a hermit and establishes the Tver Otroch Monastery.
Murom literature of the first half of the 17th century. gave wonderful images of ideal female types. As in the "Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", which depicts the sublime image of the wise peasant princess (see § 6.5), the events in these stories unfold not in the monastery, but in the world. Features of life and biography are connected by "The Tale of Ulyania Osorina", or "The Life of Julian Lazarevskaya". The author, the son of Ulyaniya Kallistrat (Druzhina) Osorin, created a work that is unusual for hagiographic literature, in many respects at odds with generally accepted views on the deeds of saints. With all her behavior, the Murom landowner affirms the sanctity of a virtuous life in the world. She embodies the ideal character of a Russian woman, compassionate and hardworking, daily in business and caring for her neighbors. Taken from life, vivid pictures are drawn by "The Tale of Martha and Mary", or "The Legend of the Unzhe Cross". The miraculous origin of the local shrine, the life-giving cross, is connected here with the fate of loving sisters, separated for a long time by their husbands' quarrel over a place of honor at the feast.
In the 17th century compositions are created with frankly fictional plots, anticipating the appearance of fiction in the proper sense of the word. The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn (probably 1660s) is extremely important for understanding the changes in cultural consciousness. The work is in close connection with demonological legends and motifs, widespread in Russian literature of that time. Suffice it to name, for example, "The Tale of the Possessed Wife Solomonia" by the priest Jacob from Veliky Ustyug (probably between 1671 and 1676), a countryman of the really existing merchants Grudtsyn-Usovs. At the same time, the Tale of Savva Grudtsyn is based on the theme of a contract between a person and the devil and the sale of the soul for worldly goods, honors and love pleasures, which was thoroughly developed in the Western European Middle Ages. The successful outcome of demonological plots is intended to testify to the power of the Church, defeating the machinations of the devil, to the saving intercession of heavenly forces, and especially the Mother of God (as, for example, in the famous cycle of medieval works about Theophilus, one of which was translated by A. Blok, or in the case of Savva Grudtsyn). However, in the story, the religious didactics characteristic of stories about repentant sinners is obscured by a colorful depiction of life and customs, folk-poetic images dating back to a Russian fairy tale.
17th century writers for the first time they realized the self-contained value of artistic comprehension of the world and artistic generalization. This turning point in the history of Russian literature vividly reflects "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" - an unusually lyrical and profound work written in beautiful folk verses. "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" was conceived as a moral and philosophical parable about the prodigal son, the ill-fated vagrant hawker, driven by evil fate. In the collective image of a fictional hero (an unnamed young merchant), the eternal conflict between fathers and children, the theme of a fatal unfortunate fate, the desired deliverance from which is only death or going to a monastery, are revealed with amazing force. The ominously fantastic image of Grief-Misfortune personifies the dark urges of the human soul, the unclean conscience of the young man himself.
A new phenomenon in the literature of the time of Peter the Great was "The Tale of Frol Skobeev". Her hero is an emaciated nobleman who seduced a rich bride and secured a comfortable life with a successful marriage. This is the type of a clever trickster, a joker and even a swindler. Moreover, the author does not at all condemn his hero, but even, as it were, admires his resourcefulness. All this brings the story closer to the works of the picaresque genre, fashionable in Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. The "Tale of Karp Sutulov" (late 17th - early 18th centuries) is also distinguished by an entertaining plot, glorifying the resourceful female mind and ridiculing the unlucky love affairs of a merchant, priest and bishop. Its satirical orientation grows out of the folk culture of laughter, which flourished in the 17th century.
§ 7.3. Folk humor culture. One of the bright signs of the transitional era is the flourishing of satire, which is closely associated with folk culture of laughter and folklore. Satirical literature of the 17th century. reflected a decisive departure from the old book-Slavic traditions and "soulful reading", well-aimed folk speech and imagery. For the most part, the monuments of folk laughter culture are independent and original. But even if Russian writers sometimes borrowed plots and motifs, they gave them a bright national imprint.
Against social injustice and poverty, the "ABC of a Naked and Poor Man" is directed. Judicial red tape and legal proceedings are ridiculed by "The Tale of Yersh Ershovich" (possibly, the end of the 16th century), venality and bribery of judges - "The Tale of Shemyakin Court", which develops a picaresque line in Russian literature on the basis of a "vagrant" plot. The target of satire is the life and customs of the clergy and monasticism ("Kalyazinsky petition", "The Tale of Priest Sava"). The ill-fated losers, who, in the literal sense of the word, are lucky as drowned men, are presented in a clownish form in "The Tale of Thomas and Yerema".
Monuments of folk laughter culture with great sympathy depict the mind, dexterity and resourcefulness of a simple person ("The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of the Peasant's Son"). Behind the external comic side of the Tale of the Hawk Moth, which outplayed the righteous and won the best place in paradise, there is a polemic with church ritual formalism and there is proof that human weaknesses cannot interfere with salvation if there is faith in God and Christian love for neighbors in the soul. .
Folk laughter culture of the 17th century. ("The Tale of Ersh Ershovich", depicting a land litigation, and "Kalyazinskaya Petition", depicting the drunkenness of monks) widely uses the genres of business writing for comic purposes: the form of a court case and petitions - official petitions and complaints. The language and structure of medical books, prescriptions and documents of the Aptekarsky Prikaz parodies the clownish "Healer for Foreigners", apparently created by one of the Muscovites.
In the 17th century for the first time in the history of ancient Russian literature, parodies of the Church Slavonic language and liturgical texts appear. Although the number of monuments of this kind is small, undoubtedly, only a few parodies have survived to our time, created in the circle of scribes who were well-read in church books and knew their language well. 17th century writers they knew how not only to pray, but also to have fun in Church Slavonic. Sacred plots are played up to a greater or lesser extent in the "Tale of the Peasant's Son" and "The Tale of the Hawk Moth". In the genre of parodia sacra, the "Service to the tavern" was written - a jester's tavern liturgy, the oldest list of which is dated 1666. The "Service to the tavern" is in line with traditions dating back to such Latin services for drunkards, such as, for example, "The All-Drunken Liturgy" (XIII century) - the greatest monument of medieval scholarly buffoonery in the literature of the Vagantes. The Western European "wandering" plot, "turning inside out" the church confession, is used in "The Tale of Kura and the Fox".
From Western Europe came to Rus' and the genre of dystopia. The satirical "Tale of Luxurious Life and Joy," a Russian adaptation of a Polish source, depicts in a Rabelaisian manner the fabulous paradise of gluttons and drunkards. The work opposes popular utopian legends like those that fed the legends about Belovodye, a wonderful happy country where true faith and piety bloom, where there is no untruth and crime. Faith in Belovodye lived for a long time among the people, forcing bold dreamers to go in search of a blissful land to distant overseas lands in the second half of the 19th century. (see essays by V. G. Korolenko "At the Cossacks", 1901).
§ 7.4. Activation of local literary life. Since the Time of Troubles, local literatures have been developing, retaining a connection with the center and, as a rule, traditional forms of narration. 17th century presents in abundance samples of the glorification of local shrines that have not received all-Russian veneration (lives, legends about miraculous icons, stories about monasteries) and examples of creating new editions of already known works. From the literary monuments of the Russian North, one can single out the biographies of saints who lived in the 16th century: "The Tale of the Life of Varlaam Keretsky" (XVII century) - a Kola priest who killed his wife and in great grief wandered in a boat with her corpse along the White Sea, begging God's forgiveness, and "The Life of Tryphon of Pechenga" (late 17th - early 18th centuries) - the founder of the northernmost monastery on the Pechenga River, the enlightener of the Sami in the western part of the Kola Peninsula.
The first history of Siberia is the chronicle of the Tobolsk clerk Savva Esipov (1636). Her traditions were continued in the "Siberian History" (end of the 17th century or until 1703) by the Tobolsk nobleman Semyon Remezov. The cycle of stories is dedicated to the capture of Azov by the Don Cossacks in 1637 and their heroic defense of the fortress from the Turks in 1641. "Poetic" "The Tale of the Azov Siege Seat of the Don Cossacks" (border 1641-42) combines documentary accuracy with Cossack folklore. In the "fabulous" story about Azov (70s-80s of the 17th century), which used it, historical truth gives way to fiction based on a large number of oral traditions and songs.
§ 7.5. Western European influence. In the 17th century Muscovite Rus' is rapidly completing the medieval era, as if in a hurry to catch up on the previous centuries. This time was marked by a gradual, but steadily growing attraction of Russia to Western Europe. In general, Western influence did not penetrate directly to us, but through Poland and Lithuanian Rus (Ukraine and Belarus), which largely adopted the Latin-Polish culture. Western European influence increased the composition and content of our literature, contributed to the emergence of new literary genres and themes, satisfied new reader tastes and needs, provided abundant material for Russian authors, and changed the repertoire of translated works.
The largest translation center was the Posolsky Prikaz in Moscow, which was in charge of relations with foreign states. At various times, it was headed by prominent diplomats, political and cultural figures - such as, for example, patrons and bibliophiles boyar A. S. Matveev (§ 7.8) or Prince V. V. Golitsyn. In the 70s-80s. 17th century they directed the literary, translation and book activities of the Ambassadorial Department. In 1607, a native of Lithuanian Rus, F.K. Gozvinsky, who served there, translated from the ancient Greek fables of Aesop and his legendary biography. Another embassy translator, Ivan Gudansky, participated in the collective translation of the "Great Mirror" (1674-77) and independently translated from Polish the well-known chivalric novel "The Story of Melusine" (1677) with a fairy tale story about a werewolf woman.
The translated chivalric romance became one of the most significant events of the transitional era. He brought with him many new exciting stories and impressions: exciting adventures and fantasy, the world of selfless love and friendship, the cult of ladies and female beauty, descriptions of jousting tournaments and fights, a knightly code of honor and nobility of feelings. Foreign fiction came to Russia not only through Poland and Lithuanian Rus, but also through the South Slavs, the Czech Republic and other ways.
The "Tale of Bova the King" was especially fond of in Rus' (according to V.D. Kuzmina, no later than the middle of the 16th century). It goes back through a Serbian translation to a medieval French novel about the exploits of Bovo d'Anton, which went around all of Europe in various poetic and prose revisions. Oral existence preceded the literary processing of the famous "Tale of Yeruslan Lazarevich", which reflected the ancient oriental legend about the hero Rustem, known in the poem "Shah-name" by Firdousi (X century). Among the early translations (no later than the middle of the 17th century) is The Tale of Shtilfried, a Czech adaptation of a German poem of the late 13th or early 14th century. about Reinfried of Brunswick. From Polish was translated "The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys" (2nd half of the 17th century), dating back to the popular French novel about Peter and the beautiful Magelon, created in the 15th century. at the court of the Burgundian dukes. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. stories about Bova the King, Peter the Golden Keys, Yeruslan Lazarevich were favorite folk tales and popular prints.
Foreign fiction came to the taste of the Russian reader, caused imitations and alterations that gave it a pronounced local flavor. Translated from Polish "The Tale of Caesar Otto and Olund" (1670s), telling about the adventures of the slandered and exiled queen and her sons, was revised in a church-didactic spirit in "The Tale of the Queen and the Lioness" (end of the 17th century .). Until now, there are disputes about whether the Tale of Vasily Zlatovlas is translated or Russian (written under the influence of foreign entertainment literature), close to the fairy tale story about the proud princess (probably, the 2nd half of the 17th century).
In the last third of the XVII century. popular collections of short stories and pseudo-historical legends translated from Polish with a predominant ecclesiastical moralistic spirit are becoming widespread: The Great Mirror in two translations (1674-77 and the 1690s) and Roman Acts (the last tr. of the 17th century. ), in which plots of late Roman writers are used, which explains the title of the book. In the same way, through Poland, secular works come to Russia: "Facetia" (1679) - a collection of stories and anecdotes that acquaints the reader with the novelistics of the Renaissance, and apothegmas - collections containing apothegms - witty sayings, anecdotes, entertaining and moralizing stories. Not later than the last quarter of the 17th century. the Polish collection of apothegms by A. B. Budny († after 1624), a figure of the Reformation era, was twice translated.
§ 7.6. Pioneers of Russian versification. Rhyme in ancient Russian literature did not originate in poetry, but in rhetorically organized prose with its love for the equality of the structural parts of the text (isocolia) and parallelism, which were often accompanied by consonance of endings (homeoteleutons - grammatical rhymes). Many writers (for example, Epiphanius the Wise, Andrei Kurbsky, Avraamiy Palitsyn) deliberately used rhyme and rhythm in prose.
Beginning with the Time of Troubles, virshe poetry with its colloquial verse, unequal and rhyming, has firmly entered Russian literature. Pre-syllabic poetry relied on ancient Russian literary and oral traditions, but at the same time experienced influences coming from Poland and Lithuanian Rus. The older poets were well acquainted with Western European culture. Among them, an aristocratic literary group stands out: princes S. I. Shakhovskoy and I. A. Khvorostinin, roundabout and diplomat Alexei Zyuzin, but there were also clerks: a native of Lithuanian Rus' Fyodor Gozvinsky and Anthony Podolsky, one of the writers of the Time of Troubles, Eustratius - the author "serpentine", or "serpentine", verse, common in baroque literature.
For the 30s-40s. 17th century accounts for the formation and flourishing of the "order school" of poetry, which united the employees of the Moscow orders. The center of literary life was the Printing House, the largest center of culture and the place of work of many writers and poets. The most prominent representative of the "school of ordered poetry" was the monk Savvaty, the director (editor) of the Printing House. A noticeable mark in the history of virche poetry was left by his colleagues Ivan Shevelev Nasedka, Stefan Gorchak, Mikhail Rogov. All of them wrote mainly didactic messages, spiritual instructions, poetic prefaces, often giving them the form of extended acrostics containing the name of the author, addressee or customer.
An echo of the Troubles is the work of the clerk Timofei Akundinov (Akindinov, Ankidinov, Ankudinov). Entangled in debt and under investigation, in 1644 he fled to Poland and for nine years, moving from one country to another, pretended to be the heir to Tsar Vasily Shuisky. In 1653, he was issued by Holstein to the Russian government and quartered in Moscow. Akundinov is the author of a declaration in verse to the Moscow embassy in Constantinople in 1646, the metrics and style of which are typical of the "mandatory school" of poetry.
In the last third of the XVII century. spoken verse was supplanted from high poetry by more strictly organized syllabic verse and moved into grassroots literature.
§ 7.7. Baroque literature and syllabic poetry. Syllabic versification was brought to Russia (largely through Belarusian-Ukrainian mediation) from Poland, where the main syllabic meters developed in the Baroque literature in the 16th century. based on Latin poetry. Russian verse received a qualitatively new rhythmic organization. The syllabic is based on the principle of equal syllables: rhyming lines must have the same number of syllables (most often 13 or 11), and in addition, exclusively female rhymes are used (as in Polish, where words have a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable). The creative work of Belarusian Simeon Polotsky played a decisive role in spreading the new verbal culture and syllabic poetry with a developed system of poetic meters and genres.
Having moved to Moscow in 1664 and becoming the first court poet in Russia, Simeon of Polotsk was the creator of not only his own poetic school, but the whole literary trend of the Baroque - the first Western European style that penetrated Russian literature. Until the end of his life († 1680), the writer worked on two huge collections of poetry: "Multicolored Vertograd" and "Rhymologion, or Verse". His main poetic work, "Multicolored Vertograd", is a "poetry encyclopedia" typical of Baroque culture with thematic headings arranged in alphabetical order (1155 titles in total), often including entire cycles of poems and containing information on history, natural philosophy, cosmology, theology , ancient mythology, etc. Characteristic for the elite literature of the Baroque and "Rhymologion" - a collection of panegyric poems on various occasions from the life of the royal family and nobles. In 1680 Simeon Polotsky's "Rhyming Psalter" was published - the first verse transcription of psalms in Russia, created in imitation of the "David's Psalter" (1579) by the Polish poet Jan Kokhanovsky. An extremely prolific author, Simeon of Polotsk wrote plays in verse based on biblical subjects: "On the Tsar Navchadnezzar ..." (1673 - early 1674), "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son" (1673-78), containing typical Russian life of that time conflict between fathers and children, polemical writings: the anti-Old Believer "Rod of Government" (ed. 1667), sermons: "Dinner of the Soul" (1675, ed. 1682) and "Supper of the Soul" (1676, ed. 1683), etc.
After the death of Simeon of Polotsk, the place of the court writer was taken by his student Sylvester Medvedev, who dedicated an epitaph to the memory of his mentor - "Epitafion" (1680). Leading the Moscow Westernizers - "Latins", Medvedev led a decisive struggle against the party of Greek writers (Patriarch Joachim, Evfimy Chudovsky, brothers Ioanniky and Sophrony Likhud, Hierodeacon Damaskin), and fell in this struggle, was executed in 1691. In collaboration with Karion Istomin Medvedev wrote a historical essay on the reforms of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the Streltsy rebellion of 1682 and the first years of the regency of Princess Sophia - "Short contemplation of the years 7190, 91 and 92, in them what happened in citizenship." End of the 17th century was the time of the greatest creative success of the court author Karion Istomin, who wrote a huge number of poems and poems, epitaphs and epigrams, orations and panegyrics. His innovative pedagogical work, illustrated poetic "Primer" (solid engraved in 1694 and typesetting in 1696), was reprinted and used as an educational book as early as the beginning of the 19th century.
A poetic school also existed in the New Jerusalem Monastery of the Resurrection founded by Patriarch Nikon, the most prominent representatives of which were Archimandrites Herman († 1681) and Nikanor (2nd half of the 17th century), who used isosyllabic versification.
An outstanding representative of baroque authors was the Ukrainian Dimitry Rostovsky (in the world Daniil Savvich Tuptalo), who moved to Russia in 1701. A writer of versatile talents, he became famous as a wonderful preacher, poet and playwright, author of works against the Old Believers ("Search for the schismatic Bryn faith", 1709). The work of Dimitry of Rostov, the East Slavic "metaphrast", summed up the Old Russian hagiography. For almost a quarter of a century, he worked on a generalizing code of the lives of the saints. Having collected and reworked numerous ancient Russian (Great Menaions of the Chetii, etc.), Latin and Polish sources, Dimitri created a "hagiographic library" - "Lives of the Saints" in four volumes. His work was published for the first time in the printing house of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra in 1684-1705. and immediately won a lasting reader's love.
§ 7.8. The beginning of the Russian theater. The development of baroque culture with its favorite postulate of life - stage, people - actors contributed to the birth of the Russian theater. The idea of its creation belonged to the famous statesman boyar-Westerner A. S. Matveev, head of the Ambassadorial Department. The first play of the Russian theater was "Action of Artaxerxes". It was written in 1672 by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich on the subject of the biblical book of Esther by the Lutheran pastor Johann Gottfried Gregory from the German Quarter in Moscow (possibly with the participation of the Leipzig medical student Lavrenty Ringuber). "Action of Artaxerxes" was created in imitation of Western European dramaturgy of the 16th - 17th centuries. to biblical stories. The play, written in German verse, was translated into Russian by employees of the Ambassadorial Department. First staged on the opening day of the court theater of Alexei Mikhailovich on October 17, 1672, it ran for 10 hours without intermissions.
Russian theater was not limited to religious subjects. In 1673, they turned to ancient mythology and staged a musical ballet "Orpheus" based on the German ballet "Orpheus and Eurydice". Gregory's successor, the Saxon Georg Hüfner (in the Russian pronunciation of that time - Yuri Mikhailovich Gibner or Givner), who directed the theater in 1675-76, compiled and translated "Temir-Aksakovo action" based on various sources. The play, dedicated to the struggle of the Central Asian conqueror Timur with the Turkish sultan Bayazid I, was topical in Moscow both in the historical perspective (see § 5.2) and in connection with the imminent war with Turkey for Ukraine in 1676-81. Despite the fact that the court theater lasted less than four years (until the death of the "chief theater-goer", Alexei Mikhailovich on January 29, 1676), it was from him that the history of Russian theater and drama began.
By the beginning of the XVIII century. the school theater penetrated into Russia, which was used for educational and religious-political purposes in Western European educational institutions. In Moscow, theatrical performances were held at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (see § 7.9), for example, "Comedy, a terrible betrayal of a voluptuous life" (1701), written on the theme of the gospel parable of the rich man and the poor Lazarus. A new stage in the development of the school theater was the dramaturgy of Metropolitan Dimitry of Rostov, the author of "comedies" for the Nativity of Christ (1702) and for the Assumption of the Virgin (probably 1703-05). In the Rostov school, opened by Demetrius in 1702, not only his plays were staged, but also the compositions of teachers: the drama "The Crown of Demetrius" (1704) in honor of the heavenly patron of the Metropolitan Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessalonica, composed, it is believed, by the teacher Evfimy Morogin. At the beginning of the XVIII century. based on the lives of Dimitry of Rostov, plays were staged in the court theater of Princess Natalia Alekseevna, beloved sister of Peter I: "comedies" by Barlaam and Joasaph, martyrs Evdokia, Catherine, etc.
§ 7.9. Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The idea of creating the first higher educational institution in Muscovite Rus' belonged to Baroque authors - Simeon Polotsky and Sylvester Medvedev, who wrote on behalf of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich "Privileges of the Moscow Academy" (approved in 1682). This document defined the foundations of a state higher educational institution with an extensive program, rights and prerogatives for the training of secular and spiritual professional personnel. However, the first leaders and teachers of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, opened in Moscow in 1687, were the opponents of Simeon of Polotsk and Sylvester Medvedev - the Greek scientists brothers Ioannikius and Sofroniy Likhud. The Academy, where Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, grammar, poetics, rhetoric, physics, theology and other subjects were taught, played an important role in spreading education. In the first half of the XVIII century. such famous writers and scientists as A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, V. E. Adodurov, A. A. Barsov, V. P. Petrov and others came out of its walls.
