Features of the development of women's prose in modern Russian literature. Artistic features of prose A

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Artistic features of proseA.Chekhov

Chekhov psychologism poetics

Life, what surrounds a person in everyday life, everyday specifics that form his habits and character, the whole ordinary external way - this side of human life is discovered in literature by realism.

Enthusiastically, with pleasure, Pushkin described the patriarchal way of the Russian province; with slight irony, he discussed with the reader the daily routine, the furnishings of the office, the outfits and bottles on the dressing table of Onegin's "secular lion" ... This artistic discovery of Pushkin's realism was deeply comprehended by Gogol. In his work, everyday life appears animated, actively shaping a person and his destiny. The outside world becomes one of the main actors in Gogol's artistic method, a defining feature of his poetics. By the time Chekhov entered literature, Dostoevsky had brilliantly developed the Gogol tradition of the active influence of the external world on man. Extremely detailed, to the smallest detail, recreated and studied in the work of Tolstoy, life made it possible for Chekhov to approach the problem of the relationship between the hero and the environment without prehistory, to immediately deal with the essence of these relationships. Life and being are inseparable in the artistic world of Chekhov. Life is a way of human life. Life is matter from which the hero cannot be separated at any moment of his existence.

Thus, the existence of Chekhov's heroes is initially materialistic: this materialism is predetermined not by convictions, but by real life itself.

And how did Chekhov see the real life of the end of the century? He tried to tell small, unpretentious stories - and a peculiar artistic principle was laid in his choice. He described private life - that was the artistic discovery. Under his pen, literature became a mirror of the moment, which matters only in the life and fate of one particular person. Chekhov avoids generalizations, seeing them as untrue and inaccurate; generalizations disgust his creative method. The life of each of the characters seems to the author himself a mystery, which is to be unraveled not only by him, an outside observer. Chekhov's Russia consists of questions, of hundreds of solved and unsolved destinies.

Chekhov is indifferent to history. The plot with a pronounced intrigue does not interest him. “It is necessary to describe life, even, smooth, as it really is” - this is the writer's credo. His plots are stories from the life of an ordinary person, into whose fate the writer gazes intently.

The "great plot" of Chekhov's prose is a private moment of human life. “Why write this ... that someone got on a submarine and went to the North Pole to seek some kind of reconciliation with people, and at this time his beloved throws herself from the bell tower with a dramatic cry? All this is not true, in reality it does not happen. It is necessary to write simply: about how Pyotr Semenovich married Marya Ivanovna. That's all". .

The short story genre allowed him to create a mosaic picture of the modern world. Chekhov's characters form a motley crowd, they are people of different destinies and different professions, they are occupied with various problems - from petty household concerns to serious philosophical questions. And the life of each hero is a special, separate feature of Russian life, but in sum, these features denote all the global problems of Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Features of psychologism - the image of the inner world of man. The attitude of Chekhov's heroes - a sense of disorder, discomfort in the world - is largely due to time, and the predominance of the story genre in the writer's work is connected with this: “The absolute predominance of the story genre in Chekhov's prose was determined not only by the writer's talent and working conditions, but also by the diversity, fragmentation life, the public consciousness of his time ... The story was in this case that "form of time", the genre that managed to reflect this inconsistency and fragmentation of the public consciousness of the era.

Throughout a short story (anecdotal and parable at the same time), Chekhov does not draw the inner world of the character, does not reproduce the psychological foundations, the movements of feelings. He gives psychology in external manifestations: in gestures, in facial expressions (“mimic” psychologism), body movements. Chekhov's psychologism (especially in early stories) is "hidden", that is, the feelings and thoughts of the characters are not depicted, but are guessed by the reader on the basis of their external manifestation. Therefore, it is wrong to call Chekhov's stories small novels (“fragments” of a novel) with their rootedness in human psychology, attention to the motives of actions, detailed depiction of emotional experiences. The writer also generalizes the images of the characters, but not as social types, but as "general psychological", deeply exploring the mental and bodily nature of man. Revealing the inner world of the hero, Chekhov abandoned a solid and even image. His narrative is discontinuous, dotted, built on episodes correlated with each other. In this case, details play a huge role. This feature of Chekhov's skill was not immediately understood by critics - for many years they kept saying that the detail in Chekhov's works was accidental and insignificant.

Of course, the writer himself did not emphasize the significance of his details, strokes, artistic details. In general, he did not like anything underlined, did not write, as they say, in italics or detente. He talked about many things as if in passing, but it was precisely “as if” - the whole point is that the artist, in his own words, counts on the attention and sensitivity of the reader. Chekhov's detail is not deeply random, it is surrounded by the atmosphere of life, way of life.