§ 7.10. Church schism and Old Believer literature. The rapidly expanding work of the Moscow Printing House required an increasing number of experts in theology, grammar and Greek. Epiphanius Slavinetsky, Arseniy Satanovsky and Damaskin Ptitsky, who arrived in Moscow in 1649-50, were invited to Russia to translate and edit the books. Boyarin F. M. Rtishchev built the Andreevsky Monastery for the "Kyiv elders" in his estate on Sparrow Hills. There they began academic work and opened a school where young Moscow clerks learned Greek and Latin. Southwestern Russian literature became one of the sources of Nikon's church reform. Its other component was the modern Greek church rite, the differences of which from the Old Russian were taken care of by Patriarch Joseph.
In 1649-50. the learned monk Arseniy (in the world Anton Sukhanov) carried out responsible diplomatic missions in Ukraine, Moldavia and Wallachia, where he participated in a theological dispute with the Greek hierarchs. The dispute is described in the "Debate with the Greeks on Faith", which proves the purity of Russian Orthodoxy and its rites (two-fingered, purely alleluia, etc.). In 1651-53. with the blessing of Patriarch Joseph Arseniy traveled to the Orthodox East (to Constantinople, Jerusalem, Egypt) with the aim of a comparative study of Greek and Russian church practice. Sukhanov described what he saw during the trip and critical reviews about the Greeks in the essay "Proskinitary" ‘Fan (of holy places)’ (from the Greek. rspukhnEshch ‘worship’) (1653).
In 1653, Patriarch Nikon began to carry out the unification of the Russian church ritual tradition with the modern Greek and with the Orthodox as a whole. The most significant innovations were: the replacement of the two-finger sign of the cross with the three-finger sign (to which the Byzantines themselves switched under Latin influence after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204); printing on prosphora a four-pointed cross (Latin "kryzha", as the Old Believers believed) instead of the old Russian eight-pointed one; the transition from a special hallelujah to a treguba (from its two-fold repetition during worship to three times); an exception from the eighth member of the Creed ("The true Lord") of the definition of true; the spelling of the name of Christ with two and (Iesus), and not with one (Isus) (in the translation from the Greek Ostromir Gospel of 1056-57, Izbornik 1073, both options are still presented, but subsequently in Rus' a tradition is established to write the name with one i ) and much more. As a result of the "book right" in the second half of the XVII century. a new version of the Church Slavonic language was created.
Nikon's reform, which broke the centuries-old Russian way of life, was rejected by the Old Believers and marked the beginning of a church schism. The Old Believers opposed the orientation towards foreign church orders, defended the faith of their fathers and grandfathers, ancient Slavic-Byzantine rites, defended national identity and were against the Europeanization of Russian life. The Old Believer milieu turned out to be unusually rich in talents and bright personalities; a brilliant constellation of writers emerged from it. Among them were Ivan Neronov, the founder of the "God-loving" movement, Archimandrite Spiridon Potemkin, Archpriest Avvakum Petrov, Solovki monks Gerasim Firsov, Epiphanius and Gerontius, the preacher of self-immolation as the last means of salvation from the Antichrist, Hierodeacon Ignatius of Solovetsky, his opponent and accuser of "suicidal deaths" Euphrosynus, priest Lazar, deacon Fyodor Ivanov, monk Abraham, Suzdal priest Nikita Konstantinov Dobrynin and others.
The inspired performances of Archpriest Avvakum attracted numerous followers to him not only from the lower ranks of the people, but also from among the aristocracy (boyar F. P. Morozova, princess E. P. Urusova, etc.). This was the reason for his exile to Tobolsk in 1653, then to Dauria in 1656 and later to Mezen in 1664. In 1666, Avvakum was summoned to Moscow for a church cathedral, where he was stripped and anathematized, and exiled the following year. to the Pustozersky prison, along with other defenders of the "old faith". During almost 15 years of confinement in the earthen prison Avvakum and his associates (Elder Epiphanius, Priest Lazar, Deacon Fyodor Ivanov) did not stop fighting. The moral authority of the prisoners was so great that even the prison guards took part in the distribution of their writings. In 1682, Avvakum and his comrades were burned in Pustozersk "for great blasphemy against the royal house."
In the Pustozero prison, Avvakum created his main works: "The Book of Conversations" (1669-75), "The Book of Interpretations and Morals" (c. 1673-76), "The Book of Reproofs, or the Eternal Gospel" (c. 1676) and a masterpiece of Russian literature - "Life" in three author's editions 1672, 1673 and 1674-75. Avvakum's work is by no means the only autobiographical life in the 16th-17th centuries. Among his predecessors were the story of Martiry Zelenetsky (1580s), "The Tale of the Anzersky Skete" (late 1630s) by Eleazar, and the remarkable "Life" (in two parts 1667-71 and c. 1676) by Epiphanius, spiritual father Avvakum. However, the "Life" of Avvakum, written in the unique richness and expressiveness of the "Russian natural language", is not only an autobiography, but also a sincere confession of a truth seeker and a fiery sermon of a fighter ready to die for his ideals. Avvakum, the author of more than 80 theological, epistolary, polemical and other works (some of which have been lost), combines extreme traditionalism of views with bold innovation in creativity, and especially in language. The word Avvakum grows out of the deepest roots of truly folk speech. The living and figurative language of Avvakum is close to the literary manner of the Old Believer John Lukyanov, the author of pilgrimage notes about the "walking" to Jerusalem in 1701-03.
The spiritual daughter of Avvakum, boyar F. P. Morozova, starved to death with her sister, princess E. P. Urusova and the wife of archery colonel M. G. Danilova in an earthen prison in Borovsk in 1675 for refusing to accept church reform, is dedicated to "The Tale of Boyar Morozova ", a work of high artistic merit. Shortly after the death of the disgraced noblewoman, an author close to her (obviously, her brother, the boyar Fedor Sokovnin), created in the form of a life a vivid and truthful chronicle of one of the most dramatic events in the history of the early Old Believers.
In 1694, in the north-east of Lake Onega, Daniil Vikulin and Andrey Denisov founded the Vygovskoe dormitory, which became the largest book and literary center of the Old Believers in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. The Old Believer book culture, which also developed in Starodubye (since 1669), on Vetka (since 1685) and in other centers, continued the ancient Russian spiritual traditions in new historical conditions.
MAIN SOURCES AND LITERATURE
SOURCES. Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. M., 1978-1994. [Issue. 1-12]; Library of Literature of Ancient Rus'. SPb., 1997-2003. Vol. 1-12 (ed. ongoing).
RESEARCH. Adrianov-Peretz V.P. "The Word about Igor's Campaign" and monuments of Russian literature of the XI-XIII centuries. L., 1968; She is. Old Russian literature and folklore. L., 1974; Eremin IP Lectures and articles on the history of ancient Russian literature. 2nd ed. L., 1987; The origins of Russian fiction. L., 1970; Kazakova N. A., Lurie Ya. S. Anti-feudal heretical movements in Rus' in the XIV - early XVI century. M.; L., 1955; Klyuchevsky V. O. Old Russian Lives of the Saints as a historical source. M., 1989; Likhachev D.S. Man in the literature of Ancient Rus'. M., 1970; He is. Development of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries: Epochs and styles. L., 1973; He is. Poetics of ancient Russian literature. 3rd ed. M., 1979; Meshchersky N.A. Sources and composition of the ancient Slavic-Russian translated writing of the 9th-15th centuries. L., 1978; Panchenko A. M. Russian poetic culture of the 17th century. L., 1973; He is. Russian culture on the eve of Peter's reforms. L., 1984; Peretz VN From lectures on the methodology of the history of literature. Kyiv, 1914; Robinson A.N. Lives of Avvakum and Epiphanius: Studies and texts. M., 1963; He is. Literature of Ancient Rus' in the literary process of the Middle Ages in the XI-XIII centuries: Essays on literary and historical typology. M., 1980; Russian literature of the X - the first quarter of the XVIII century. / Ed. D. S. Likhachev // History of Russian Literature: In four volumes. L., 1980. T. 1. S. 9-462; Sazonova L. I. Poetry of Russian Baroque: (second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries). M., 1991; Sobolevsky A. I. Translated Literature of Moscow Rus' XIV-XVII centuries. St. Petersburg, 1903; Shakhmatov A. A. History of Russian chronicles. SPb., 2002. T. 1. Book. 1; 2003. T. 1. Book. 2.
TEXTBOOKS, READERS. Buslaev F. I. Historical reader of the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages. M., 1861; Gudziy N.K. History of ancient Russian literature. 7th ed. M., 1966; He is. Reader on ancient Russian literature / Nauch. ed. N. I. Prokofiev. 8th ed. M., 1973; History of Russian literature X - XVII centuries. / Ed. D. S. Likhachev. M., 1985; Kuskov VV History of Old Russian Literature. 7th ed. M., 2002; Orlov A. S. Ancient Russian literature of the XI - XVII centuries. 3rd ed. M.; L., 1945; Picchio R. Old Russian literature. M., 2001; Speransky M.N. History of ancient Russian literature. 4th ed. SPb., 2002.
DIRECTORIES. Bibliography of Soviet Russian works on literature of the XI-XVII centuries. for 1917-1957 / Comp. N. F. Drobenkova. M.; L., 1961; Bibliography of works on Old Russian literature published in the USSR: 1958-1967. / Comp. N. F. Drobenkova. L., 1978. Part 1 (1958-1962); L., 1979. Part 2 (1963-1967); the same: 1968-1972 / Comp. N. F. Drobenkova. SPb., 1996; the same: 1973-1987 / Comp. A. G. Bobrov et al. St. Petersburg, 1995. Part 1 (1973-1977); SPb., 1996. Part 2 (1978-1982); SPb., 1996. Part 3 (1983-1987); Bibliography of works on Old Russian literature published in the USSR (Russia): 1988-1992. / Comp. O. A. Belobrova et al. St. Petersburg, 1998 (ed. ongoing); Dictionary of scribes and bookishness of Ancient Rus'. L., 1987. Issue. 1 (XI-first half of the XIV century); L., 1988. Issue. 2 (second half of the 14th-16th centuries). Part 1 (A-K); L., 1989. Issue. 2 (second half of the 14th-16th centuries). Part 2 (L-Z); SPb., 1992. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 1 (A-Z); SPb., 1993. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 2 (I-O); SPb., 1998. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 3 (P-S); SPb., 2004. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 4 (T-Z); Encyclopedia "Words about Igor's Campaign". SPb., 1995. T. 1-5.
The first rhetoric appeared in Russia only at the beginning of the 17th century. and survived in the earliest copy of 1620. This is a translation of the Latin short "Rhetoric" by the German humanist Philipp Melanchthon, revised by Luke Lossius in 1577.
Its source was the Russian Law, dating back to the ancient tribal era of the Eastern Slavs. In the X century. "Russian law" developed into a monument of customary law, complex in composition, which guided the Kyiv princes in court cases. In pagan times, the "Russian Law" existed in oral form, passed down from memory from one generation to another (apparently, priests), which contributed to the consolidation in its language of terms, traditional formulas and turns, which, after the baptism of Rus', merged into the business language.
Leo Tolstoy was a maternal descendant of St. Michael of Chernigov.
The literature of "traitors to the sovereign" was continued by clerk Grigory Kotoshikhin. Having fled to Sweden, he wrote there, commissioned by Count Delagardie, a detailed essay on the peculiarities of the Russian political system and social life - "On Russia in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich" (1666-67). The writer is critical of the Moscow order. His work is a vivid document of the transition period, testifying to a turning point in the minds of people on the eve of Peter's reforms. Kotoshikhin had a sharp natural mind and literary talent, but in moral terms he was apparently not high. In 1667, he was executed in the suburbs of Stockholm for the murder of the landlord in a drunken brawl.
Alexei Mikhailovich's interest in the theater is not accidental. The monarch himself willingly took up the pen. Most of his work is occupied by monuments of the epistolary genre: official business messages, "friendly" letters, etc. With his lively participation, the "Supervisor of the Falconer's Way" was created. The book continues the traditions of Western European hunting writings. It describes the rules of falconry, Alexei Mikhailovich's favorite pastime. He also owns "The Tale of the Repose of Patriarch Joseph" (1652), remarkable for its artistic expressiveness and truthfulness to life, unfinished notes on the Russian-Polish war of 1654-67, church and secular poetic works, etc. Under his supervision, the famous code was compiled laws of the Russian state - "Cathedral Code" of 1649, an exemplary monument of the Russian business language of the 17th century.)
Article
Author: Klimeshina Galina Vasilievna, teacher of Russian language and literature, MBOU "OOSH No. 3", AstrakhanThe article can be used to prepare for speeches at various public events on the Russian language, literature, culture.
Spiritual traditions in ancient and modern Russian literature
Culture is that general and special, created by the people in the past and carried out in the present, which unites the country, which is in every person, in every part of him. This is a single set of private and general meanings, images and symbols, structuring a sign picture of reality, creating a certain super-image of the world and an attitude towards it, and activities in accordance with it. In the dictionary of Vladimir Dahl, for example, only the last, active aspect stands out: culture - processing, cultivation, care for something. Like the education of someone, mental and moral, teaching something. A certain phenomenon, action in accordance with some ideal, model, following the custom, tradition of society. Culture is also associated with the creation of values, including the highest spiritual values. In a narrow sense, it is a sphere of people's spiritual life (both material and the result of personal achievements: knowledge, skills, morality, intelligence level, aesthetics, worldview, type of people's communication). In a broad sense, this is the creation of ideals and material values, the creation of stereotypes of social behavior in accordance with the original Prototype, the original mythologeme.
The culture of the people determines its moral and spiritual character; without it, the coexistence of such different countries on earth is impossible. However, the cultural traditions of each ethnic group are formed on many pillars associated with history and literature. The richer and more developed the literary traditions, the more highly moral the culture of the people.
Slavic culture in our country is represented primarily by Russian literature, which is more than a thousand years old. The variety of genres and styles, the versatility of themes, the sincerity and truthfulness of presentation, the depth and breadth of views amaze even today's reader, and yet only a small part of Old Russian works has come down to us. What were the ideas of our ancestors about the spiritual culture of man? The answer to this question will be works from the treasury of ancient Russian literature.
The works of Ancient Rus' captivate with their chaste purity. Old Russian literature does not linger on the description of atrocities, does not cherish the dream of retribution to enemies. She calls for the sublime, the good. In it we find noble ideals. Almost every writer of Ancient Rus' could, like A.S. Pushkin, say about himself that he “awakened good feelings” with his work. He could declare, together with N.A. Nekrasov, that he "sowed the reasonable, the good, the eternal." Therefore, the works of ancient Russian authors so vividly correspond to our time.
For ancient Russian literature, as well as for Russian literature as a whole, life-affirmation, lightness and clarity are characteristic. The resilience of her characters is amazing.
Another property of ancient Russian literature is especially attractive in our time: ancient Russian writers treated other peoples, their customs, traditions, and beliefs with deep respect. Tolerance is manifested in the relationship between the Russian governor Pretich and the Pecheneg prince in The Tale of Bygone Years, in the Tale of the Emshan Grass, in the sermons of Bishop Serapion of Vladimir, who wrote about the torments of the Russian people under the Tatar oppression, lamented the loss of the former glory of Rus' and in At the same time, he spoke about the moral virtues of the Tatars. Respect for other peoples, sympathy for their troubles sounds with particular force in Afanasy Nikitin's Journey Beyond the Three Seas. The best traditions of ancient literature continue in the new Russian literature of the 18th-21st centuries.
Today, ancient Russian literature seems to be especially significant, because it has features that are consonant with our era. The works of antiquity are marked by high citizenship, sincere love for the motherland. Writers separated from us for many centuries were proud of the greatness of Rus', its vastness, the beauty of fields and forests, the lordship of the soul of people, their "daring" (courage), high moral qualities.
We see a deep connection with the culture and history of ancient Rus', oral folk poetry and folk art in the work of many contemporary writers. Especially this connection can be traced in the work of S.A. Yesenin. It was she who determined, according to V.G. Bazanov, "the appearance in Yesenin's poetry of a whole group of poetic symbols, images and motifs that are directly related to the structure of the myth of the world tree." (A tree is a mythological symbol denoting the universe, harmony, as well as a person likened to this world). Yesenin's poetry, even the most tragic years (1922-1925), is marked by a desire for a harmonious worldview. It is no coincidence that the influence of two principles is increasingly felt - folklore and classical poetry. Acceptance of life, gratitude for it finds a declarative expression in the poet: “I accept everything. I accept everything as it is ... ". The image of a pink horse - a symbol of sunrise, the spring of the joy of life (“I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ...”) is next to him with a peasant horse-worker, which at dawn turns pink in the rays of the rising sun. That is why the named and many other poems of the poet became romances. This feature makes the poet's work related to the folk song, to the folk soul. They reflect the openness of a person who feels himself a part of the universe, which is why even sadness is not gloomy, but bright.
Yesenin’s traditional images: “country of birch calico”, “pink horse”, “white apple trees smoke”, maple with copper leaves, autumn as a time of maturity and summing up, even the surname itself, which goes back to the common Slavic “esen” (autumn), preserved in the Ryazan dialect - all this speaks of an inextricable connection with Russian folk traditions, with Russian culture. Accepting the revolution and all subsequent events that took place in his native land, the poet is not changed in one thing, he is infinitely devoted to his native land, he serves it until his last breath. The heroes of his works are ambiguous, cause a lot of controversy and questions, but they are real characters - heroes of their time ("The Advent", "Pugachev", "Anna Snegina", etc.). As before, the poet makes it clear that love and loyalty are valuable at any time and in any society, that it is impossible to achieve happiness for someone by drowning countries and peoples in blood, that people should not be a blind tool in the rivers of clever politicians-dealers, that duty and honor are not empty words, but symbols of human consciousness. Is it possible to consider the words of the lyrical hero of the poem "The Coming" as outdated, who, turning to the motherland, prepares her for enlightenment, for the realization of her new destiny and greatness:
Oh Rus', Ever-Virgin
Correcting death!
From the starry womb
You went down to the firmament ...
Look at the fields, at the harvested oats, -
Under the snowy willow
Your Christ has fallen!
Almost a hundred years have passed, and the role of Russia - the Ever-Virgin (recognized by the Church of the martyr for Christ) is unchanged as before, especially in the light of recent events in Ukraine, and throughout the world.
Looking back at our society, I would like to ask the question put by Yesenin into the mouth of Pugachev and repeated three times: “People! Are you crazy? This repetition, borrowed from folklore, the secondary meanings of words make the pattern of the verse unique and still relevant. A little more time will pass, and in the poems of the poet, readers will see behind the ideals of romanticism and rebellion the former Rus', the “meek homeland”, which has returned to its origins, to its shores.
What is a century for history, for an epoch? Just an episode, a small event that can then fit into the lines of school textbooks. And for the country, this is the life of several generations of people. This is what happened to us, to our Russia in the 1990s. It seemed that the connection between generations and cultural traditions had broken off, ideas about life had changed, and as at the beginning of the century, "Violent Rus' is dancing in front of our eyes." But we survived, suffered through these difficult years, the period of immoral obsession and permissiveness, passed the test of strength, and the wheel of time gradually returned to what this hundred-year path began from.
Once upon a time, in 1913 in the Crimea, in Koktebel, Marina Tsvetaeva wrote:
To my poems written so early
That I did not know that I am a poet,
Ripped off like spray from a fountain
Like sparks from rockets
Bursting like little devils
In the sanctuary where sleep and incense
To my poems about youth and death,
- Unread verses! -
Scattered in the dust at the shops
(Where no one took them and does not take them!),
My poems are like precious wines
Your turn will come.
These old lines turned out to be prophetic. For the works of Tsvetaeva, a period has come when they are read, understood, loved, admired. This means that the time has come when all moral categories have returned to their place, when no one will call black white, when lies and hypocrisy began to be called by their true names. Without cultural ties to the past, this would not have been possible. The time has come when the true meaning of such concepts as mercy, sympathy, good-heartedness, nobility, patriotism, compassion is being revived in Russia. Once these words were considered the basis not only of Russian spiritual culture, but of other Slavic peoples. For a long time they were undeservedly forgotten, and now, rediscovering them for themselves, people are learning to live according to their conscience, to their hearts. Many representatives of modern literature wrote about this in their works, including A.I. Solzhenitsyn and V.P. Astafiev. Both became recognized defenders of the moral attitude towards people, creators of the gallery of Russian characters, revived interest in the origins of spirituality. Each of the writers in his own way manifested the idea of the peasantry as the basis of humanity, which can still be revived in Russian society. They also foresaw that this return to their spiritual principles would be long and difficult for our society, but it is coming. According to T.M. Vakhitova, “Astafiev concentrated his artistic observations in the sphere of national character. At the same time, he always touches on the most acute, painful, controversial problems of social development, trying to follow Dostoevsky in these matters.
The Russian village in the works of Astafiev appears before us spiritually pure and beautiful. The bright image of the Motherland resurrects the historical past of our country, its connection with modern society is felt more deeply. For us, it is that life-giving source to which we turn in times of troubles and trials, “in days of doubt and painful reflection,” as well as in times of upsurge. The spiritual kinship of the past and the present is becoming more and more tangible. We draw deep thoughts from the culture of our ancestors, find high ideals, beautiful images in it. Her faith in goodness and justice, her "ardent patriotism" strengthen and inspire us. M.V. Lomonosov called Russian chronicles "books of glorious deeds." It is gratifying that the glorious deeds continue, they create a new person according to the same canons of spirituality that his ancestors could be proud of.
The revival of spirituality and a return to its sources explains the interest in modern society in everything folk, primordial. There are enough examples of this. I would like to add to what has been said only a few touches, or rather photographs.
1. Borders and periodization of Old Russian literature. Characteristics of the main stages.
According to many researchers, ancient Russian literature developed in the 10th century, but the works of this period have not reached us. Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which has gone through a long seven-century path in its development, from the XI century. by the 17th century
Already in the middle of the 17th century, new trends in literature oriented towards the West began. But it was decided to include in the study all the literature of the 17th century and consider it as a transitional period. During the period of the formation of literature, its "apprenticeship", the focus of political and cultural life was Kyiv, "the mother of Russian cities", therefore the literature of the XI-first third of the XII centuries. called literature of Kievan Rus .This period is characterized by the relative unity of literature, which is determined by the relationship of the two main cultural centers of the state - Kyiv and Novgorod. This is a period of apprenticeship, with Byzantium and Bulgaria acting as mentors. Translation literature prevails. It is first dominated by religious texts, and then secular literature appears. The main theme is the theme of the Russian land and its position in the family of Christian nations.
Lit-ra of the era of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th-first third of the 13th century). This period is associated with the emergence of regional literary centers in Vladimir, Rostov, Smolensk, and others. The monumental-historical style dominates in literature. The most significant literary monuments of this period are “The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “Journey Beyond the Three Seas”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”.
Lit-ra of the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion (second third of 13-1380). During this period, the main theme of literature is heroic, and the monumental-historical style acquires a tragic connotation and lyrical excitement.
Lit-ra of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380-80s of the 15th century). This is a time of creative searches and discoveries in literature, which is caused by the rise of national self-consciousness and the rise of Moscow. A new moral ideal of the era is taking shape, which is reflected in the lives of the saints Epiphanius the Wise. The reader's interest in fiction and historical-journalistic literature is growing.
Lit-ra of the Moscow centralized state (late 15th-16th century). This stage was characterized by an unprecedented flourishing of journalism, because. there were many problems in the state. Tradition begins to prevail over the new, literature is going through a period of new monumentalism, and interest is shown in the biographies of historical figures.
Transition Liter (17th century). During this period, there is a clash of new and old principles of artistic creativity. The development of the individual principle is visible in everything. After Nikon's church reform, literature was divided into democratic and official. The autobiographical beginning is growing rapidly, attention to the personality of a person appears.
2. The main features of ancient Russian literature and its artistic method.
The literature of other Rus' set as its goal the creation of the spiritual ideal of man. There were almost no portraits in literature (only based on comparison or by mixing the internal and external characteristics of a person), the landscape was used quite rarely and only for a symbolic purpose (except for the genre of walking). There was no satire in the works, there were only elements of humor and irony, only in the 17th century. satirical novels appeared. The purpose of writing any work was teaching. Up to the 17th c. there was no conscious fiction in literature; historicism was obligatory in works. But literature was filled with legends. Literature also had obligatory features: journalism, patriotism, traditionalism. Old Russian literature was anonymous and had a handwritten character. Most of the works have an unknown author.
3. The peculiarity of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature and the characteristics of the main genres. Article by N.I. Prokofiev "On the worldview of the Russian Middle Ages and the system of genres of Russian literature XI - X V1st century"
In ancient Russian literature, several systems of genres existed and interacted: folklore and business writing, translated and original literature, both liturgical and secular. The selection of genres was based on the object of the image. Lyrical genres: teachings and messages. Teaching is a genre intended to convey a system of political, religious or moral views to listeners or readers. They were didactic and solemn. Message - a genre intended for a story about events or a statement of thoughts to an addressee removed from the author. It consists of 4 parts: script (external address), prescript (introduction, appeal), semantheme (content of the message), clause (good wish). There were also inserted genres, for example, lamentation, praise, prayer. Epic genres: life is a genre that tells about the life of a real person, canonized after death. Life composition: introduction (author's self-abasement, many topoi, turning to God for help), central narrative (a story or mention of parents, a story about childhood, the hero's life, his death and posthumous miracles), conclusion (praise or prayer to a saint). Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. Differ "pilgrimage, merchant, ambassadorial, explorer. According to the composition, this is a chain of travel essays connected by a chronological or topographical feature. Historical story - a genre that tells about a historical event. It is divided into military and the story of princely and boyar crimes. Composition-preparation of the event, narration of the event, consequences of the event. The narrator, as a rule, is a mysterious person. There is also another epic genre - a parable. Symbolic genres - vision, miracle, sign. Other genres are chronicle (could include all genres), patericon (stories about the life of monks).
4. Genre of teaching in literatureXI- XIIcenturies Solemn teachings of Hilarion and Cyril of Turov.
Teaching is a genre designed to convey a certain system of ideas to the reader or listener.
Type 1 - solemn (church and state problems)
Type 2 - didactic (moral and everyday problems)
The monument of oratorical prose of Kievan Rus belongs to the solemn eloquence. "A word about the law and grace of the metropolitan Hilarion" - affirms the idea of equality of Rus' and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples. Comparison of the Old and New Testament. Assessment of the acts of Vladimir. Teaching against Judaism. The word is full of quotes and detailed comparisons from biblical texts, it activates the reader's perception due to the abundance of rhetorical figures.
Teachings of Cyril of Turov. See abstract 7 Kirill is an original thinker and artist. Perhaps, right up to Derzhavin, a writer of such strength, significance and height of moral feeling did not appear in Russian literature as Kirill - the conscience of his difficult and stormy time. He subtly uses the wealth of traditional poetic means to create a text that is polyphonic in meaning and feeling. Here, the lofty and worldly plans seem to coexist, marking the endless struggle between good and evil.
5. Characteristics of the genre of life. "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves": composition, image of the main character, style. Genre originality of "Tales of Boris and Gleb".
life- a genre that tells about the life of a historical person who, after death, canonized as a saint. A strict canon of writing, 3 parts in the composition: introduction (author's self-abasement, prayer, about sources), biography of the saint (childhood-parents, growing up, life path, exploits, about death and posthumous miracles), praise or prayer to the saint.
About works-see in the wind
The problem of the time of creation, the genre originality of "The Tale of Boris and Gleb".
A whole cycle of works in Russian literature is dedicated to Boris and Gleb. In addition to chronicle stories, it includes the “Reading about the life and destruction” of Boris and Gleb, written by Nestor, the anonymous “Tale and Passion and Praise” to the saints, to which in the Assumption Collection adjoins the “Tale of Miracles”, which arose on the basis of notes compiled at different times. The question of the relationship and chronology of the individual works that make up the Boriso-Gleb cycle is very complicated. There are several versions. According to the first, the “Tale” first arose (at the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise), then the “Tale of Miracles”, and on this basis Nestor wrote the “Reading”. According to the second version, the "Reading" first arose (at the end of the 11th century), together with the chronicle story, served as a source for the author of the "Tale". But there is no consensus. The most perfect literary monument of the Boriso-Gleb cycle is considered the anonymous "Tale", the author of which focused on the spiritual side of this historical drama. The task of the hagiographer is to portray the suffering of the saints and show the greatness of their spirit in the face of imminent death. Boris knows in advance about Svyatopolk’s plans to kill him, and he is faced with the choice of either going to “fight Kiev” and killing him, or by his death laying the foundation for Christian relations between the princes of humility and submission to the elder. Boris chooses martyrdom. The psychological complexity of this choice is shown, which makes the picture of his death truly tragic, and to enhance the impact on the reader, the author repeats the scene of the murder of the prince three times. There are a lot of prayers in the Tale, Boris prays especially with inspiration before his death. The intonations of lamentation literally permeate the "Tale", defining the main tone of the narration. All this corresponds to the hagiographic canon. But the work is also characterized by a tendency to individualize the hagiographic hero, which contradicted the canon, but corresponded to the truth of life. The image of the younger brother Gleb did not duplicate the hagiographic characteristics of the elder. Gleb is more inexperienced than his brother, therefore he treats Svyatopolk with full confidence. Later, Gleb cannot suppress the fear of death in himself, and begs the killers for mercy. The author created one of the first psychological portraits in Russian literature, rich in subtle emotional experiences of the hero. For Gleb, the destiny of a martyr is still premature. Psychologically reliable image of the hagiographic anti-hero Svyatopolk. He is obsessed with envy and pride, he craves power, therefore he is characterized by the epithets "cursed", "bad". He deserves the punishment for his crime. It is broken by Yaroslav the Wise, and Svyatopolk dies on the run. He is opposed to both Boris and Gleb, and Yaroslav, who became an instrument of divine retribution to the murderer. In order to surround the heroes with an aura of holiness, the author at the end speaks of their posthumous miracles and praises them, putting them on a par with famous church leaders. Unlike the traditional life, the "Tale" does not describe the lives of heroes from birth, but only talks about their villainous murder. Pronounced
historicism also contradicts the canons of life. Therefore, we can say that the "Legend" combines both elements of hagiography and elements of divergence from the canon, which manifests the genre originality of this work.
Life is a genre that tells about the life of a real historical person, canonized after death. Russian hagiographies developed on the basis of Byzantine ones. The genre took shape in the first centuries of Christianity and was supposed to serve as an illustration of the Christian commandments. In the first lives, many miracles repeated the miracles of Christ. They were artless in form, but their complication is gradually going on. Signs of life: idealization (ideal saints, ideal evil); according to the composition - strict adherence to the canons (introduction - many topoi, self-abasement of the author, turning to God for help; central narrative - a story or mention of parents; a story about the hero's childhood; a story about his life and exploits; a story about death and posthumous miracles; conclusion - praise or prayer to the saint); the narrator is always an educated and well-read person, distancing himself from the hero, giving information about himself, clearly expressing his position in relation to the hero with the help of biblical quotations; the language is Church Slavonic and lively colloquial, extensive use of tropes and biblical quotations. "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves" was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. Following the genre canon, the author saturates the life with traditional images and motifs. In the introduction, he self-deprecates, in the stories about his childhood Theodosius speaks of his spirituality, speaks of posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main genre rules - to portray -> the saint outside the specific signs of time and people. The author seeks to convey the color of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn what charter regulated life in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, how the monastery grew and grew rich, interfered in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, and contributed to the development of book business in Rus'. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the "hagiographic chronicle" of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, because. includes stories about spiritual mentors, associates and disciples of Theodosius. In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in the political life of Rus' is shown, which also increases the value of the "Life" as a literary monument.
"Life" laid the foundation for the development in Russian literature of the genre of venerable life.
6. "Instructing Your Children" by Vladimir Monomakh. Composition, style, elements of autobiography.
"Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh is a wonderful monument of secular "instructive" literature. It is written in the form of a lesson for children. The advice given in it reflected not only his experience as a statesman, far-sighted politician and commander, but also literary education, writing talent, his ideas about the moral character of a Christian. This "Instruction" has come down to us in the Laurentian Chronicle. Compositionally, it consists of 3 parts: the teaching itself; Monomakh's story about his life, including his campaigns; Monomakh's letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich. At the same time, parts 2-3 serve as an illustration to the advice of the 1st part. Chronologically, these parts were arranged in a different sequence. There is a version that the “Letter” was written first, then the main part, the actual teaching. And last of all, an autobiographical part was created, where Monomakh summed up his work. For the edification of his contemporaries and descendants, Monomakh created the image of an ideal prince who cares about the glory and honor of the Russian land. He unquestioningly obeys his elders, lives in peace with princes equal to himself, strictly observes the Christian commandments and works unceasingly. The autobiographical part contains many descriptions of the battles and campaigns of the prince. The stories about these campaigns are in the form of enumeration, with little or no attention to detail. This part ends with praise to God and gratitude for the fact that God has protected him all his life. Vladimir Monomakh was fluent in different styles of speech, varying them in the Teaching depending on the topic and genre. The autobiographical part is written simply, in artless language, close to colloquial. "High style" is typical for ethical-philosophical reasoning, permeated with biblical quotations and rhythmically organized. Many fragments of the message to Oleg Svyatoslavich are permeated with a subtle lyrical feeling, for example, a request to release Izyaslav's widow to him in order to mourn him together.
"Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh went beyond the scope of a private document. It has a philosophical depth of reflection on God and man, life and death, valuable practical advice that has not lost its value, poetic imagery of style, autobiographical elements, which helped the "Message" to enter the "golden fund" of world literature.
7. The originality of "The Tale of Bygone Years" as an annalistic code: themes, composition, intra-genre composition.
The appearance of each genre in literature is historically conditioned. Chronicle writing in Rus' arose from the need of the early feudal society to have its own written history and was associated with the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people. The question of the time of the emergence of Russian chronicles belongs to the category of controversial in science. Scattered records of historical events, apparently, already existed in the 10th century, but the chronicle did not yet have a purposeful character. It acquired it during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, at the beginning of the 11th century. the name of the first of the chronicles of the beginning of the 12th century that have come down to us. has the title "The Tale of the Bygone Years of the Chernorizet of the Fedosyev Monastery of the Caves, where did the Russian land come from ... they began to be the first prince in it, and from where did the Russian land begin to eat." In ancient times, the title indicated the main theme, rather than signaling the genre. “The Tale of Bygone Summers is a work on which more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked, it is a monument to collective creativity. The first stage of work is attributed to 30-40 years. 11th c. under Yaroslav the Wise. This stage was associated with the educational activities of the prince. Sophia of Kiev became the center of chronicle writing, where the prince tried to establish a Russian metropolitan, not a Greek. The aggravation of the religious struggle for independence from Byzantium was also reflected in the annals, the core of which was "The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'." In form, this is not yet a chronicle, but rather a patericon. The second stage falls on the 70s. and is connected with another center of Russian education, the Kiev Caves Monastery. Compilation of the first Caves annalistic code of the 70s. took place with the participation of Nikon. At this stage in the history of chronicle writing there is a tendency towards a strict chronology of events, without which history was devoid of movement. Dates could be taken from Easter tables, and historical information from the folklore of the Black Sea region. In Nikon's vault, church history gradually began to develop into a secular one. The compilation of the second Caves chronicle is attributed to the 90s. 11th c. and attributed to hegumen John. The monastery at that time was against Svyatopolk. The journalistic orientation of the code was to glorify the former power of Rus' and denounce the princes who were waging fratricidal wars. In the late 90s. there was a reconciliation between the prince and the monastery, and in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, a new chronicle was created in his interests - “The Tale of Bygone Years”, the first edition of which belongs to Nestor. From an opposition chronicle, it turns into an official one, begins to take on an all-Russian character.
New editions of The Tale of Bygone Years are being created outside the Pechersk Monastery. The second edition was compiled in 1116. priest Sylvester, who was instructed by Vladimir Monomakh to "correct" the work of Nestor, which glorified his political opponent. In 1118 the chronicle is again subjected to editing in the interests of Prince Mstislav.
"The Tale of Bygone Years" contains 2 main ideas: the idea of the independence of Rus' and its equality with other countries (in the description of hostilities) and the idea of the unity of Rus', the Russian princely family, the need for a union of princes and the condemnation of strife ("Legend of calling the Varangians"). The work highlights several main themes: the theme of the unification of cities, the theme of the military history of Rus', the theme of the peaceful activities of princes, the theme of the history of the adoption of Christianity, the theme of urban uprisings. In terms of composition, this is a very interesting work. It breaks up into 2 parts: up to 850 - conditional chronology, and then - weather. There were also such articles where the year stood, but there was no record. This meant that nothing significant happened that year, and the chronicler did not consider it necessary to write it down. Under one year there could be several major narratives. The chronicle includes symbols: visions, miracles, signs, as well as messages, teachings. The first, dated 852, was associated with the beginning of the Russian land. Under 862 there was a legend about the calling of the Varangians, the establishment of a single ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik. The next turning point in the annals is connected with the baptism of Rus' in 988. The final articles tell about the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Also, the compositional originality of The Tale of Bygone Years is manifested in the combination of many genres in this work. Partly because of this, messages of different content were sometimes placed under one year. The chronicle was a collection of primary genre formations. Here we find both a weather record, the simplest and most ancient form of narration, and an annalistic story, annalistic tales. The proximity of the chronicle to hagiographic literature is found in the stories about 2 Varangian martyrs, about the foundation of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, about the death of Theodosius of the Caves. Obituary articles were associated with the genre of grave words of praise in the annals, which often contained verbal portraits of deceased historical figures, for example, a description of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior. Symbolic landscape sketches. Unusual natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as "signs" - warnings from above about impending doom or glory.
In the depths of The Tale of Bygone Years, a military tale begins to take shape. Elements of this genre are already present in the story of Yaroslav's revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparations for battle, the "slash of evil" and the flight of Svyatopolk. Also, the features of the military story can be traced in "The Tale of the Capture of Tsaryrad by Oleg", in the story "About the Battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav".
8. The image of historical persons and the originality of the style of The Tale of Bygone Years.
The central characters of the chronicle are the princes. Chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries. portrayed them from the point of view of the prevailing princely ideal: a good warrior, the head of his people, generous, merciful. The prince is also a good Christian, a fair judge, merciful to those in need, a person incapable of any crime. But in The Tale of Bygone Years there are few ideal princes. First of all, these are Boris and Gleb. All other princes are represented more or less diversified. In the annals, the squad supports the prince. The people are most often depicted as a suffering force. The hero appears from the people and saves the people and the state: Nikita Kozhemyaka; a lad who decides to make his way through the enemy camp. Most of them do not have a name (they are called by age), nothing is known about their past and future, each has an exaggerated quality that reflects a connection with the people - strength or wisdom. The hero appears in a certain place at a critical moment. The influence of folklore greatly affects the image of the heroes of the initial chronicle. The chronicle gives the first Russian princes (Oleg, Olga, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir) laconic, but vivid characteristics, highlighting the dominant feature in the image of the hero, moreover, of an individual order. In the image of Olga, the wisdom of a statesman is poeticized, which is expressed in the search for a single faith and in revenge on the Drevlyans. The characterization of Svyatoslav is epicly laconic. This is a straightforward and courageous person, easy to communicate with the soldiers, he preferred victory in an open battle to military cunning. He always warned his enemies that he was preparing a campaign against them. The characteristic of Svyatoslav is given through his actions, accomplished feats. In the later fragments of the chronicle, the image of the good Christian prince comes to the fore. The characteristics of these princes are official, devoid of individual signs. The murderous prince could turn into a righteous man; Yaroslav the Wise turns from a disobedient son into an instrument of divine punishment for Svyatopolk the Accursed. In the annals there is a mixture of the style of monumental historicism, epic style and church style. In the stories made in the style of monumental historicism, everything is known in advance, the fate of the hero is predetermined. And in epic parts, the effect of surprise is often used. Also, a feature of the style is the mixing of various genres in one chronicle, the frequent contraction of different events to one year (especially if this event lasted several years).
9. The originality of the content and form of the Novgorod chronicle of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of the Battle of the Lipica River".
The basis of the Novgorod 1 chronicle was the records that were kept at the court of the bishop. The chronicle itself preserved the names of some authors, for example, Herman Voyata and his successor, sexton Timothy. Chroniclers often expressed their point of view on the events described. Novgorodians themselves chose princes for themselves and treated them quite freely, so the prince was not the main person of the Novgorod Chronicle. The main content of the chronicle was records of the life of the city and the entire Novgorod land. Repeatedly appear pictures of disasters, natural phenomena. Much attention is paid to the various activities of the townspeople, especially the construction and painting of churches. The number of people mentioned in the annals is very large: townspeople, posadniks, etc. Novgorod chroniclers were prone to brevity, most of the records were weather. All Novgorodians were patriots of their city, so in the descriptions of the battles they tended to exaggerate the number of enemies and underestimate the number of Novgorodians. The event type is very rare and stands on the border with the informative type. Legendary stories were used quite often. A striking distinguishing feature of the Novgorod Chronicle is the author's direct statement of his opinion about people. The genre that can be definitely singled out in the annals is the military story. The types of military tales in the Novgorod chronicle are the same as in other principalities (informative and eventful), but the boundaries between them are much more unsteady. In military stories, little attention is paid to heroes, although the names of characters mentioned in them are much larger than in other chronicles, since the authors name the names of princes, governors, and individual townspeople. The descriptions of the battles are very brief (most of the annals were created by clerics who were far from military events). The chroniclers cared about the glory of their city, they were extremely reluctant to write about the defeats of the Novgorodians. Often resorted to methods of silence about the results of the battle, instead of which the deaths of individual Novgorodians were reported, it was mentioned that more enemies died. One of the few event stories in the Novgorod Chronicle is the story of the battle on the Lipitsa River in 1216. The first part tells in detail about the events that preceded the battle. The beginning of the campaign of Mstislav with the Novgorodians against Yaroslav is dated. Then the movement with battles is described near small cities, which were claimed by the allies or Yaroslav himself, there are no descriptions of the battles. The exact location of the troops that came to the battle is indicated. The second part is about the battle. Its description is very short. The third part tells about the consequences: Yaroslav's flight to Pereyaslavl; the arrest of captured Novgorodians, which caused many deaths; the expulsion of Yuri from Vladimir and the reign of Constantine there; the return of the Novgorodians from Pereyaslavl and the arrival of Yaroslav in Novgorod. The heroes of the work are characterized very poorly, as in most Novgorod stories. The author emphasizes the correctness of Mstislav and his desire to avoid bloodshed. Ordinary Novgorod warriors also appear. It is they who determine how they will fight and win. The narrator openly and consistently expresses his position. He rejoices at the victory of Mstislav, he is surprised that “they are like sons against father, brother against brother ...” (during the gathering of princely coalitions). The author's position, as in many Novgorod stories, is manifested in the exaggeration of the forces and losses of the enemies and the downplaying of the forces and losses of the Novgorodians. The speech of the characters is colloquial, concise. In different parts of the work, military formulas are used: “many beaten, and others from izymash, and iniibezhash”, less numerous than in informative stories.