Chekhov the artist amazes with the variety of tonality of the narrative, the richness of transitions from the harsh recreation of reality to subtle, restrained lyricism, from light, barely perceptible irony to smashing mockery. Chekhov, a realist writer, is always irreproachably reliable and convincing in his depiction of a person. He achieves this accuracy primarily through the use of a psychologically significant, absolutely precisely chosen detail. Chekhov possessed an exceptional ability to grasp the general picture of life in its "little things", recreating a single whole from them. This addiction to the "insignificant" detail was inherited by the literature of the 20th century.

So, we come to one of the defining properties of Chekhov's poetics: one cannot judge the author's position, and even more so, the integral concept of the author's worldview by individual works. The author's position in Chekhov's stories, as a rule, is not emphasized. Chekhov was not a passionate teacher and preacher, a "prophet", unlike, for example, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The position of a person who knows the truth and is confident in it was alien to him. But Chekhov, of course, was not deprived of the idea of ​​truth, the desire for it in his work. He was a courageous person both in his life and in his books, he was a wise writer who retained faith in life with a clear understanding of its imperfection, sometimes hostility to man. Chekhov valued, above all, the creative, free from all dogma (both in literature, and in philosophy, and in everyday life) human personality, he was characterized by a passionate faith in man, in his capabilities. The value of a person, according to the writer, is determined by his ability to withstand the dictates of everyday life, without losing his face in the mass of human faces. This was Chekhov himself, and this is how his contemporaries perceived him. M. Gorky wrote to him: “You seem to be the first free and non-worshipping person I have ever seen.” Chekhov's stories are distinguished by a special tone of narration - lyrical irony. The writer, as it were, looks at a person with a sad smile and recalls the ideal, beautiful life as it should be, and he did not delicately impose his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ideal, he did not write journalistic articles on this subject, but shared his thoughts in letters to those close to him the spirit of people.

And although Chekhov never created the novel he dreamed of, and his stories practically do not add up to cycles, his entire creative heritage appears before us as an organic whole.

And in this integrity is the key to understanding Chekhov. Only in the context of all his work is it possible to deeply comprehend each specific work.

The genre of the story in the work of Chekhov

The story is a work of epic prose, close to a novel, tending to a consistent presentation of the plot, limited by a minimum of storylines. Depicts a separate episode from life; differs from the novel in less completeness and breadth of pictures of everyday life, mores. It does not have a stable volume and occupies an intermediate position between a novel, on the one hand, and a short story or short story, on the other. It gravitates towards a chronicle plot that reproduces the natural course of life. The plot of a classic story, the laws of which took shape in the realistic literature of the second half of the 19th century, is usually centered around the image of the protagonist, whose personality and fate are revealed within the few events in which he takes a direct part. Side storylines in the story (unlike the novel), as a rule, are absent, the narrative chronotope is concentrated on a narrow period of time and space. The number of characters in the story, on the whole, is less than in the novel, and the clear distinction between the main and secondary characters, characteristic of the novel, is usually absent in the story, or this distinction is not essential for the development of the action. The plot of a realistic story is often associated with the "topic of the day", with what the narrator observes in social reality and what he perceives as a topical reality. Sometimes the author himself characterized the same work in different genre categories. So, Turgenev first called Rudin a story, and then a novel. The titles of the stories are often associated with the image of the protagonist ("Poor Lisa" by N.M. Karamzin, "Rene" by R. Chateaubriand) or with a key element of the plot ("The Hound of the Baskervilles" by A. Conan Doyle, "The Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov ).

The genre of the story implies a special relationship to the word. Unlike a long narrative, where the reader's attention is focused on detailed descriptions, the framework of the story does not allow the slightest carelessness, requiring full dedication from each word. In Chekhov's stories, the word, as in a poem, is the only possible one.

Long work in the newspaper, the school of feuilleton and reportage largely contributed to the improvement of Chekhov's style. His word is always the most informative. It was this virtuoso mastery of the word, the honed mastery of detail that allowed Chekhov not to indulge in lengthy authorial reasoning, but always clearly adhere to the role of the narrator: the word in his stories speaks for itself, it actively forms the reader's perception, calls for living co-creation. Chekhov's objective manner is unusual for the reader. Following the passionate outpourings of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, he always knew where the truth was and where the lie was, what was good and what was bad. Left alone with Chekhov's text, having lost the author's pointing finger, the reader was at a loss.