10. Review of translated literatureXI- XIIIcenturies characteristics of the apocrypha.
Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium through the mediation of the Yugoslav countries, primarily Bulgaria. Therefore, the first books that Russians began to read were translations from Greek, often made by Bulgarian scribes. In the beginning, the main theme was the theme of world history. Byzantine chronicles were very common in Rus', among which was the "Chronicle" by George Amartol and the "Chronicle" by John Malala. A feature of the narrative was the combination of dynastic ranks with entertaining stories about the fate of historical figures and past events. The History of the Jewish War by Josephus Flavius is considered a masterpiece of translation art. This work tells about the destruction of Jerusalem in the first person, because. Joseph was an eyewitness to these events. "History" is imbued with a sense of experience, pictures of the war are created on an apocalyptic scale. The novel about Alexander the Great was especially popular in Rus'. Its basis is not historical authenticity, but the action-packed story about the adventures of a hero, about wonderful lands where fantastic creatures live. The very personality of the commander also acquired a legendary character. Macedonian was attributed a semi-divine origin, campaigns in Sicily, the conquest of Rome. His death is also shrouded in mystery. In addition to historical chronicles, hagiographic literature, oratorical prose, apocrypha, and natural science literature penetrated the country. Of the translated hagiographic literature, the most famous are the translations of the lives of Alexy, the man of God; Andrey Yurodivy; George the Victorious and others. They had no less circulation in Rus' than the lives of Orthodox saints. Nicholas the Wonderworker enjoyed great reverence in Rus'. Many religious traditions and legends were associated with his name, he was a favorite hero of folk spiritual poetry. There were about 40 works about him. Known in Rus' since the 11th century. “The Life of Alexy, the Man of God” gained particular popularity in the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (the saint was his patron). This life had a great influence on many hagiographic monuments of Rus'. Also very famous in Rus' were the Indian patericon (translations of India) and the Sinai paterikon (translations of the Sinai locality). The patericons did not contain complete biographies of the saints, but short stories about the brightest episodes of their ascetic activity. Of the oratorical prose, the most famous collection was the Byzantine Bee. It consisted of short stories, anecdotes, sayings, quotations that glorified virtues or condemned vices. A kind of "natural science encyclopedia" of the Middle Ages was the translated "Physiologist". It contained information about the flora and fauna, sometimes of an exotic, and often fantastic nature (for example, crocodiles cry while devouring a victim, lions sleep with their eyes open, and the phoenix bird is able to be reborn from the ashes). The "physiologist" symbolically interpreted the habits and properties of animals, correlating them with the state of the human soul. A general idea of the structure of the universe was formed by "Christian topography", and the commentary on the story of the creation of the world in 6 days contained "Sex Days". Interest in apocryphal lit-re-non-canonical books was also stable in Rus'. They are divided into books that do not contradict the dogmas of Christianity and are calmly accepted by the church, and those that contradict the canonical and are prohibited by the church. There are about 30 apocrypha associated with the Old Testament, and the same number associated with the Gospel. Apocrypha were oral, they are usually divided into 3 groups: Old Testament (the legend "How God created Adam" - the authors recognized that the devil also took part in the creation of man); New Testament (apocrypha about the life of Christ and his disciples) and eschatological (narrating about a journey to the afterlife, for example, “The Virgin's Passage through Torment” - the Mother of God wants to see how sinners live in hell).
11. Characteristics of the walking genre. Features of "The Journey of Abbot Daniel" as the first monument of the pilgrimage variety of the genre. The work of N.I. Prokofiev “Walking: Journey and Literary Genre”.
Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. There are pilgrimages, merchants, embassies and explorers. Signs of the walking genre: events are really historical; by composition - a chain of travel essays connected by chronological or topographical features; the narrator is not necessarily educated, but possesses the obligatory personal qualities - courage, energy, diplomacy, religious tolerance, he does not seek to embellish, idealize events; the language is simple, colloquial Old Russian, the use of foreign words for the nominative function, comparisons are most often used. In the travel literature of Ancient Rus', Prokofiev distinguishes 5 groups of “walks”: documentary and artistic works of the essay order, compiled on the basis of personal impressions; "travellers" - short practical route indicators; "Skasks" - records of oral stories of Russian people who have visited foreign countries or foreigners who came to Rus'; article lists-reports of Russian ambassadors on a trip abroad with a diplomatic mission; legendary or fictitious travel stories written for publicistic purposes. The first example of this genre is the Pilgrimage of Abbot Daniel to Palestine. The work begins with a rather extensive introduction. Daniel uses self-abasement, talking about the purpose of writing: so that people who could not travel would receive spiritual pleasure. But the second side of his goal is work, the creation of a "buy" for the talent given to him. By composition, this is a chain of travel essays connected according to the topographic principle. The Journey is characterized by the fusion of the legendary, the source of which could be the Bible, apocrypha, folk legends, with the real, topographically reliable. Features of "The Journey of Abbot Daniel": descriptions of holy places; many real landscape sketches, he strives for the utmost concreteness of the depicted; retelling or mentioning hagiographic, biblical or apocryphal legends; narration about the journey itself and reasoning about the narrator. The versatility of the abbot's interests is also striking: in addition to the holy places, he is interested in practical issues - the irrigation system of Jericho, the extraction of incense on the island of Cyprus, the special layout of Jerusalem, built in the form of a 4-pointed cross. The style of the work is characterized by laconicism and avarice of linguistic means. Daniil avoids abstract words, preferring simple vocabulary of a concrete everyday nature. Epithets are usually descriptive or evaluative. The simple language is explained by the fact that from the very beginning the hegumen set himself to write simply and understandably for ordinary people. Journey of Abbot Daniel” is valuable as a comprehensive guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the main canons of writing walks were formed, which later became the hallmarks of this genre.
12. Kyiv literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. Kyiv Chronicle. South Russian story about Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy.
13. History of occurrence, intra-genre composition, features of the style of the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon"».
The genre of "patericon", a collection of works about saints of any one locality, had a wide geographical scope of circulation and a long history before it began to develop in Russian literature. Translational patericons were known in Rus' as early as the 11th-12th centuries. In Russian literature, the first work of this genre was the patericon of the Kiev Caves Monastery, founded in the middle of the 11th century. The patericon was created in the 12th-early 13th century. Its new editions were created in the 14th, 15th, and 17th centuries. this patericon was a genre-ensemble, the structure of which was complex and mobile: the composition of the patericon and the principle of arranging texts in it changed from edition to edition. Very early, it included chronicle articles related to the history of the most famous monastery, as well as works of the Fedosiev cycle (the works of Theodosius of the Caves, "Life" and "Praise" to the saint). The basis of this patericon is the correspondence of Bishop Simon of Vladimir with the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Polycarp. This correspondence raised questions of the moral behavior of the monks and personally of Polycarp himself, who desired strength and power. And, dreaming of being abbess, he turned to Simon for help. The intra-genre composition of the patericon is very diverse: it contains messages, patericon lives, teachings, miracles, visions, signs, and oral monastic legends. All paterikov's lives have an action-packed character. The main characters, along with the monks, are also demons. Direct speech is often used. Only in the didactic parts there are Slavic vocabulary and quotations. In the patericon life there is no holistic narrative about the life of the saint from birth to posthumous miracles; the author is limited to one or several episodes, but the most striking and significant. The rest of the news about the saint is given in a compressed form. These lives are very laconic, unsophisticated, they contain many stereotyped comparisons, few allegories and rhetoric. Patericon's stories arose on a folklore basis, retaining the epic nature of the images, the tale-like manner of narration and many dialogues. The style of the patericon is short and unsophisticated, teaching in the form of an entertaining and action-packed story. Features of the patericon: presentation of the life of the heroes, informational content, lack of idealization of the heroes. These features are inherent in the epic style of the work.
14. Time of creation, the main idea, plot and composition of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The work of V.F.Rzhiga “Composition“ The Words of Igor’s Campaign ”.
The work was discovered in 1788-1792. Musin-Pushkin. Two directions arose in the study of the Lay: the text as an ancient monument and a skeptical direction (it was believed that the Lay was a fake of the late 18th century). One of the adherents of the theory of the authenticity of the "Word" was A.S. Pushkin, he was also studied by Buslaev (author of an anthology for gymnasiums), Potebnya (unified the spelling of all the words of the work, established the poetic characterization of the "Word"), Barsov (wrote a work about the "Word" , where he summarized everything that had been said about him for 100 years, gave his own interpretation of "dark places", created part of the dictionary-reference book "Words"). The skeptical school reached its peak in the 1920s and 1930s. 19th century Headed a group of researchers Kochenovsky. Belikov, Katkov, Aksakov and others also joined him. They proceeded from a low knowledge of ancient Russian culture. It was believed that words from different Slavic languages were used in the Lay. Skeptics ignored the fact that traces of the work were found in other ancient Russian monuments. Until 1852, skeptical views remained unchanged. But this year, a list of the Zadonshchina was found, where the traditions of the Lay stand out very clearly. Skeptics go into the shadows, and the last surge of skeptical theory was in the 60s. 20th century Zimin gives new arguments: he published a number of articles and summarized his observations in a book that was not published in large numbers. The main points of his theory: "The Word" is written in the beginning. 90s 18th century; associated with the Russian-Turkish war; the author is Bykovsky. Baza-Bykovsky was a poet, Musin-Pushkin also made his own corrections. He argued that the "Word" had many folklore sources ("Zadonshchina"), there are many Turkisms in it. The time of creation of the Tale of Igor's Campaign is the last 15 years of the 12th century. a number of researchers call the more probable time 1185-1187. (between the time of the campaign and the death of Vladimir Pereyaslavsky and Yaroslav Galitsky, mentioned in the work). The historical basis for the creation of this work was the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 by the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It was written after this tragic event. The idea of the need for the unity of Rus' and the cessation of princely civil strife is very strong in the work. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in the Kyiv Chronicle describes the same events that are described in the "Word". It is clearly divided into 3 parts: preparation of the battle-battle-consequences of the campaign. There are no lyrical fragments in this story, while the "Word" is saturated with them (for example, Yaroslavna's lament). There is a similarity in the central parts: they are, as it were, divided into 2 fragments - 2 battles. But in the "Word" there is one more part - it includes the preparation of troops and the campaign. In the "Tale" the 1st part is detailed and expanded - there is a description of the troops, the exact date of the start of the campaign, a description of the sign, which is interpreted not by the author, but by the prince and the squad. In the Lay, this part is included in the second part, and the introduction is lyrical. The author addresses the audience, speaks about the purpose of his work (which is not in the Tale). The third part, which tells about the consequences of Igor's campaign, in the "Tale" begins with a fragment of the gathering of troops by Svyatoslav to repulse the Polovtsy, and then tells about the Polovtsy's campaign against Rus' (an independent military story introduced inside the narrative of Igor's campaign). In the Lay, this part begins with a lyrical fragment-lament of Yaroslavna, and then tells about Igor's escape from captivity with many lyrical fragments, a description of the forces of nature that help Igor. Both works end with the same event - Igor's escape from captivity and his return home, described in detail. The main difference between these works is lyrical fragments (in the "Word" they are in abundance, and in the "Tale" they are absent). There are also differences in composition.
The plot-compositional design of the Lay is unique; it does not obey the canon of any of the genres of ancient Russian literature known to us. Also, the construction of the monument is distinguished by artistic perfection and expediency. The text of the composition is usually divided into 3 parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introduction is lyrical. The author addresses the audience, talks about the purpose of writing the Lay, recalls Boyan, who sang the deeds of the princes. The author points to 2 time layers that determine the chronological framework of the narrative: “from the old Vladimir to the present Igor”, we are talking, most likely, about Vladimir Monomakh, because. the idea of the word was relevant precisely in his era of rule. There is already a desire for publicism, for the relevance of the work. The central part of the work is divided into 3 subparts: the plot-preparation of the battle by Igor, the solar eclipse, 2 battles with the Polovtsians; a combination of lyrical and lyric-journalistic fragments - Svyatoslav's dream, the interpretation of this dream, Svyatoslav's "Golden Word", at the end, in part, the idea that the Russian princes need unity to fight not only with the Polovtsians, but also with all external enemies. Here appears a historical digression about Vseslav, an older contemporary of Monomakh, who participated in numerous strife, but never achieved success. The third subpart connects the lyrical fragment - Yaroslavna's lament - with the end of the plot - the story of Igor's escape from captivity, where there are many landscape sketches in the description of natural forces helping Igor. Conclusion-praise to Igor. With the help of lyrical fragments and historical digressions, the author managed to show the pernicious influence of the uncoordinated actions of the princes on the fate of Rus'. The main idea of the Lay is expressed in the central part, when the action takes place in Kyiv. Kyiv is conceived as a unifying principle of Russian princes. The most important place is occupied in the visual system of the "Words" by landscapes. They can be divided into 3 groups: dynamic, symbolic, static. Dynamic (supporting or counteracting heroes) is used in subparts 1 and 3; static (indicating the time of day or fixing some state of nature) appear in the same place, there are very few of them; symbolic ones are connected only with Igor's campaign and will possess images of luminaries. The composition of the "Word" combines both lyrical and epic beginnings, which determines its originality.
15. Features of the image of historical persons in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign".
There is no single main character in The Word. Each part has its own main character. These are Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaroslavna. In addition to the main characters, there are also minor ones, for example, images of the princes of the past in historical digressions. Each historical person in the "Word" is depicted in its own way. Igor is depicted in the way that princes-heroes of military stories were often depicted. This is a warrior and a courageous and brave man. His desire for fame is very strong and sometimes overshadows the mind. His unreasonableness makes the author almost never show him in battle, because no heroism can justify a prince who does not think about the fate of his native land. The author draws the image of Igor with the help of metaphors, comparisons, characteristics of other heroes of the work. For the author, Igor is an example of an erroneous princely policy, and he is praised only because he came to Svyatoslav, i.e. realized the need for unity. The author portrays Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. He is opposed to Igor and Vsevolod. His image is the image of a powerful prince-commander who defeated the Polovtsians thanks to unity. He is also characterized by his speech: wise, reasonable statements, even prophetic. It is he who pronounces the famous "golden word" and sees a prophetic dream about the death of Igor's army. The image of Yaroslavna was created on the basis of a lyrical crying fragment. Her image is a generalization, it is for this purpose that such a genre was chosen for its characteristics - purely folk. Yaroslavna is depicted as a kind of symbol of peaceful Russian people, in contrast to the historically described princes. The strength of her love, which helps Igor to escape from captivity, is the strength of all Russian women. In addition to the main characters, the author portrayed real-life historical figures who are secondary characters in The Word. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, brother of Igor. He is younger than Igor, but he also ... has a trait of a brother - the heroism of a warrior. This is the only person shown by the author in battle, and his actions are similar to heroic ones. He is shown in battle as an epic hero, his description is full of hyperbole, his selflessness is shown, with which he cuts the enemy. It embodies the best features of a warrior. The rest of the minor characters are shown in a very generalized way. But in addition to the real-life persons participating in the battle, the Lay contains images of the princes of the past, who are spoken of at moments of historical retreat. Oleg Svyatoslavich is condemned by the author: “TyiboOlegmech sedition for kovash and sowing arrows on the ground.” There are 2 metaphors here: the sword-weapon of the defender of Rus', and the arrows that dotted the earth instead of grains. Oleg is a sower of strife between princes. Prince Vseslav Polotsky appears as a man endowed with supernatural abilities, "prophetic". The episodes of his life are conveyed with the help of metaphors, the meaning of which can be understood from the annals. The author has an ambiguous attitude towards him: on the one hand, he participates in civil strife, and the author condemns him, but on the other hand, Vseslav himself more than once becomes a victim of these civil strife. The third image of the prince of the past is the image of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. There are almost no characteristics of him, he is mentioned only in connection with his tragic death. He dies from the Polovtsy very young, and the author shows in his image the images of many young men who suffered the same fate after the battle with enemies. In the images of the princes of the past, the author reminded readers of the disastrous consequences of internecine wars and the fragmentation of Rus'.
16. The problem of the rhythmic organization of the text "Words about Igor's Campaign". The originality of the poetic language of the work.
The problem of the rhythmic organization of the "Word" is one of the most difficult problems in literary criticism. It is not known whether this is prose or poetry, because not all rhythmic patterns have been identified. Stelletsky's concept is considered the most convincing. He tried to identify the patterns of rhythmic units, the main feature of which he considered the completeness of intonation with a decrease in tone towards the end of the unit. He singled out 2 groups of these units: lines of archaic rhythmic intonational verse and lines of rhythmically organized prose. Various syntactic means were used to create the rhythm: anaphora, epiphora, syntactic parallelism, homogeneous members. Following his theory, lines written in verse are limited to beginnings and refrains: “O Russian land! Already for the shelomyanem\", ".For the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the buoy of Svyatoslavich\", etc. But Stelletsky's theory is not perfect. For example, he suggested that word stress did not matter for Old Russian literature, although this is an important factor for poetry. It is impossible to check the effect of stress on the rhythmic structure of the “Word”, because there is no accent dictionary for that time. And therefore, although the work of Stelletsky gave many patterns, the problem of the rhythm of the work still remains relevant.
The poetic language of the "Words" is created through a variety of syntactic means, tropes, lyrical means (for example, Yaroslavna's lament).
17. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and oral folk art.
The view of researchers who believed that The Word was a folklore work and who tried to find analogies to it in the field of genres of folk art can be considered practically obsolete. But despite this, a lot of folklore traditions can be traced in the work. As Likhachev said, "The Word" from folklore genres is closest to laments and words. Traditions of UNT are found in figurative and expressive means: constant epithets, metaphorical images familiar to folk art (for example, battle-feast and battle-sowing, harvest), tautological combinations (“neither think to think, nor think to think”), personifications (“Nichit grass stingers, and the tree bowed down to the ground with a tightness. Also, folklore traditions are used in the images of heroes, some descriptions. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, who looks like an epic hero during a battle, his strength and power are exaggerated. Svyatoslav also combines heroic qualities: wisdom and strength. Symbolic landscape descriptions can also be considered a continuation of the UNT traditions. Fantastic events (nature's help to the prince during his escape from captivity), symbolic phenomena (solar eclipse, bloody dawn, cries and barking of animals before the battle) are also remnants of folklore representations. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that the connection with CNT is manifested at the genre level (weeping, lamentation, proverbs, epics), as well as with the help of artistic means (psychological parallelism, repetitions, epithets).
The search for the author of the Lay is one of the main tasks of studying this monument. Since its main idea is the idea of the need to unite the forces of all the princes to protect Rus', and the features make it related, according to various researchers, with the Novgorod, Galician-Volyn, Kiev and other traditions, the author of this work can be a native of various lands. For example, from Kyiv (according to Rybakov's hypothesis) or the Pskov principality (according to Gogeshvili's hypothesis). Zimin, a representative of the skeptical trend in the study of the Lay, believed that it was created by the archimandrite of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery Ioil Bykovsky, and Musin-Pushkin somewhat modified it. Despite the abundance of hypotheses, the question of the authorship of the Lay can be considered deadlocked, because none of the hypotheses naming the author of the monument can be considered true, because there are no sufficient grounds for this, and the appearance of new historical figures who are credited with authorship only confuses readers, without contributing anything important to the study of the work itself.
19. Genre originality of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The history of translations of the "Words", their types and features.
The solution to the problem of the genre of the work is still ambiguous. The opinion about the folklore genre of the "Words" can be considered practically obsolete. This work is considered as a work of the book tradition, which has some folklore features. IP Eremin believed that it belongs to the genre of solemn political eloquence. This version is convincingly proven, although not ideal. Likhachev proposed a more compromise option. He argued that the "Word" from written genres is closest to the genre of solemn oratorical eloquence, and from folklore, to lamentations and words. The most successful is the point of view of Prokofiev, who said that the "Word" is a lyrical-epic song. Such a decision simultaneously takes into account the generic complexity of the work, its connection with the folk poetic tradition, and the originality of the rhythmic organization. At the same time, it makes it possible to compare the Lay with Western European works of the medieval epic, for example, The Song of Roland. Translations of the Lay exist in all languages of the world. There are about 100 translations in Russian: interlinear (for educational purposes - literal translation); poetic (the text is accurately conveyed, made not in the syllabo-tonic system); poetic arrangement (separate deviations from the text are allowed, its division into parts, written in syllabo-tonic). The names of several translators of the Lay have been preserved, whose translations we still use today. Zhukovsky, translating the "Word", sought to preserve the ancient text (its vocabulary and rhythm) as much as possible. He translated it into rhythmic prose. All other translations of the 19th-20th centuries. can be attributed to the type of transcriptions. The best of them is Maikov's translation. Maikov worked on it for 4 years. His translation contains many interpretations of "dark places" given by himself. The translation is written in 5-foot trochaic. Because of this, the text has acquired a monotony that is not in the original. Zabolotsky's translation is also very common. He decided to divide the text into parts, translated the "dark places". His translation is notable for its ease of reading, but not for the transmission of the vocabulary of the Lay. The size of the transfer is a 5-foot trochee with separate tonic inserts. In the 20th century there were 2 translations: Andrey Chernov and Shklyaris. They sought to convey the text of the Lay as more accurately as possible. Chernov took into account the special rhyming of the original, on the basis of which he made his translation.
20. The history of the study of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Translations of the work, their types and features.
21. Galicia-Volyn chronicle as a monument of the era of feudal fragmentation. The originality of the "Chronicler Daniel of Galicia" as a princely chronicler.
By its nature, this chronicle is heterogeneous. It consists of 2 parts: the Galician chronicle (until 1262) and the Volyn chronicle (tells about the history of the Volyn principality in the last period). The second part is unoriginal in the literary sense. In this sense, the first part is more interesting. Initially, the chronicle was created as a description of the life of the prince. But the late setting of dates led to a discrepancy in years of up to 5 years (compared to other chronicles). Prince Daniel of Galicia is represented in the annals in many ways. He is shown not only as an experienced commander and warrior, but also as a city planner. Portrait descriptions of the prince and troops are unique. The clothes of the prince and the harness of his horse are described in detail.
The content of the chronicle is largely connected with the position of the principality on the outskirts of Rus', in close proximity to the Polovtsian steppe and Western European countries. Galician princes had to enter into complex relationships with other Russian princes and with their Western neighbors. As in most chronicles of the era of feudal fragmentation, stories about internecine wars, battles with the Polovtsians and western neighbors occupy a significant place. The narrative is secular in nature, although the author's erudition not only in secular, but also in church literature is beyond doubt. But the task that stood in the foreground - to give a heroic biography of a contemporary prince - forced him to abandon the didactic-moralizing approach. Because this chronicle is a princely chronicler, much attention is paid to Daniel. There are many descriptions of battles in the annals, therefore there are many military stories. The battles are described in detail (mainly those in which Daniel participated). These descriptions are distinguished by the detail and vividness of the depiction of events, attention to the heroes, especially Daniel, and a penchant for picturesque depictions of battles. For example, in the story about the battle at Yaroslav, each of the characters is endowed with individual features, the images of Daniil and Vasilko are especially vividly drawn as courageous warriors and brave, successful commanders. The author speaks of divine help to them in battle: “I will show my help to God over them, as if victory is not from the help of man, but from God.” In the story about the ruin of Kyiv by Batu, the governor of the battle was Dimitar, appointed by Daniil of Galicia. The author does not pay much attention to the heroes of the story, focusing on the picturesque depiction of events, perhaps because the main character did not participate in the events. The image of Dimitar is drawn with only a few remarks: it is said about his injury and at the end it is said about Dmitry's courage.
22. Vladimir-Suzdal literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign against the Polovtsians" according to the Laurentian Chronicle.
This is a principality in the 12th century. became one of the most powerful Russian principalities. This process of strengthening the principality was also preserved in the annals: Radzivilovskaya and Lavrentievskaya. The Vladimir chronicles of this time are closer to the all-Russian type. For them, it is important to divide the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in this principality. The Vladimir and Kyiv narratives about Andrei Bogolyubsky are very similar. Most likely, the Kiev Chronicle served as its source.
The genre composition of the Laurentian Chronicle is reminiscent of The Tale of Bygone Years. But a greater place is occupied by a military story, primarily about internecine wars, the struggle against the Polovtsy, the Volga Bulgars and the northern peoples. Consequently, the military story receives its final form in this chronicle. The informative type of stories predominates; the chroniclers pay much attention to the evaluation of events. Quotations and retrospective-historical analogies are very common. For example, a story about Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign against the Polovtsians. The work consists of 3 parts. The first part deals with the causes and preparation of the campaign. The second part is a description of both battles with the Polovtsians using several military formulas. The third part is complex in structure, it talks about the consequences of the campaign. This part is divided into 3 more subparts: Svyatoslav's campaign against the Polovtsy, the story of the siege of Pereyaslavl, the story of Igor's escape from captivity. The story ends with a didactic digression, where the author speaks of the prince's defeat as God's punishment. This story is different from the story in the Kyiv Chronicle. None of the princes is shown as an independent character - this is a single whole, "Olgovyvnutsi" or "Olgovichi". The motives that drive them are not the defense of their native land, but the thirst for glory. The reason for the defeat is boasting, excessive self-confidence. But Svyatoslav of Kiev and Vladimir Pereyaslavsky appear to the author as genuine defenders of Rus', trying to stop the Polovtsy. But, like all other characters, they are depicted by the author very sparingly. The image of the narrator in the story is typical of the Laurentian Chronicle: he condemns the Olgoviches. His assessment is manifested through the characteristics: “and not the leading structure of God”, “there is no wisdom for a person, no courage, no thoughts against the Lord.” Also, there are almost no figurative and expressive means in the story, except for military formulas. In addition to stories of an informative type, there are weather records. They are laconic, devoid of accuracy in dating. There are also military stories of an event type. But they are much less. For example, stories about the campaigns of Andrei Bogolyubsky, Yuri Dolgoruky. In these stories, the author pays much more attention to the characters than in the story about Igor's campaign. In addition to military tales, other primary genres are found in the annals: signs, praise (usually accompanies a story about the death of a prince), and teaching. The example of the Vladimir-Suzdal literature can rightly be called "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener". He had 2 editions, which gave 2 works - “Prayer” and “Word”.
23. The history of the text, the content, the problem of the genre of "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener". Article by B.A. Rybakov “Daniil the Sharpener and Russian Chronicle of the 12th century”. No. 22.
"Prayer" is one of the most striking monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. There are 2 editions of it: "Word" and "Prayer". Daniel remains a conditional person for us, because. it is unknown if he actually existed. The “Word” refers to Rybakov in 1197. The addressee is Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. "Prayer" Rybakov refers to 1229 and believes that it was written by another author, but addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. The scientist proposed to call the author of this edition "pseudo-Daniel". In the "Word" Daniel self-deprecating before the prince, he speaks of his poverty and defenselessness. Daniel asks to help him, because “we know there is a rich husband everywhere and you keep friends in a foreign country; but the wretched in his hate to walk. There are many expressions in his speeches, similar in style to sayings and proverbs. He praises the prince, saying that his voice is sweet and his image is beautiful. The 2nd part of the “Word” is similar in style to a lesson when Daniel tells the prince how to rule, mentioning King Solomon, Ezekiel and others. Then the story comes down to what the wife and retinue of the prince should be like. In conclusion, Daniel makes a wish to the prince "Samson's strength and cunning of David." The text of the "Prayer" is not much different from the 1st edition. But it contains a number of factual information and stylistic features. The ending contains an appeal to the prince, the author warns of some terrible events (which is not in the Lay). In "Supplication" the style of the 1st edition is generally preserved, but folklore elements become more pronounced. Both editions make extensive use of puns, rhetorical references, syntactic parallelism, and rhetorical questions. There is a point of view that the "Word" and "Prayer" were written in the genre of the epistle. But there are many deviations from the main purpose of the message. Therefore, there is such a point of view that this is a collection of aphorisms. There are 2 scientists in the USA who developed this theory: Romanchuk and Bernbaum. They argued that Daniel has many deviations from writing, the work has a 2nd addressee (brothers and prince), and Daniel himself was a monk (brotherhood-appeal to monks). “The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener”, against the background of other written monuments of this period known to us, is an innovative work that combines bookish wisdom and folk speech elements, biblical reminiscences and buffoon jokes, techniques of solemn eloquence and the folk tradition of puns. As a unique monument, "Prayer" is outside the traditional medieval genre system. Therefore, it is impossible to unambiguously determine the genre of this work, which is the problem of the Prayer genre.
"The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" has come down to us in 2 lists, but both of them are late, and only in excerpt. There are hypotheses that this is an introduction to the trilogy or an introduction to the life of Alexander Nevsky, because. in both lists he was followed by the life of Nevsky. But most researchers suggest that this is an independent work. The text that has been preserved can be divided into 3 parts: 1-praise to the Russian land (“O light bright and beautifully decorated”); 2-memories of the power of Rus' (the time of Vl. Monomakh, when "everything was subdued to the God-Christian language"); 3-word about the disease that was at that time. Despite the insignificance of the volume of the surviving text, a number of artistic features turn out to be comparable with the Tale of Igor's Campaign. Perhaps the reason for the similarity is the patriotism of both authors, their concern for Rus', which is also manifested in the works. Both authors combined the past and the present in their works, looked at Rus' from a panoramic view, hence the natural pictures depicting the power of their native land. And the choice of Monomakh's time is not accidental, because under him, Rus' defeated the Polovtsy. Some paths and images are also similar: “One brother, one bright light” in the “Tale of the Regiment” and the “light bright” Russian land in the “Tale of Perdition”; in the "Tale of the Regiment" Yaroslav Galitsky props up the mountains to protect against the Ugrians with "iron regiments", and in the "Tale of Perdition" the Ugrians hide from Monomakh behind the "iron gates". There are also stylistic coincidences, similar methods for determining the time period of the reign of the princes: in the “Tale of the Regiment” - “from the old Volodimer to the current Igor”, and in the “Tale of Perdition” - “from the great Yaroslav to Volodimer”. Also, the identity of the rhythmic structure of works based on the rhythm of homogeneous members, syntactic parallelisms, and verbal repetitions was established. All this suggested that both works belonged to the same poetic school.
25. The originality of "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu" as a military story.
This story belongs to the best examples of a military story. It originated in the 13th century. and has come down to us in the lists of the 14th-17th centuries. Compositionally, it consists of 4 parts: 1 - an independent plot about the arrival of Batu to the borders of the principality and the embassy to him of the son of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Yurievich; 2-constructed as a military story of an event type. The story of the collection of troops, the battle, the defeat of Ryazan; 3-epic legend about the Ryazan nobleman Evpatiy Kolovrat. It is attached to the previous part in chronological order. The genre is a military story. The plot of the action is the arrival of Kolovrat in the devastated Ryazan, the climax is the duel with Khostovrul, the denouement is the death of the hero; 4-parish in Ryazan of the brother of the deceased Prince Ingvar Ingvarevich. It is connected with the previous part by chronology. This part of the plot is not a single whole. It combines the lamentation of Ingvar, praise to the family of the Ryazan princes and a message about the actions of Ingvar (about the funeral of his brother, about his reign in Ryazan and its reconstruction). Each part of the story has its own main character, who has power, shown both in battle (2-3 parts), and in worldly actions or spiritually (1-4 parts). This is one of the features of the military story. There are also other features of the military story. For example, the story describes the preparation of the prince for battle, his prayer. In the description of the battle itself, there are a lot of military formulas: “Inapadosha on n, and start fighting hard and courageously”, “quickly slashing evil and terrible”, “Batu’s strength is great and heavy, one with a thousand, and two with me”, etc. . Describing the battle of Yevpatiy Kolovrat with the Tatars, the author uses a military formula: "Riding through the regimental Tatars bravely and courageously." The first out-of-chronicle “The Tale of Batu's Devastation of Ryazan” that has come down to us is built on the basis of the sequential connection of a number of independent fragments connected by one central event - the devastation of Ryazan Principality by Batu. Its compositional construction corresponds to the canons of the military story. But in the story, attention to the characters is clearly increasing, each of which acquires individual features. The number of figurative and expressive means is expanding, along with military formulas, tropes appear that express the author's attitude to events and heroes.
26. Genre originality of "The Life of Alexander Nevsky".
In the era of the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the genre of life developed. The heroes of the works now became not only saints, apostles, martyrs, but also people who defended Rus' and the faith from enemies of other faiths. An example of such a life is "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". This life appeared around 1283, its author is unknown, but it is known that it was written in the Nativity Monastery. It has come down to us in many lists. The life was created even before the canonization of Nevsky, and initially it was a secular biography. Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the life combines 2 genres - the life and the military story. Compositionally, the work has a hagiographic macrostructure - it consists of 3 parts. 1-introduction (self-abasement is used, the author says that he knew Nevsky already in adulthood, that he writes with a pure soul). 2-central part (a story about miracles during the life and after the death of Alexander). 3-conclusion (praise to the prince). Contrary to the tradition of life, there is no story about Nevsky's childhood, because. the author did not know the hero at that age. The features of the military story can be traced in the central part. When the Swedish king attacked Novgorod, the prince goes to the temple, prays, and then gathers his squad. This is the tradition of the military story. But a new genre-vision is inserted into this part. Pelugiy, standing guard, sees Boris and Gleb in red robes, who promised to help Nevsky. Further, Pelugius informs the prince about this, he listens attentively and soon goes into battle. The actions of 6 warriors fighting under the leadership of Alexander are described in detail, which is also typical for an event-type military story. There is a mention of a miracle, but after it happened: the angel of the Lord allegedly killed many of Alexander's opponents where he could not reach them. In the descriptions of the battles, military formulas are used, for example, "fast slashing evil" (battle with the Germans). But at the same time, they talk about Divine help to the prince, which is more suitable for life. The last episode tells about Alexander's 2nd trip to the Horde and about his death on the way back. The story ends with a story about the burial and a posthumous miracle: when Nevsky was lying in a coffin, the metropolitan wanted to open his hand in order to put a spiritual letter. The prince, as if alive, unclenched his hand and took the letter from the hands of the metropolitan; C6 structure "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky" is a work of a complex ensemble character: inside the central hagiographic part, independent military stories (of eventful and informative type) are introduced as 2 episodes, which include genre formations characteristic of hagiographies, visions and miracles . The combination of life and military story is also in the style and language of the work: military formulas and living language are used by the author together, which is also a genre originality of the work.
The originality of the genre "Tales of the murder in the Horde of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fedor."
The story was compiled in Rostov in the 60-70s. 13th c. and subsequently revised several times. The story is based on the real events of 1246. The author of the story combined the genre of the historical story and the martyr's life (a story about the last stage of the hero's life). The story tells about the arrival of the Tatars in Southern Rus', about the trip of Russian people to the Horde and the performance of humiliating tasks in order to get a label for reigning. Arriving in Rus', Batu began to convert everyone to his faith, saying that if the Russians bow to their "idols", bow to him, then he will accept them. But Mikhail of Chernigov decided to go to the Horde in order to "die for Christ and for the orthodox faith." His boyar Fedor decides to go with him. They receive a blessing and go to the Horde. Arriving at the king, they say that Michael came to bow to him. Batu decided to subject them to humiliating tasks - to go through the fire and bow to their idols. But Mikhail and Fedor answer that this is unworthy of them, to which Batu was angry and said that he would kill them if they did not complete the task. But they pray to their God and accept the verdict. Hagiographic traditions in the story: an abundance of internal monologues of characters, the author's transfer of their thoughts and feelings. From the historical story in the work: real historical facts, logical-chronological three-part structure (preparation of the event - Batu's attack, Michael's request for blessing for a trip to the Horde; narration of the event - trip to the Horde and rejection of Batu's conditions; consequences of the event - the murder of Fedor and Mikhail ), the identity of the author is not very clearly shown, his assessment of events is through separate remarks, sometimes biblical quotations. The language of the work is traditional for a historical story and life - colloquial Old Russian and Church Slavonic, a moderate number of tropes, but many biblical quotations.
27. Traditions and innovation in historical works about the Battle of Kulikovo (annalistic stories, "The Tale of Mamaev's Battle", "Zadonshchina"). Prokofiev's article "Moral and aesthetic searches in the literature of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo."
A feature of the monuments of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo is an attentive and humane attitude towards a person. The image of the figures of Russian history is losing its former formality and grandeur. In the foreground are not only military merit, but also family life. Prokofiev noted: “In such an image, the Battle of Kulikovo appears not only as a state or national event, but also as a universal human phenomenon expressed through personal-family relations. This is one of the artistic discoveries of the era.” Evaluations of what is happening were marked by special emotionality. Also literary styles of the 14th-15th centuries. were largely the result of the creative assimilation of their own pre-Mongolian experience. The Battle of Kulikovo is reflected in literature. Almost all chronicles of this period depicted the Battle of Kulikovo in military stories. Most clearly, the trends in the development of the genre were expressed in 2 types of stories: lengthy and short. The short story was included in the "Rogozhsky chronicler" and is a work of an informative type, with a traditional 3-part structure. A significant place is given to the 3rd part - the consequences of the battle. But new details also appear: a list of the dead at the end of the story; methods of stringing homogeneous paths (“godless evil and the Horde prince, Mamai is filthy”) and connecting tautological phrases (“the dead are countless”). The lengthy story has been preserved as part of the Novgorod Chronicle 4. The composition of the factual information is the same as in the summary, but since this is a story of an event type, the author increased the number of compositional elements characterizing the characters. The number of prayers of the protagonist increases: before the battle - 3, after the battle - a prayer of thanksgiving. Another lyrical fragment also appears, which has not been used before - the lament of Russian wives. A variety of figurative and expressive means are also used, especially bright in relation to enemies: “dark raw-eater Mamai”, apostate Oleg Ryazansky, “soul-destroying”, “peasant blood-drinker”. The descriptions of the Battle of Kulikovo itself in all stories are distinguished by emotionality, which is created by the author's exclamations and the inclusion in the text of elements of the landscape that were not previously used. All these features make the narrative more plot-motivated and emotionally intense. There are also 2 stories about the Battle of Kulikovo: "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" and "Zadonshchina". The composition of the "Tale" structurally follows the tradition of a military story, but the narrative consists of a number of separate episodes-microplots, interconnected by plot-motivated or chronological inserts, which is an innovation. Also, the new is manifested in the author's desire to show the personality of each hero individually and show his role throughout the story. The characters are divided into main (Dmitry Ivanovich, Vladimir Andreevich and Mamai), secondary (Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Bobrok, Oleg Ryazansky, etc.) and episodic (Metropolitan Cyprian, Foma Katsibey, etc.). Also, a compositional feature is a lot of lyrical fragments (prayers, lamentation) and natural descriptions. Vision also appears in the text. A new descriptive element appears - the image of the Russian army, as the princes saw it from the hill. Along with the preservation of military formulas, many epithets and comparisons are used, the role of metaphors emphasizing the experiences of the characters is enhanced. The author of "Zadonshchina" took "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" as a model. In the introduction, Boyan is also mentioned, and at the end the time of the event is set (“And from the Kalat rati to Mamaev, the battle is 160 years old”). The rest of the text is generally traditional - 3-part structure. But within each part, the narrative is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author's digressions. The story has documentary elements, the use of digital data, enumerations. There are minor deviations from the chronology, which is unconventional for a military story. Lyrical fragments are not numerous, according to the canons of the military story. There are no detailed descriptions of the characters (except for Dmitry Ivanovich), and the enemies are described quite schematically. Folklore influence can be seen in the use of negative comparisons (“They were not gray oxen, but when they came to the step, they want to go through the whole Russian land fighting”). "Zadonshchina" is a monument created at the intersection of traditions: folklore, military story and "Words". But the leading one should still recognize the tradition of a military story.
28. "Zadonshchina" and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Artistic connections and the problem of the genre of works.
The author of "Zadonshchina" took "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" as a model for narration. But, despite this, "Zadonshchina" is an independent work of art. The introduction is focused mainly on the Lay, here Boyan is mentioned, previously known only from the text of the Lay. But the part ends with the establishment of the time of the event: “And from the Kalat rati to the Momaev battle for 160 years.” The further text as a whole repeats the 3-part structure of the military story, but within each part the narrative is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author's digressions, which are focused on the "Word". But in the "Zadonshchina" there are documentary elements that are absent in the "Lay". There are also similarities in the portrayal of the main characters. Prince Dmitry in "Zadonshchina" is an ideal hero. This is the continuation of the traditions of the Lay, the image of Svyatoslav the ideal hero. In "Zadonshchina" there are many borrowings from the "Word". For example, there are many historical digressions in the Lay, and there are also in Zadonshchina (but much less). For example, predicting the outcome of the battle: "Shibla glory to the Iron Gates." Or the words of Peresvet and Oslyably, which could only be said at the beginning of the battle (Peresvet died), are given after it. Another common place is crying. In the "Word" - the lamentation of Yaroslavna, and in the "Zadonshchina" - the lamentation of Russian wives. But their meanings are different. The cry of Yaroslavna is symbolic, and the cry of the Russian wives breaks the narrative of the battle to add an additional emotional undertone. There are also common places in the descriptions and speech of the characters. In the "Word" Igor says that "Lutsezh would be drawn to being, not full of being." And in the "Zadonshchina" Peresvet practically repeats these words word for word: "Lutchi would have been sweaty for us, rather than full of filthy Tatars \". "Zadonshchina" is a synthesis of a military story, a folklore beginning and a "Word". But the tradition of a military story prevails in it, which makes it necessary to define its genre as a military story. "The Word" also combines several genres, which led to the problem of defining its genre. It was close to both folklore and written genres (war story, song, solemn eloquence). But its genre is defined as a lyrical-epic song.
29. Lives written by Epiphanius the Wise. Causes and basic techniques of the style of "weaving words".
30. Literary features and significance in the development of the genre of the military story "Tales of Nestor Iskander about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks." The work of A.S. Orlov "On the features of the form of Russian military stories."
This work belongs to the number of military stories of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It tells about the fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453 under the onslaught of the Turks and the transformation of the capital of the Orthodox world, Constantinople, into a Muslim city. The story was widely disseminated in Rus' and was introduced into a number of chronicles of the 16th century, influencing the further development of military stories. The work consists of 2 parts. 1-prologue of events. A story about the foundation of Constantinople, a sign that predicted the fate of this city (the battle of a snake and an eagle with the victory of the first symbol of Islam; but then people kill the snake), about the beauty and grandeur of Constantinople. 2-main plot-story about the siege and capture of the city by the Turks. This part corresponds to the canons of the military story. The description of the gathering of troops is very abstract. The central narrative lists military events. The plot is linear in nature, traditional for a military story. But it is complicated by descriptions of many events. The author describes every day the attack of the Turks to the city, the battles, the advice of the emperor with those close to him on further actions. And so every day of the siege is described. Here comes the motive of fate, predestination from the very beginning (a sign). The descriptions are very emotionally intense, which is intensified by 2 signs - the departure of the patron angel of the city - from the church of Sofia (the central cathedral), and then - a bloody rain. In the last part of the story, there is a story about the death of the city and the fate of the townspeople. Prophecy is also introduced here: just as people killed the snake that strangled the eagle, so in the future Christians will have to defeat the Muslims and revive Christianity in the city. Thus, the military event becomes part of the history of the Christian city, presented in its most important events. This is an expanded ^ d (Shock is akin to the "Legend of the Mamaev Battle".
The text contains detailed descriptions of 4 heroes: Constantine, Patriarch Anastassy, Zustuney and Sultan Magomed. The image of the protagonist is traditional for military traditions, RN is courageous (decides to perish along with the city), defends his native city to the last breath. But a new approach is also visible in his depiction: the author seeks to convey the depth of his feelings through prayers, crying, depicting the manifestations of his state of mind. Patriarch Anastassy constantly supports the Caesar. His image is similar to the image of Cyprian from the "Tale of the Battle of Mamaev" - this is support for the struggle against enemies by the Orthodox Church. Zustunei is a minor character, but his special role is that he alone responded to Constantine's request for help from foreign states. This is the embodiment of the ideal image of a warrior, "brave and wise, and skillful in military affairs." Magomed is presented in an unusual way. At the beginning, everything is traditional - he is ".bezverensy and cunning." But then his characterization changes - he is shown as a powerful ruler, who gathered huge forces for the campaign, an experienced and patient commander. After the capture of the city, he shows generosity - he forgives all civilians, and at the sight of the head of Constantine he pays tribute to him: "Obviously, God gave birth to the world more than the king, why perish in vain \". In the description of the battle scenes, the author does not strive for a detailed depiction of events; there are no landscape elements. The basis of the descriptions are military formulas: “be the slash of evil and terrible”, “one thousand times, and two hundred”. The story of Nestor-Iskander, using traditions, complicates the plot due to the introduction of ups and downs, a tendency to somewhat expand the circle of characters and a greater versatility of their image, the image of the enemy undergoes significant changes. The author creates a narrative using stylistic devices of an emotionally expressive nature, which were previously used only in hagiographies. Thus, the military narrative in Rus' begins to become more complicated, not without the influence of this story. There is a convergence of the appearance of the main positive hero with the image of the ideal hero of the princely life. It is the extra-chronicle stories of this era that are the prerequisites for the creation of a new type of large-scale historical story.
31. The peculiarity of Novgorod historical and legendary stories of the 15th century. (The Tale of the Posadnik Shchile, The Tale of the Journey of John of Novgorod on a demon to Jerusalem).
The genre of the fictional story arises in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. She had her source in the Novgorod historical fiction stories, which were based on local legends. In the first place in them was the plot entertaining, the lack of pronounced didacticism. Among such stories are "The Tale of the Posadnik Shchile" and "The Tale of Ivan's Journey on a Demon". "The Tale of the Journey" is built on the basis of 2 miracles: traveling on a demon and saving Ivan from the slander that the demon brought on him. The oral legend about it arose very early. The plot of this legend - the service of a demon sworn by the sign of the cross - goes back to the fabulous folklore of Ancient Rus'. This story has come down to us as part of the “Life of John”, which belongs to the patericon, which consisted of 3 parts, the 2nd of which was a story about the journey. The story begins with the words that it was “God create” that the demon was in a vessel with water in John's cell. Next comes the story of the overshadowing of the sign of the cross by the devil and the journey of John to Jerusalem. After returning back, the demon tells John to keep silent about this incident, otherwise "I am the imam to bring temptation to you." But he did not fulfill the request, and the demon punished him: the demon changed into a harlot and left the saint's cell when others saw it. John was soon expelled for this. But then, when everything was revealed, people wanted to return the saint, to ask his forgiveness. From their prayers, the raft of John floated to the shore, "as if we were carrying through the air." Then the consequences are told: the prince of Novgorod put a cross on the spot where the saint sailed. The story ends with a biblical quote - the words of Christ about the exiled "for the sake of truth." In The Tale of the Posadnik Shchil, heretical views of the Strigolniks are traced. This story is wonderful. Posadnik Shil was rich and built a church on interest from loans to other people. When he went to the archbishop to ask him to consecrate this church, he had to tell where the money for the construction came from. The archbishop became angry and said that Shield “was like Esau; I will flatter a blessing from me on such a divine deed, ”and ordered that the Shield go home, set up a coffin in the wall and lie down in it, and everything was buried over it, as it should be. The shield did just that, after which it suddenly fell into the ground. His son went to the saint for help. The saint ordered him to draw on the wall a picture depicting the Shield in hell. The son did just that, after which he performed a memorial service 3 times for 40 days and distributed alms (according to the teaching of the saint). First, in the picture, the head of the Shield came out of hell, then the body, and then the whole thing came out. After that, the coffin in which the Shield fell through came to the surface. And the archbishop, seeing this miracle, consecrated the church. In this story, a miracle comes to the fore: the miracle of the sudden disappearance of the Shield and the miracle of his exit from hell with Divine help. This story arose on the basis of an oral legendary tradition.
32. "Journey beyond 3 seas" - the first merchant's journey.
The genre of "walking", which arose at the beginning of the 12th century, until the end of the 15th century. Continued to exist as a pilgrimage. Russian travelers described their journeys to the holy places of Christianity. Each author brings something different to the genre. Significant changes began to take place in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, when interest in holy places began to be replaced by interest in the events of modern life. A new genre variety appeared - merchant "walking". It became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries. the object of the image was the impressions of travelers about those countries where they visited for trading purposes. The circle of the described phenomena has noticeably expanded - life, customs in the described countries. Descriptions of shrines and legends have disappeared. According to the composition, the walks resembled diary entries. The personality of the narrator was revealed more widely through his assessments and emotions. The language was distinguished by simplicity, an abundance of colloquial vocabulary, proverbs and sayings, and foreign vocabulary. The first merchant journey that has come down to us was “Journey Beyond the 3 Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. At the beginning, there is no self-abasement traditional for the pilgrimage, except for the “sinful walk”. The entry is an enumeration of the seas through which he sailed, completely missing
Tatars. 2-way from Derbent to India. Here are listed the geographical names of places where he visited during this time. Virtually no descriptions. 3-description of a journey through India. There are many descriptions here, there are stories about the cities he visited and the time it takes to get from one to another. Athanasius talks about life in India, about the climate, customs and way of life, describing everything national (clothing, animals, food) in Russian words so that he can be better understood. 4-story about the journey home. It is characterized by listing the main geographic features and travel times with little descriptions. In conclusion, the author mentions 3 passed seas and a prayer in a mixture of oriental languages. The predominant principle of narration is chronological. The image of the narrator corresponds to the tradition of merchant's walking. Expanding his circle of interests, he meets a large number of new people. The author is patient with someone else's question, although this is not easy for him. He counts the time, guided by Orthodox holidays (mainly Easter). He suffers from the fact that he cannot fulfill Orthodox customs: “I don’t know the Nativity of Christ, I don’t know any other holidays, I don’t know Wednesday or Friday, but I don’t have a book,” etc. The image of the motherland is constantly present in his thoughts, he praises it (albeit in a mixture of Eastern languages), his exclamations are frequent: “May the Russian land be protected by God! God save her! There is no country in this world like it, although the boyars of the Russian land are unjust. The author constantly asks God for forgiveness for non-observance of fasts. In fact, the author becomes the main character of the work, appearing as an original personality. The language of walking is colloquial Old Russian, almost devoid of Church Slavonic elements. Foreign words are widely used, even in prayers. In general, the style of walking is the style of a living story of a person who knows how to vividly and clearly describe his impressions. The object of the narration is also changing - now it is the life of people, their customs and way of life.
33. The emergence of the genre of fiction. Principles of composition and folklore plots in "The Tale of Dracula".
The genre of fiction arose in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. She had her source in the Novgorod historical fiction stories, which were based on local legends. On the 1st place was the plot entertaining, the lack of pronounced didacticism. Fictional stories - stories with fictional plots. Most of the heroes had historical prototypes, but they either lived in the past or were very far away. The plots went back to folklore. In these stories, the author did not express his attitude to the events. The plots were built either on the principle of a chain, or on the principle of open compositions. These novels were originally designed for fascinating reading. The first of these stories is "The Tale of the Mutyansk Governor Dracula". Its plot is based on the oral legends that existed in Europe about the Romanian prince Vlad, who for his cruelty had the nicknames "The Impaler" and "Dracula". Interesting composition. This is a chain of separate stories about the actions of Dracula. Moreover, the author refrains from evaluating his actions, leaving the reader the right to do so. Only 1 time the author speaks about his deceit and the fact that Dracula is the namesake of the devil. The story begins with the words that such a ruler, Dracula, once lived in the Mutyansky land, and that he was cruel. Then a chain of stories begins, following one after another. And at the end it is said about the captivity of Dracula by the Hungarian king and his bullying of birds and mice in a dungeon. And after the release, Dracula did not change his temper, killing the bailiff who let the robber into his yard. The story ends with a story about the death of Dracula and his son Vlad. The story contains a folklore motif of riddles. For example, in the story of how 2 Catholic monks came to Dracula, and he asked each of them what they think about his deeds. One said that he did wrong, because the sovereign should be merciful. The second replied that the executed did evil and were punished according to their merits, tk. the sovereign punishes and pardons only for the cause. Dracula put the first on a stake, and rewarded the second. There is also a story when the ambassador came to Dracula, and the sovereign showed him a gilded stake and asked him what he thinks this stake was prepared for. The ambassador replied that he was for a noble person. Dracula replied that he was right, and this stake is for him. To which the ambassador said that if he was guilty before Dracula, then let the sovereign do as he wants. For this, Dracula rewarded the ambassador and let him go. And in the same story it is directly stated that he had such a custom - to make riddles to ambassadors. And if they answered incorrectly, they were executed, and a letter was sent to their king so that they would no longer send bad ambassadors to Dracula. The plot of this story is traditional for its genre. The main character has a real prototype, the plot is built on the basis of legends and folklore, and the composition looks like a chain of plots. Also, there is no direct author's assessment in the work, which is also traditional for fiction stories.
34. The problem of the genre "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom".
It was created in the middle of the 16th century (but for a long time it was attributed to the 15th century) by the priest and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus. In theory, this work was created as a life. But he was not recognized as a life because of the numerous deviations from the canon in the central part, and in the process of processing it became a story. The basis of its plot was formed on the basis of 2 oral-poetic, fairy-tale motifs - about the hero-serpent fighter and the wise maiden, which are widespread in folklore. The source of the plot was a local legend about a wise peasant girl who became a princess. Folk tradition had a strong influence on Yermolai-Erasmus, and he created a work that was not connected with the canons of the hagiographic genre: this is a fascinating plot narrative that bears little resemblance to the lives of the saints with their exploits and martyrdom for the glory of the church. ‘The work consists of 4 parts, plot-related. 1-story about the serpent fighter. 2-heroes go for a doctor for a victim of a snake. They meet a girl who speaks in riddles. Next comes the motif of riddles and
tests. 3-life of Peter and Fevronia in marriage, there are elements of folklore narration. 4-story about the death of Peter and Fevronia and the posthumous miracle. The genre problem is that a work of art combines many elements of different genres together. The work does not say anything about the childhood of the heroes (untraditional for life), folklore motifs can be traced in all parts. For example, a fairy tale story about a hero-zmeborets, a motif of riddles when Fevronia says that “it’s not absurd to be a house without ears and a temple without ochsho” (dog-ears at home, child-eyes at home) and the question where her family answers : “Father and Matipidosha loan posters. My brother is walking through his legs in the navi, which means "mother and father went to the funeral, and my brother was a beekeeper." There is also a folklore motif in the 3rd part, when Fevronya, after a meal, collects crumbs in her hand, and then they turn into incense and incense. This is an echo of the fairy tale about the frog princess, when the leftovers turned into swans and a lake. And the departure of Peter and Fevronia from Murom, and then the request of the nobles for their return, also has an echo in the folk tale. But in the work there is also a spiritual side, characteristic of the lives. Peter and Fevronia do not talk about love, because Peter does not even want to marry her at first. Their marriage is not carnal, but spiritual and is based on keeping the commandments. Fevronia performs miracles thanks to her spirituality. Another element of life is a posthumous miracle, when Peter and Fevronia, contrary to their dying instructions, are buried in different places, and they still end up together in a coffin for two during the night, which remained empty. And their death in one hour is also something unusual, which can only be characteristic of saints. The combination of folklore, life and elements of the story in one work makes the work multifaceted, but this is a special skill of the author and innovation in literature.
35. "Kazan history" as a new type of historical narrative. Using the experience of different genres in the work.
The historical story "Kazan History" was written in the mid-60s 1 * in It belongs to the best examples of ancient Russian fiction and occupies a special place in the development of new forms of historical narrative. It poeticizes the power of a single centralized state, the activities of Ivan the Terrible and his supporters, the annexation of the Kazan kingdom to the Muscovite state. The author is trying to create a new type of narration with a pronounced ideological concept, theme and a pronounced position of the author. "History" consists of several short stories connected by chronology. The introduction speaks about the purpose of the work - to tell about the history of the Kazan kingdom and its relationship with Russia. The author speaks about the novelty of the story: "This red ubon story is worthy of joyfully listening to us." The author calls Ivan 4 God's chosen one, vividly expressing the author's position. The central part is divided into 2 sub-parts: before the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible and after that. In the 1st subpart, the narrative is chronologically-the beginning of the Kazan kingdom, where folklore motifs are traced about a two-headed snake and a snake-fighter hero who defeated him with the help of magic; the main characters are the Moscow and Kazan tsars. The plot is built on the principle of antithesis - Russian victories are replaced by defeats, actions are constantly transferred from Moscow to Kazan and back. This sub-part uses a local micro-plot connection. There are many military stories of both types, brought into the general course of events. Basis 2 subparts - stories about the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible. They are presented in the form of military stories with an idealized main character, Ivan 4, but the narrative is multi-figured, Kazan rulers, warriors, and boyars act in it. In this part, there are fewer dates of events, but many symbolic elements: signs, visions, miracles. For example, the dream of the Kazan king, where the bright month swallows the dark one, and the animals that came to Kazan eat the Kazan animals, which predicts future events. Also, a vision to Ivan 4 about the construction of Sviyazhsk and the departure of the demon-patron of the city from the mosque. They play different roles in the dujet. Significantly |re place is occupied by genres that are traditional for military antiquity: lamentations (monuments of the Kazan queen Sumbeki), praises, prayers. Sumbeki's lament, addressed to Kazan, plays a symbolic role, predicting his death. The "History" ends with chapters in which Kazan, the Moscow principality and Ivan 4 are lauded. The author evaluates the significance of the victory, speaking of the Beauty of Moscow, the OGR of the kingdom. In the image of the protagonist, the author's innovation is traced - Ivan the Terrible is depicted in many ways, his actions and thoughts are shown in different situations. His desire to avoid bloodshed is noted, which was not there before, which is shown in the seven embassies of the tsar to Kazan. All this speaks of the author's approaches to the creation of character, although the main method of creating the appearance of the king - idealization - remains. The image of episodic heroes is also changing: there was no distinction between positive and negative on national and religious grounds. A traitor can be one's own, and someone else's, and both will be punished. The images of the troops are also unusually drawn: the author often emphasizes the determination of the enemies, causing respect for them. And the capture of the city by the Russian army is more like a plunder. The author's attitude is also innovative - he expresses his opinion much more actively, which is shown in the introduction and conclusion, digressions, which are most often final. Innovation is also manifested in style: the widespread use of tropes, metaphors, military formulas lose their meaning (spreads them in other words, which destroys them). "History" widely used the traditions of life, military story, walking, teaching, symbolic and lyrical genre formation. A military tale: a combination of local micro-plots (“The Legend of the Mamaev Battle”); indication of the landscape at the time of day; the connection in the main character of the traits of a commander with Christian traits; a vision of the departure of the demon-patron of their city, the penetration of rhetorical devices into the pictures of the battle-traditions of The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople. Life: a mention of the virtues of Ivan 4, characteristic of him since childhood; rhetorical tricks. Walking: static descriptions of nature, expressing the admiration of the author. Teachings: artistic means used in lamentations. Due to such an abundance of genres, it is impossible to resolve the issue of the genre of the work.
36. The main problems in journalism of the 16th century. The originality of the journalistic creativity of Maxim Grek.
The ideological orientation of the literature of the Moscow kingdom predetermined the rapid development of journalism. In journalism, works devoted to topical issues of public life were widely distributed. Areas of journalistic problems: problems related to the formation of an autocratic state (the appearance of an autocrat, relations between different classes, the problem of the relationship between royal and church authorities), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of internal church land ownership, problems of moral character).
One of the most famous publicists was Maxim Grek. He has a huge literary heritage. In one of his works, “The Word of Maxim the Greek,” the main literary device is allegory. The genre is also an allegory. In the center of the narrative is the image of the Wife, this is power, Basil (from Greek, “kingdom”). The main story is based on the conversation between the Greek and his Wife. The Greek is depicted as a traveler who meets his wife and asks about her sorrows, but she does not want to tell anything, saying that he will not help her anyway. But still, the narrator persuades her, and she says that her name is Basil, she is one of the daughters of the king, from whom “every good gift descends and every gift is perfect for the sons of men.” She talks about how she saw the exploitation of people, and that the rulers must follow God's laws, otherwise wars and hardships await everyone. The originality of Greek's journalism lies precisely in the fact that the main idea of his work is uttered not by himself, but by an allegory, the Wife. Before him, this was not the case. The Greek argues that a monk must live according to Christian precepts. There is a bright parable beginning in the work. In another word by Maxim Grek, “about alien philosophers,” he talks about how to check the preparedness of Russian translators who came from abroad. Moreover, he gives all these tips to people who will receive visitors "ashe after my death." He offers to give visitors their translations so that they try to "translate according to my translation." And if he can, then he is a good translator, and if not, then you also need to find out his ability to determine poetic meters. In this word, the Greek makes it clear that he considers his works a model, in which he shows innovation, because. before him, there was traditional self-deprecation of authors, and the Greek not only does not follow this canon, but also exalts himself. In “The praiseworthy word so blessed and holy, let not the books of grammar be called, as if they were spoken on behalf of her,” Maxim the Greek writes about the meaning of grammar for people, praising it. And here again an allegory is traced, which is revealed at the very end - now the Greek himself is presented in the role of grammar. He calls on everyone to listen to him and follow his advice, citing examples from antiquity, mentions Christian writers of the past. The innovation of Maxim Grek in the field of journalism is very great: he introduced allegory into journalism, renounced traditional self-abasement. And his thoughts and advice are very relevant and useful.
Criticism of the Addressee's Style in Kurbsky's Second Epistle. The polemical correspondence of Kurbsky and Grozny reflects the clash of two social positions - the well-born boyars and the service nobility, who affirm the need for strong autocratic power. The messages are also different in their style - abstractly judicious and quirky in Kurbsky and concretely rude and sarcastic in Grozny. In the first message, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of cruelty and oppression of himself, says that the tsar will have to answer for everything at the Last Judgment. He asks: “Why, the king, did you beat the mighty in Israel and the governor, given by God to you, betrayed you with various deaths?” etc. The message is written in an angry, caustic style. In response to this, Ivan the Terrible writes an extensive message in which he calls the addressee a false teacher who illegally appropriated the right to instruct the monarch and his subjects. Grozny reproduces individual remarks of Kurbsky and invariably refutes them. The message is created as a kind of confession of faith and principles of the Russian autocracy. Grozny parodies the style of the addressee, his train of thought and literary style. The king ridicules all his arguments, distorting them and ridiculing them ironically. For example, Kurbsky in his message speaks of the blood shed for the tsar on the battlefield, and Grozny ironically plays on these words, saying that the tsar is not guilty of shed blood, and that a Christian should not regret the feat in the name of the Motherland. Grozny repeats key phrases, building a series of associations in the form of negative parallelism. Grozny refutes all accusations against him, guided by the Bible, like Kurbsky. In his second letter to the tsar, Kurbsky criticizes Grozny's "broadcast and noisy" letter, declaring brevity the main criterion for the author's literary proficiency. Kurbsky considers inadmissible the immoderate quoting of “paremeiniks” from the Old Testament, the violation of the etiquette of correspondence and the abundance of quotations from his own letter, which he tells the tsar about. The style of this message is no longer so caustic and angry. Kurbsky comes to terms with some statements, saying that he has already come to terms with oppression, "may God be your judge on this." Kurbsky says: “I don’t understand anymore, what do you want with us.” The style is close to didactic, Kurbsky reflects on the actions of the Terrible, but does not condemn them so brightly, relying on God's help: "for this sake, let's wait a little, because I believe, even near ... Jesus Christ's coming." The second message of Ivan the Terrible also uses stylized parodies and irony. He, imitating Kurbsky, begins to complain: “I have taken pains from you, insults, pains of annoyance and reproach! And for what? He parodies the humble style of Kurbsky, the style of his message approaches self-abasement. This correspondence was the most interesting document of the era and constituted an important stage in the history of Russian journalism in the 16th-17th centuries.
38. Generalizing literary works of the middleXVIV. Ideological concept, stylistic originality, significance of monuments
General - style traditions and the meaning of monuments. In 1547-1549. there is a general church canonization of many Russian saints who were previously considered locally venerated. This action required documentary and spiritual justification. To this end, Metropolitan Macarius is carrying out his plan - to collect all the books of religious content approved in Russia - and creates the "Great Menaion". For this, about 60 lives of the new canonized saints were compiled, written in a rhetorical style. But there is no longer any historical information about these saints, so the chroniclers invented facts and wrote in the likeness of other lives. The "Cheti-Minei" included: lives; books of Holy Scripture and interpretations on them; patericons; works of South Slavic and Russian writers, recognized as a model; collection "Bee", "The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem", "The Journey of Abbot Daniel". The most important event in the spiritual life of the mid-16th century. was the creation of the "Stoglavy Cathedral". It was intended to regulate all aspects of spiritual and practical life. His decrees dealt with church land ownership, the norms of social organization, the private life of the clergy, and so on. His goal was to create the foundations of a unified state and bring order to Russian life. This cathedral was characterized by severe and doctrinal didacticism. It was written about what should be the iconography (oriented to Rublev), church books (necessarily corrected). The tasks of regulating family life were served by Domostroy. The author is not exactly identified, but it is believed that the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester, had a hand in this book. The source of "Domostroy" was biblical texts, "Chrysostom", documentary records and, possibly, observations. The book regulated the daily life of an Orthodox person. Often its significance is limited to the practical side, but the super-task of the house-building was the embodiment in real life of the idea of the spiritual support of royal power. The task is to educate a humble subject and an exemplary Christian, to create a unified model of life in Russia. The genre of "Domostroy" is a spiritual teaching. His style is notable for didaktddem and morality. Its chapters can be divided into 3 groups: the definition of a person's attitude to spiritual and secular power; worldly structure (arrangement of family life); house building (tips for housekeeping). Sylvester added chapter 64, where he gave advice based on his experience. The main defining features of this literature were universality, encyclopedism, didactic and polemical orientation. The scribes of that time generalized the experience of their predecessors, combining historical plots, parables, and teachings into large monumental ensembles. Also, their works gave a new aesthetic design to the main ideological ideas of that time.
39. Development of the walking genre in the 16th-17th centuries. "Trifon Korobeynikov's Journey to Tsargrad".
In the 16th century along with merchants' walks, embassy travel notes begin to appear, called "article lists" or "paintings". They contained issues on which negotiations were conducted, and the etiquette of the embassy reception was fixed. The structure of the embassy narratives was more fully characterized by Prokofiev. He said that they begin with an indication of the time and place where the embassy is sent and for whose purpose, the route is described. In the central part, he pointed to the descriptions of the reception ceremonial and the descriptions of the negotiations. He also mentioned the insertion of descriptions of the landscape and everyday life into the story. These works acquired elements of a business style, combined with traditional colloquial vocabulary. The text also included the speeches of the characters, a detailed description of the course of events, which made the story less DYNAMIC, BUT MORE ACCURATE. In "The Journey of Trifon Korobeinikov" one can trace the convergence of the pilgrimage with two new types. Walking begins with a message about the time of departure of Tryphon and a description of its route, indicating the distance between the points. The main text is divided into travel essays, which tell about a certain settlement or section of the road. The descriptions are business-like and brief, attention is drawn to the size of the city, the material of the buildings (“the town of Orsha stone”, “the town of Borisov Drevyan is small”), the presence of trading areas and methods of protecting cities: and at the prison there are collars and archers with a gun, but a foreigner will not be allowed into the prison without telling)). It is reminiscent of merchants' walks. There are also descriptions of nature, detailed descriptions of topography, traditional for pilgrimages. An element of the embassy’s article list (“On the passage of Russian ambassadors to the sovereign of Voloshesky Aaron”) is also introduced into circulation: “March on the 13th day at 3 o’clock at night>, it is said how the ambassadors were received: “And a locker was made in the room, in a man’s belt, slan carpets; and the sovereign of Volosh sits in place on the locker. The story “About the Tura Mosque and the dervashes that they have in our place as blacks” resembles a household essay. Attention is drawn to the clothes, the appearance of people: “mustache, and brady, and eyebrows are shaved”, the life of the “chambers” for wanderers is described in detail. 2 essays in the "Journey" are devoted to the description of the shrines of Constantinople. The “Tale of the Tsar City is not about everything” describes in detail the location of the city, mentions the main shrines: Noah's ax, the pillar of Constantine Flavius, the temple of Sophia, etc. The author recalls the legend about the departure of the patron angel of the city, retelling it in his own way. Mention is made of the plight of the Orthodox Church and the patriarch. The second essay, “On the Destruction of the Temple of St. George,” gives a legend about the miracle of St. George, who defended his temple from the Turkish king, and not only the preservation of the temple, but also the mercy of the Sultan to his servants is called a miracle. The story is dynamic and short, with extensive use of dialogue. At the end, the Blachernae Church, the monasteries of Pantokrator, the Apocalypse are mentioned. "Walking" cannot be assigned to a specific type. It refers to secular travel, because. most of the information is not related to religious purposes. There is no pronounced author's assessment. The language is traditional for "walking" - colloquial vocabulary and phraseological turns, a few foreign words, always with translation. There is a tendency to create a secular type of walking, as well as a combination of various genre features in order to create a documentary and interesting storytelling.
40. The main directions of development in literature about the Time of Troubles. The artistic originality of “The Tale of the Repose and Burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky.
The literature of this time is divided into 2 stages: 1-until 1613 Publicistic works, small in volume, one-sidedly representing the heroes. Lyrical and symbolic genres, business documents were combined. This stage includes “The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, “The Tale of the Repose and Burial of Skopin-Shuisky. 2-20s 17th century The works tell about the entire Time of Troubles, strive for an objective assessment of events, and pay special attention to historical figures. In this literature, genres are combined in different ways. These include the "Chronicle Book", "Vremennik" by Ivan Timofeev, "The Tale of Vraam Palitsev". In literature of the 17th century. a new relationship is established between the historical and the fictional. Historical tales by name contain fiction; the facts of Russian history are combined with the motifs of fairy tales and legends. Fictional characters act in typical Russian society of the 17th century. situations, existential and everyday form a single alloy, which indicates the convergence of literature with life. A vivid example of such an evolution is the Tale of the Repose and Burial of Prince Skopin-Shuisky, full of rumors and legends. The unexpected death of a young military commander with a heroic physique struck the minds of his contemporaries and gave rise to the legend of his poisoning. The author of the story also adheres to it, saturating the narrative with motives coming from folk songs and tales. The plot is as follows: at a feast at Prince Vorotynsky, Maria Shuiskaya brings him a deadly drink, otherwise it was “a fierce mortal drink”. The idea of poisoning is compared with the fact that "the thought of a change is to catch like a bird in the forest, like a lynx to fry." And Mikhail dies on the night of April 23-24, in which the author sees symbolism, because. takes place "from the day of the great warrior and passion-bearer George to the day of the voivode Sava Stratshat." This comparison was supposed to "sanctify" the image of the Russian military leader, to make him the moral ideal of the Time of Troubles. Skopin-Shuisky appears as an epic hero, the author skillfully uses comparisons and poetic means of the folk epic. The prince is called the "sun of heaven", which the warriors "can't get their hands on". His power is exaggerated - in the whole state they cannot find a coffin for him: “oak decks”. Michael is compared to King David and Samson. A lot of hyperbole is used in describing the grief of the people-people who follow the coffin as many as the “stars of heaven”, a cry for it is described: “from the people, the shouting and crying of the voice of the voice of those who sing the tomb cover, and do not hear the voice of those who sing”, but oh those who heard all this, it is said: "if the heart is stony and stony, but even that one will be filled with pity." A special emotional coloring is given to the narrative by the cry of the mother, close to the folk tale, the cry of the Swedish military leader, traditional for high oratory, and the cry of the Russian people. It is repeated several times that the singing was not heard because of the weeping. At the end, a vision is given that predicts the death of Skopin-Shuisky, which violates the chronology, because it was "15 days from the feast of the resurrection of Christ." It is told by a resident of the city, having learned about the death of Michael, saying that it "has come true at this present time."
41. Literary activity of Archpriest Avvakum. Stylistics and genre originality of "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, Written by Himself".
Avvakum is the author of more than 80 works, some of which have not reached us. His works: "The Book of Conversations", "The Book of Interpretations", petitions to Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, letters, messages, etc. His work is permeated with a passionate denunciation of the official church and secular autocratic power from the standpoint of a supporter of the Old Believers. He became an innovator in the literary field in terms of style and principles of literary representation, although he was opposed to innovation in art. His most famous work, Life, is an autobiography. In the introduction to it, Avvakum writes about the influence of his confessor Epiphanius on him, and the traditional method of self-abasement follows. The style of his life is similar to confessional, because he blurs the line between himself and the reader, creating an atmosphere of empathy. Likhachev defined Avvakum's style as a style of pathetic simplification - "grounding" of the high (a story about the miraculous saturation of a prisoner, when Avvakum does not know whether it was an angel or a man) and poeticization of the low (a story about the death of a chicken, which "brought 2 testicles a day for food "). It goes beyond the traditional framework of lives: the heroes of the work are not unambiguously sinners or righteous. Avvakum himself almost succumbs to temptation when a harlot comes to him, which was not previously in hagiographic tradition. And the image of the harlot herself is multifaceted - she is a sinner, but she came to confess - and this somewhat “purifies” her. Avvakum creates a new image - a "holy sinner", which leads to a combination of two narrative plans: a solemn author's sermon and a repentant confession. Avvakum combined both church language, and scolding, and colloquial language. Another facet of the innovation of life is the combination of the comic and the tragic. When the archpriest describes the return from exile, he talks about crossing the river, when the archpriest is left with strength and she falls, another person stumbles about her and also falls on her. He apologizes, to which she replies: “What are you, Batko, crushed me?”. Describing the horrors of his imprisonment, he jokes, saying: “Lying like a dog in a straw,” etc. Also, the life is full of satirical portraits of Habakkuk's enemies. For example, and in a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich, he writes: "Poor, poor, insane tsar!" Also, Avvakum's innovation manifested itself in writing not a journalistic work with elements of an autobiography, but an integral biography. The work turns into the history of the first years of the Old Believer movement, the history of Russia in the second half of the 17th century. In addition to Avvakum, his life includes his associates and enemies, the spatio-temporal boundaries of the narrative are widely represented. All these innovative features make the life an outstanding work of its kind.
42. The historical basis, the originality of the style of "The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks".
In the 17th century there is a cycle of stories about Azov, where the patriotic feat of the Cossacks is sung. Military stories written at that time reflected examples of mass heroism of the Cossacks during the capture of the fortress. "The Tale of the Sea of Azov" was written in the 40s. 17th century on the basis of real historical events, when in the spring of 1637 the Don Cossacks, taking advantage of the Turkish Sultan's employment in the war with Persia, captured the fortress of Azov without the knowledge of the Moscow government. This opened the way for the Russians to the Azov and Black Seas, protected from the constant raids of the Turks and Tatars to the south of the Muscovite state. But, fearing complications in relations with Turkey, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not accept Azov, ordering the Cossacks to leave him. The genre is a historical story. The first part of the story resembles a business document in style, it talks in detail about the number of Turkish troops, the dates are indicated: “on the 24th day at the first hour, the days came to us to plow it under the city)), “every head in the regiment of Janissaries for 12000)) . The whole work, in fact, is an official report on the events of the Azov sitting, because. at the beginning it says that “they came ... to the Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich ... the Don Cossacks ... and brought a painting to their siege seat)). Further, the narrative is this painting. Different styles are intertwined in the story, for example, before the start of hostilities, an ambassador comes from the Turks with a speech in which he tries to call for repentance and pity: “you attacked him, like smooth wolves, and you did not spare any male age in him ... and you put so the fierce name of the animal is upon itself. Further, service to the Turkish king is offered for a reward. After that, the response message of the Cossacks is given, in which they talk about their distrust of the Turks and about the insidious plans of the king. These messages give the story a rhetorical, oratorical style. Also, the work is distinguished by the lyricism of style: for example, the prayer of the Cossacks before the battle, the repentance of the Cossacks before the tsar: “Forgive us, lackeys of your sinners, sovereign tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich)). This poetic place is based on a folk Cossack song, which speaks of the influence of folklore on the story. The influence of military stories (in the descriptions of battles) is also noticed here. In the last part, the rhetorical style appears again - the exchange of messages between the Cossacks and the Turks. Then a vision is given: the Mother of God appears to the Cossacks and blesses them for battle. Then again the story takes on a documentary style - it tells about the number of living and wounded Cossacks after the battle, gives exact dates (the capture of Azov on September 26, when “Turkish pashas and from the Turks and the Crimean tsar ... ran to us persecuted by anyone with eternal shame))). ,
The story is distinguished by patriotic pathos, accuracy of descriptions, common language and poetic style, in which traditional techniques of military stories and Don folklore are noticeable. This is an original and innovative work both in content and style.
43. General characteristics of satirical stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories. The work of V.P. Adrianova-Peretz "At the origins of Russian satire".
In the 17th century satire develops. Satirical stories can be divided into 3 groups: anti-feudal, anti-clerical and everyday. The anti-feudal ones include "The Tale of Yersh Ershovich", "The Tale of Shemyakin Court". To the anti-clerical - "Kolyazinskaya petition", "The Tale of the Hawk Moth". Household stories are fiction. Characters and events are fictional in the works. The Tale of Woe-Misfortune belongs to this type. They reflected the drama of the collision of "old" and "new" in the sphere of personal and public life. "The Tale of the Hawk Moth" has 3 parts: 1-introduction, 2-conversation of the hawker with the inhabitants of paradise, 3-exit of John the Theologian. This construction speaks of the novelistic nature of the work. This story belongs to the anti-clerical satire. The first part tells about who the hawker is: "he who drinks early on the feasts of God." He dies and an angel comes after him, after which the second part begins - the communication of the hawker with those who come to the gates of paradise - the Apostle Peter, the Apostle Paul, King David, King Solomon. Brazhnik asks them to let him in, but he is told that sinners cannot enter paradise. To which, about each hawker, remembers something from their life, from which everyone "retired, quickly put to shame." In the third part, John the Theologian comes to the gates, who also says: "We do not enter paradise with a thief." To which the hawker replies that in his Gospel it is written: “if we love each other, and God will keep us both.” And he says that then John must either let him in, or renounce the writing of the Gospel. So the hawker goes to heaven. In this work, the dogma of the Highest is violated, the Divine Court turns out to be unfair. The sinner goes to heaven. This story, a parody of medieval legends about the afterlife, angrily denounces church piety and church veneration of glorified saints. All the saints mentioned here turn out to be unworthy of paradise. And the hawk acts as an angry accuser and at the same time a cunning orator. Therefore, this story was included in the index of banned books.
44. Problems and genre ambiguity of "everyday" stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories.
By the second half of the 17th century. in Russian literature, a special genre variety of the story is emerging - everyday life, which reflects the drama of the collision of "old" and "novelty" in the sphere of personal and public life. If the real heroes of historical stories became participants in unreal events, then the adventures of fictional characters in everyday stories were firmly inscribed in the surrounding Russian reality. All events and characters in these works are fictitious. These works were notable for their publicism and author's freedom. The author himself could decide the dispute in favor of this or that hero, depending on his moral positions. The everyday story of the late Middle Ages acquires the features of philosophical prose. The everyday story reflected the democratization of the hero, the emerging interest in the "little man". "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" was created in the merchant environment in the second half of the 17th century. the story is written in folk verse, on a household plot, accompanied by lyrical moralizing. The hero of the story is well done, he has no name, he did not obey his parents, who said: “Do not go, child, to feasts and brotherhoods, do not sit down on a larger seat, do not drink, child, two charms for one!”, so as not to be a beggar . He "wanted to live as he liked" and did the opposite, so he fell "into nakedness and immense barefoot." And the story runs a parallel between succumbed to the temptation of Adam and Eve and Well done. There is an image of a serpent-tempter, a "named brother", who makes him drunk and then robs him. Further, the parallel runs through the motive of exile - Well done "it is shameful ... to appear to his father and mother" and he decides to go "to a foreign country." There he goes to a feast, where he tells people about everything and asks for help. They help him, give advice based on Domostroy morality. Thanks to them, Well Done “from a great mind, he made a belly more than an old man; looked after the bride for himself according to custom. Woe-Misfortune found out about this and appeared to the Well Done in a dream, foreshadowing: "you will be poisoned from the bride ... from gold and silver to be killed." But the Good fellow did not believe the dream, then Grief appeared to him in a dream in the form of the archangel Gabriel, saying that bliss is to be poor and drunk. After that, the Good Guy follows the instructions of Grief, but then he realizes his mistake: “before the trouble, I, the hammer, was domiciled.” But Grief does not let him go, saying that he will not go anywhere. Well done from him. Having struggled in vain with Grief, “the good fellow went to the monastery to be tonsured,” and this saved him. The hero of the story is a degenerate person, but he worries about it. This is the first image of a tramp in Russian literature, whom the author sympathizes with, but at the same time condemns. The image of Grief is built on folklore principles. Grief makes a person choose the wrong path, but it is also a retribution for his mistakes, when he says: “And whoever does not listen to his parents for good teaching, I will learn that, O ill-fated Woe.” This work is similar in genre to a parable or a lesson, because. full of morality given by a specific example. Also, the story is very close to the folk songs about Gor, some places are epic in nature (for example, the arrival of the Young Man at the feast and his boasting). The work is close to folklore, which can be seen in comparisons: Well done - "gray dove", Woe - "Grey hawk", etc. Based on this, we can say that the story is a fusion of folklore and literature, it goes beyond genre systems, combining many genres and traditions.
45. The history of the emergence and repertoire of the court theater. The play Judith.
The court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich arose in October 1672 and became a new state "fun". The tsar hired foreign actors for his theatre. The researchers consider the boyar Artamon Matveev to be the initiator of the creation of this theater. He had his own home theater with musicians, he himself repeatedly acted as an actor. Until 1672, performances were staged in the Izmailovsky Palace, in the Kremlin, in the house of the tsar's father-in-law, the boyar Miloslavsky, in the "comedy choir" at the Aptekarsky yard. Writing the first play on the biblical story about Esther and her marriage to the Persian king, after which she uncovered a conspiracy and saved her people from extermination, the king instructed the pastor of the Moscow German settlement Gregory. The main issues of the play: true kingship and mercy, pride and humility, were very popular at that time. On October 17, 1672, its premiere took place. The play consisted of a prologue and 7 acts divided into phenomena. The performance ran for 10 hours without a break. The performance aroused the king's delight. Thus, the history of the national theater began with the court theater, and the history of Russian dramaturgy began with Artaxerxes Action. The first plays on the Russian stage were based on themes from the Bible, the lives of saints, history and ancient mythology. The connection of the plays with modernity was emphasized by poetic prefaces. Such plays include the play "Judith". It tells about the siege by the Assyrian troops under the leadership of the commander Holofernes of the Jewish city of Bethulia and about his murder by the Bethulian Judith. In the play, there are 7 actions, divided into "canopy", pathetic scenes are sometimes replaced by comic ones, in addition to heroic faces, the play features buffoon characters. For example, when Judith announces her intention to kill Holofernes, and the situation becomes tense, because. everyone is worried, Abra, the servant of Judith, asks: “What are the Assyrians like: are they like that, or what are people?”. The connection of the play with modernity is evidenced by the appeal to Alexei Mikhailovich, which precedes the text of the play. The first plays of the Russian theater were close in genre to "English" comedies, their artistic specificity consisted in an abundance of bloody, crudely naturalistic scenes and dramatic collisions. For example, Judith showed everyone the bloodied head of Holofernes. After that, Judith says to the maid Abra: “Quietly put me in your feast,” and she praises Judith’s courage and utters a comical phrase: “What will that wretched man say when he wakes up, and Judith has left with his head?”. The captured soldier Susakim, a comic character, is subjected to a "sham execution." Having risen, the hero cannot understand for a long time whether he is alive, and having found clothes and shoes, he pretends to be looking for his head, asking: “Ow, gentlemen! If any of you ... hid my head, I humbly ask him ... to return it to me. The "variability" of life is emphasized by the movement of the action in the play. In the play, it is transferred from the palace to the military camp of Holofernes, and from there to the besieged city and the house of Judith. The official speech of the courtiers is replaced by the riotous song of drunken soldiers, and the lyrical speeches of the heroine are replaced by choirs. Thus, this play was typical for that time and was a vivid example of the dramaturgy of the 17th century.
46. School theater. "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son".
At the end of the 17th century school theater is born in Rus'. Created on the plots of the books of Holy Scripture, the works of school dramaturgy consisted of long monologues written in syllabics, they were spoken not only by biblical characters, but also by allegorical images (Mercy, Envy). These plays were staged at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, at the Zaikonospassky school of Simeon Polotsky, at the Moscow Slavonic-Greco-Roman Academy, at the school of Dmitry Rostovsky. Simeon of Polotsk was one of the first Russian educators and baroque poets. The plays The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son and The Tragedy of King Nebuchadnezzar brought him fame. "Comedy" was written on the gospel story, it contained a conflict typical of that era, when "children" did not listen to their parents, were burdened by their guardianship, and left home in dreams of seeing the world. The problem of the behavior of a young man was also reflected in the stories of the second half of the 17th century, such as The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, The Tale of Savva Grudicin, and The Tale of Frol Skobeev. The play is small, its composition is very simple, the scene is conditional, the number of characters is small, and the characters are nameless (for example, the Father, the youngest Sue, the eldest Son, the Servant of the Prodigal, etc.). There are no allegories in the play, and all this brings the Comedy closer to school dramas and ensured its success. The comedy begins with a prologue that encourages you to watch this play with attention. Then the 1st part begins, where the father distributes the inheritance to his sons, for which they thank the father, but the younger one asks for blessings and says: “I want to start my path. What will I take in the house? What will I study? I’d rather get richer in my mind when I travel.” In the second part, the youngest Son leaves home and talks about his drinking and revelry. The third part consists of only one sentence: “The prodigal son will come out hungover, the servants comfort in various ways; looks abridged. V~4-<ш_частиговорвтсал его нищете и голоде. В 5-ой части сын возвращается к отцу, а в 6-ой он показан уже одетым и накормленным, восхваляющим Бога. Далее следует эпилог, в котором говорится о назначении пьесы и наставляет^ запомнить её. Из всего этого следует, что стиль пьесы-поучительный. И несмотря на то, что она названа комедией, по сути своей это притча.
47. Poetic originality of poetry collections by Simeon of Polotsk.
Simeon of Polotsk was one of the first Russian educators and baroque poets. Shortly before his death, he collected written and poems in huge collections - "Rhymologion" and "Multicolor Vertograd". His hard work was connected with the task of rooting on Russian soil a new verbal culture, baroque in nature. The “helicopter city” created by him amazed the reader with his “multi-color)). The poems were devoted to a variety of topics and arranged in the collection under thematic headings, where they were arranged alphabetically by title. In these collections, he denounced what was at odds with his idea of \u200b\u200bthe ideal, and tirelessly praised the king, because. believed that this was his “service” to Russia. Simeon Polotsky is an experimental poet who turned to the means of painting and architecture in order to make his poems visual, to amaze the reader's imagination. In the “Russian Eagle” there is a form of “acrostic”, the initial letters of which form a sentence: “Give Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Lord, many years”, as well as rebus verses, “echo” with rhyming questions and answers, curly verses. This required skill and sharpness of mind from the poet. In Baroque poetry, "multilingual" poems were also cultivated, which was reflected in Polotsky's poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, Latin. Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through a high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: “good-natured”, “inspired flower-bearing”, etc. The things and phenomena depicted by him often had an allegorical meaning, they “spoke”, teaching. Sometimes the teaching was clothed in the form of an entertaining, satirical story. For example, the poem “Drunkenness” (a drunkard, having come home, saw instead of 2 sons, 4, because he saw double; he began to accuse his wife of debauchery and orders to pick up a red-hot piece of iron to prove her innocence. But the wife asks her husband to give her a piece from the oven, after which, having burned himself, he sobers up and understands everything. Everything ends with morality), "Toads of the obedient" (the toads in the swamp screamed and disturbed the "praying monk." One of them goes to swamp and says to the frogs: "In the name of Christ I bequeath to you ... do not be such, "after which the toads were no longer heard. At the end, a moral is given, where the cry of the toads is compared with the" hooting" of the women and it is said that they can be silenced in the same way ). Scientists identify 3 main trends in Simeon's work: didactic and educational (“Multicolored Vertograd”), panegric (“Rhymologion”) and polemical (“The Rod of Government” treatise directed against schismatics).
The origins and poetic originality of the Baroque style in Russian literature.
Baroque is one of the first European styles presented in Russian culture. Italy is considered the birthplace of Baroque, the country where it reached its zenith is Spain. Baroque came to Rus' from Poland through Ukraine and Belarus. In Russia, it replaced the Middle Ages and became a kind of Renaissance of Russian culture. This led to the loss of the religious and philosophical introspection of the Baroque and its contribution to the secularization of culture. Therefore, the baroque in Russian culture acquired an optimistic pathos, without developing the philosophical motives of the “transience of being”, and proclaimed human life as a continuous pleasure and exciting journey. This idea of the "diversity" of the world formed in the literature a new type of hero-catcher of Fortune, an inquisitive and enterprising person who enjoys life. Baroque in its Russian version affected mainly the culture of the upper classes, it was not large-scale, because. was limited in time. It glorified science, education and reason. Elegance and scholarship were valued in Baroque poetry, "multilingual" poems were welcomed, which was reflected in Polotsky's poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, Latin. Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through a high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: "good" ^ "inspired flower-bearing", etc. Despite the elitism of the baroque, it was addressed to the people, served the purposes of their education and upbringing. Saturated with scientific and journalistic material, historical and geographical information, baroque poetry sought to go beyond the boundaries of literature. Baroque discoveries include a new look at a person whose image is devoid of Renaissance harmony. The intricate plot forced the characters to actively move in space, an abundance of landscapes and portraits appeared in the work. The baroque world amazed with its bizarre forms, diversity and polyphony. And the Russian version of the Baroque, unlike the European one, was characterized by moderation. In the Russian tradition, interest in naturalistic scenes of love and death, descriptions of the afterlife, was also weakened. Baroque rooted poetry in Russian literature, enriching it with new poetic forms. Their range is very wide: from verse transcriptions of liturgical texts to epigrams, from panegric greetings addressed to the king to inscriptions on images of the alphabet. Baroque liberated the poet, giving him the freedom to choose the form of the work, and this search often led to the destruction of boundaries between genres, different types of art and art and science. Poems could take the form of a dialogue, become part of a pictorial composition, and so on. the form began to prevail over the content: poets compose acrostics, figurative verses, create labyrinths with the repeatedly read phrase, “echo”. “Leonin” verses with rhyming half-lines are coming into fashion. Although the literature of the Russian baroque seems far from strict norms and canons, it had its own pattern, which led to the emergence of stable images and phraseological units: the king is “eagle”, “sun”, Russia is “sky”. Later, these formulas, ideas and techniques were assimilated and modified in the literature of Russian classicism.
The literature of the 18th century was prepared by the entire previous history of Russian literature, the course of development of society and Russian culture. It is associated with the best traditions of ancient Russian literature (the idea of the important role of literature in the life of society, its patriotic orientation).
3 main features of Old Russian literature:
1. handwriting.
2. anonymity.
3. Churchness.
All these features had a strong influence on the literature of the first third of the 18th century, and in principle on all subsequent literature.
As an example, one can cite the work of Feofan Prokopovich, or the history of Vasily Kareotsky.
Feofan Prokopovich:
1. First of all, the use of the ecclesiastical sermon genre. their ecclesiastical character.
2. The pathos of patriotism, faith in the future of Russia ("Word for the burial of Peter the Great" 1725, "Epinikion") (Prokopovich was Peter's faithful companion). He wrote laudatory poems, continuing the tradition of patriotic poems by Simeon of Polotsk.
2. Vasily still retains the good features of ancient Russian heroes: love of the father, piety, obedience.
3. Handwriting. At the very beginning of the 18th century, typography was not yet widespread, so it still had a handwritten character.
Literature of the first decades of the XVIII century.
LITERATURE OF THE FIRST DECADES OF THE 18TH CENTURY
The first twenty-fifth anniversary of the 18th century, the reign of Peter I, is generally recognized as a key and milestone epoch in the history of Russia.
The pan-European type of verbal culture is defined by three concepts: this is literature of the author (individual creativity), secular (not directly related to the church and religion) and printed (according to the form of existence of texts in the cultural space), i.e. mass and large-circulation. As for the Old Russian verbal culture, for each of these features it is antonymous to the European type: the literature of the Russian Middle Ages is anonymous (the identity of the author does not matter), spiritual (directly connected with cult and religion), handwritten (i.e., inaccessible, laborious in replication, with a limited circle of consumers). The whole point of the cultural reform of the Petrine era was that the restructuring of the mass consciousness according to the laws of the ideology of personalism provoked a change from the traditional national type of culture to a pan-European one. And this does not mean at all that Russian culture has lost its national identity in this process.
Thus, another result of the Petrine reforms in their historical perspective was the situation of a double split: a cultural split between the upper and lower classes and an ideological split between the intelligentsia and the authorities. a type of authorless histories of the Petrine era was formed - and with its obvious dependence on the Old Russian narrative tradition (anonymity and handwriting are characteristic features of the stories of the Petrine era, making it related to Old Russian literature), as well as on the Western European model of the genre (typological adventurous plot), authorless histories oriented on their historical contemporaneity and created by people of their era, reflected both the novelty of Russian social life at the beginning of the 18th century and the new type of consciousness of their nameless authors.
“The history of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky and the beautiful princess Heraclius of the Florensky land.” The work is divided into two unequal parts: the first, more concise, tells about the life of the young nobleman Vasily Koriotsky, who went to the sovereign’s service, and the second, more lengthy, about his incredible adventures in Europe. The first part has a pronounced everyday descriptive character; the second, more conditional, is built partly on the model of Russian folk epics and robber tales, and partly on the model of a Western European love-adventurous story.
In addition to the real novelty of Russian social life, the story about the Russian sailor also reflected a new type of personality, generated by the new time of Russian history. Let "history" for the time being remain anonymous and handwritten in the traditions of ancient Russian culture, the image of its hero and the entire structure of the narrative undeniably testify to that the ideology of personalism, the understanding of the value of the individual personality, had already become the property of the mass cultural consciousness in those years when the nameless author created his story.
Ideological prose of the first third of the 18th century: the genre of sermon in the work of F. Prokopovich. Poetics of oratorical prose
If the authorless histories of the Petrine era create an everyday image of a new person, then another, also extremely widespread and popular genre - the sermon and the secular oratorical "Word" of Feofan Prokopovich forms an idea of his spiritual appearance. Its authorial affiliation with Feofan Prokopovich is fundamentally important for the genre and style model, in which Feofan's traditional oratorical speech was embodied. In addition, the Word existed not only in the genre of oral public eloquence, but also in printed book form: as a rule, the texts of Theophan's speeches were printed as separate brochures after they were pronounced. Oratory at the beginning of the 18th century. occupied a very special place both in the system of verbal arts and in public life. the general domestic political life of Russia was so turbulent, the initially unpopular reforms needed propaganda so much that it was the oratorical genres that were the only form of aesthetic activity accessible to the perception of the maximum number of people who needed to be convinced of the need for all the changes that were taking place. This style can be called "panegyric ". "Panegyric" means "commendable word", and it is Feofan's sermons, written mainly in this genre, that are the most striking embodiment of the panegyric style, which is fixed in a stable genre of verbal creativity and its settings: sermons - the Word. As oratory genres, the sermon and the secular oratory Word belong to two areas of verbal art: literature (since both the sermon and the Word are texts) and eloquence (since these texts are designed for oral pronunciation in front of listeners). This duality determines the laws of the poetics of oratory genres, which predetermine their structure, composition, form of expression of thought and typology of artistic imagery.
Aristotle distinguished three types of eloquence: solemn, political and judicial, Cf. the title of Feofan Prokopovich's sermons: "A commendable word about the battle of Poltava ..." (1717, delivered on the occasion of the anniversary of the Battle of Poltava); "A word about the power and honor of the king" (1718, the reason for it was the disclosure of a conspiracy of churchmen against Peter and the trial of Tsarevich Alexei); “A word of praise about the Russian fleet ...” (1720), “A word for burial< ... >Peter the Great...” (1725); “A word to the praise of the blessed and eternally worthy memory of Peter the Great ...” (1725).
Secondly, the oral form of existence of the text of the sermon and the Word, addressed to the audience and pursuing a dual goal - to convince and excite the listener, predetermined a number of intonation-structural features of these genres. The word is a dialogic genre, because, formally being a monologue, it always focuses on the perceiving consciousness, to which it is directly addressed. The appeal is realized in the text of the oratorical genre in a triple way: 1) by the obligatory appeal in the beginning to the listeners; 2) the regular use of the personal pronoun in plural forms (we, us, ours), which emphasizes the existence of contact between the speaker and the audience and likens the speaker's opinion to the opinions of his listeners; 3) numerous rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations that diversify the intonation of oratorical speech, liken its formal monologue text to a dialogue (question-answer speech structure) and express the speaker's strong emotions that must be conveyed to the audience.
The laws of rhetorical composition were defined in ancient aesthetics, in Aristotle's Rhetoric. These laws are very strict: in the name of success, oratory must adhere to a logical composition. The composition of an oratorical speech involves the following mandatory elements: an appeal to the audience, the formulation of a thesis, its development and proof in a system of arguments, a conclusion that repeats the initial premise in its formulation, and a final appeal to the audience.
The main part of the oratorical speech - the proof of the thesis in the system of arguments - is framed, as it were, by a ring of identical elements: the speaker addresses the audience at the beginning and end of the speech, the main thesis, closely adjacent to the appeals, is also repeated at the beginning and end as a provision requiring proof, and how proven position. Such a ring structure is, as it were, a mnemonic device - at the end it is reminded of how the speech began - and an artistic image, a verbal model of a circle and a sphere, which were considered the most perfect of all geometric figures.
Compositional repetitions in the opening and finale, enclosing the text of the sermon in a ring, are very diverse. They can be expressed using words similar in sound and meaning. In a speech focused on oral pronunciation, consonance is one of the most effective emotional and aesthetic means of influence.
Perhaps the main - and absolutely individual, author's means of his genre model of preaching is syncretism, the indivisibility of the installations of epideictic rhetoric in his oratorical word. It has already been said above that epideictic eloquence could be both laudatory and blasphemous. A striking sign of Theophan's oratorical speeches is the indivisibility of praise and blasphemy within the same text, and as a result, the fundamental diversity of his sermons, connecting the panegyric to Peter or the fleet with denunciations of the enemies of enlightenment, ignoramuses, opponents of reforms.
So, within the genre of sermon itself, which combines two opposite attitudes (commendable and accusatory), two types of artistic imagery, with the help of which their emotional pathos is expressed (conceptual-thesis and everyday-descriptive-argumental) and two stylistic keys, relatively speaking, high and low, an internal contradiction is outlined, which turned out to be very productive at the next stage of literary development. Breaking up into its simple components, praise and blasphemy, with their inherent figurative and stylistic means of expression, Feofan Prokopovich's sermon gave rise to two older genres of Russian literature of modern times: the solemn ode of Lomonosov, into which the panegyric tendencies of the sermon departed, and the satire of Kantemir, which took from the sermon accusatory motives with their inherent modes of expression
At the same time, both satire and ode inherited the rhetorical features of the sermon genre: a rhetorical ring composition, dialogism, and a question-answer structure of the narration. As a result, the place of Feofan Prokopovich's sermon in the history of Russian literature is determined by the fact that it is a prototypical genre that combines the initial conditions for further Russian literary development - in the odic and satirical directions. Both Kantemir, in developing the genre model of satire, and Lomonosov, who created the genre model of a solemn laudatory ode, adopted the traditions of Feofan Prokopovich's sermon-word.
Two varieties of prose of the early 18th century. - everyday prose, gravitating towards the novelistic type of narration, and ideological oratorical prose, connected with the pressing needs of the political moment, offered two different ways to create images of the “hero of our time”. In authorless histories, the image of a person who is a contemporary of his historical era is created from the outside - by an objective author's narration. And the aesthetic authenticity of such an image is determined by the everyday authenticity of a person's appearance, the type of his everyday behavior, the biographical events of his life, timed to coincide with a certain historical era. As for ideological oratorical prose, any oratorical text invariably contains its main character - the author-orator, whose way of thinking and emotional appearance reflects the oratorical text. In relation to the personality of the speaker, his speech is a complete intellectual, moral and emotional self-disclosure, creating a convincing spiritual image of a person, which in everyday prose can only be reconstructed according to its external manifestations.
6. F. Prokopovich: originality of journalism.
Feofan Prokopovich (1677 (1681?) - 1736)
At the beginning of the 18th century, journalism received intensive development. Prokopovich was one of the prominent publicists of this. He worked in the genre of "word" (secular oratorical genre, a Europeanized phenomenon of Russian verbal culture). Its authorial affiliation with Feofan Prokopovich is fundamentally important for the genre and style model, in which Feofan's traditional oratorical speech was embodied. In addition, the Word existed not only in the genre of oral public eloquence, but also in printed book form: as a rule, the texts of Theophan's speeches were printed as separate brochures after they were pronounced. However, just as authorless histories are a complex fusion of traditional forms with new aesthetic views, so the Europeanized oratorical Word of Theophan is closely connected with the previous cultural tradition, since it is a secularization of one of the genres deeply rooted in the national cultural tradition - church sermon. The didactic and emotional purpose (to convince and excite) of the sermon is achieved by the fact that each semantic fragment of its text is simultaneously subject to two settings - maximum emotional expressiveness and logical connection in the general flow of thought, revealing the main theme of the sermon. The first setting determines the style and imagery of the sermon, richly saturated with rhetorical figures (metaphors, comparisons, antitheses, personifications or allegories, symbolism and emblematics). A classic example of rhetorical oratorical prose was the word Prokopovich uttered at the burial of Peter I (1725). Here, with great artistic skill and fullness, he revealed the historical significance of his reforming activities. Feofan also wrote a number of government documents. In them, he introduced the passion of a publicist, proud of the increased international role of Russia thanks to Peter, sharp accusatory sarcasm at the opponents of reforms, zealots of antiquity. The undisputed companion of Peter. Theophan defended the idea of subordinating the church to secular power. Prokopovich tried to convey this idea to the minds through his works. In the tragicomedy "Vladimir" Prokopovich sharply criticizes the reactionary clergy, which was the main opponent of Peter the Great's reforms. Feofan Prokopovich is also known for his laudatory poems, in which he glorified Peter and the great deeds of the Russian people. A vivid example of such verses is the “Song of Victory for the glorious Victory of Poltava”. But he wrote lyrics in different genres: laudatory poems, epigrams, jokes, fables, poems. In the future, Theophan's turbulent and politically eventful life did not leave time for poetry, so his poetic legacy is very small, although diverse. He wrote poems from time to time, mainly for a small circle of friends and did not intend them for publication. Feofan preferred epigrams and elegies and at the same time was one of the first to use the techniques and motifs of folk songs in poetry, it is not without reason that a number of his poems, in which personal feelings are especially strongly expressed, were set to music, and they are often found in manuscript songbooks of the 18th century, but without the name of the author. Continuing the tradition of Simeon of Polotsk, he wrote in syllabic. He experimented with contemporary verse, he can be called the "syllabotonic" of his time. He is the first to address the topic of science in Russian poetry. He was also an innovator in the field of satirical poetry (Aesopian language).
Literature of the 30-50s of the XVIII century. Russian classicism.
In the middle of the 18th century, classicism became the leading style of Russian culture.
For a century and a half, was the leading style of literature throughout Europe. Classicism took shape as a complete literary worldview in France in the middle. 18th century and it was in French literature that it received its most complete expression. From the French, he then moved to England, Germany, Italy, and finally to Russia. French classicism gave world literature the tragic playwrights of genius Corneille and Racine; Boileau was the teacher of classical poets throughout Europe. The central theme, the idea of classicism was the cult of state, civic virtues, to which classicism sacrificed all the personal aspirations of a person.
The basis of all the rules of classical poetics is the division of literature into immiscible genres. A peculiar law of the unity of style reigned here. Each theme corresponded to its genre, each work was built according to the law of its genre, straightforwardly and holistically. It turns out the unity, fitting to each other of all elements of poetics - "high" in some genres, "low" in others, etc. The second foundation of all classicism was samples, the theory of imitation. At the same time, it is remarkable that neither in theory, nor in practice, the poetry of classicism was not only "book" poetry. In fact, the classics wrote differently than the poets they portrayed as their models. Antique literature was declared exemplary literature. Antique genres, ancient images, ancient mythology fill literature, which does not become closer to truly antique because of this. Accuracy, clarity, noble simplicity and logical completeness of style and construction of works were one of the best achievements of classicism in general.
The first influences of classicism in Russia can be traced back to the 17th century in the work of Simeon of Polotsk. His scholastic classicism was replaced by a new one, gleaned directly from Western sources by Kantemir and Trediakovsky. They turn to antique models, and to French and German classics. They themselves provide examples of creativity in the genres indicated by classicism.
However, it was Sumarokov and his associates, the liberal intellectuals of the nobility, who created a full-fledged and unified style, a complete artistic worldview of Russian classicism.
1) Rus. lit, assimilating it turned out to be the heiress of the more mature achievements of the West, became on the same level with the most advanced literatures of the world.
2) Classicism fully corresponded in its ideological principles to the main direction indicated to Russian culture by the entire historical path of Russia in the early 18th century: it was the cult of public, state debt, the subordination of the private, personal interests of the country and the mind, so characteristic of classicism at all its stages, was close to the advanced people of Russia. Classicism taught, analyzing a person in general, the ideal of a person, to educate people in the spirit of this ideal; this task of subordinating the spiritual life of man to the ideal of reason and culture stood very clearly before all Russian writers.
3) Classicism strove to build the ideal of culture and man not of local significance, but universal. The ideal of the Russian person becomes the ideal of the entire world progressive culture, and the broadest horizons opened before the Russian person. He became a citizen of the world. He now understood his own Russian culture as an organic component of universal human culture.
At the same time, it is important that Russian literature should not, could not and did not want to lose its special national features, lose its face. Characteristically, Russian classicism was distinguished from Western classicism primarily by 2 specific features:
1) the satirical, militant character of many works of Russian classicists, which did not allow them to completely move away from concrete reality.
2) relative proximity to the folk origins of art.