The inertia of misunderstanding, incorrect - in the opinion of the author himself - interpretation of Chekhov's work existed in Russian criticism almost always. This is true even today. A paradoxical story happened to "Darling". This story was understood in absolutely different ways by two such wise and subtle readers as Tolstoy and Gorky. It is significant that in their interpretation of "Darling" they were infinitely far away not only from each other, but also from the opinion of the author himself.

Excellent comments V.Ya. Lakshin: “Tolstoy did not want to see in “Darling” those features of philistine life, into which Olenka seems to have grown and which causes Chekhov’s ridicule. In Olenka Tolstoy was attracted by the "eternal" properties of the female type.<…>Tolstoy is inclined to regard Darushechka with her sacrificial love as a universal type of woman. For the sake of this, he tries not to notice Chekhov's irony, and accepts humanity, softness of humor as a sign of involuntary justification by the author of the heroine.<…>Quite differently from Tolstoy, another reader, Gorky, looked at Darling. In the heroine of Chekhov's story, he is antipathetic to slavish traits, her humiliation, the lack of human independence. “Here, anxiously, like a gray mouse, “Darling” scurries - a sweet, meek woman who knows how to love so slavishly, so much. You can hit her on the cheek, and she won’t even dare to moan loudly, meek slave, ”Gorky wrote. What Tolstoy idealized and "blessed" in "Darling" - promiscuous love, blind devotion and affection - Gorky could not accept with his ideals of a "proud" person.<…>Chekhov himself had no doubt that he wrote a humorous story<…>, counted on the fact that his heroine should make a somewhat pathetic and ridiculous impression.<…>Chekhov's Olenka is a timid, submissive creature, obedient to fate in everything. It is deprived of independence both in thoughts, and in opinions, and in studies. She has no personal interests, except for the interests of her husband-entrepreneur or her husband-timber trader. Olenka’s life ideals are simple: peace, her husband’s well-being, quiet family joys, “tea with rich bread and various jams ...” “Nothing, we live well,” Olenka told her friends, “thank God. May God grant everyone to live like Vanechka and I. A measured, prosperous existence always evoked a feeling of bitterness in Chekhov. In this respect, the life of Olenka, a kind and stupid woman, was no exception. There could be no demand from her in the sense of any ideals and aspirations.

In the story "Gooseberries", written almost simultaneously with "Darling", we read: "I am oppressed by silence and calmness, I am afraid to look at the windows, because now there is no more difficult sight for me than a happy family sitting around the table and drinking tea ". Chekhov sees such a window in the house where Olenka is in charge. In the tone in which this is all told, we will not hear malicious irony, dry mockery. The story of "Darling" rather evokes pity, compassion for a colorless and monotonous life, which can be told on several pages - it is so monosyllabic and meager. A soft, good-natured smile does not seem to leave the author's lips. He is not embittered and not gloomy, but perhaps saddened by the tragicomedy of human destinies. He wants to look into the souls of ordinary people, truthfully convey their needs, anxieties, small and big worries, and under all this reveal the drama of the meaninglessness and emptiness of their lives, often not felt by the heroes. ”Lakshin does not oppose his personal understanding of the story to the interpretations of Gorky and Tolstoy. He very subtly restores Chekhov's idea, the author's concept, analyzing "Darling" not in itself, but in the context of Chekhov's late work. Thus, we again come to the conclusion that a complete, adequate understanding of Chekhov is possible only when each of his works is perceived as an element of an integral creative system.

Chekhov's artistic manner is not instructive; he is sickened by the pathos of a preacher, a teacher of life. He acts as a witness, as a writer of everyday life. Chekhov chooses the position of the storyteller, and this returns Russian literature to the path of fiction, from which the philosophical searches of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy led her away. The drama of Russian life is obvious to Chekhov. The modern world feels like a dead end to them. And the external “arrangement” only emphasizes the internal trouble: this is a mechanical life, devoid of a creative idea. And without such an idea, without a higher meaning, even creative labor necessary for society becomes meaningless. That is why the theme of “leaving” sounds in Chekhov’s later work: one can break out of a dead end, out of the hopelessness of a vicious circle (but, as a rule, into the unknown, as happens in the stories “The Lady with the Dog” and “The Bride”). The hero has a choice: either accept life, submit to it, dissolve, become a part of it and lose himself, or break all ties with everyday life, just get away from it, look for a worthy purpose of existence. This is the most important moment: Chekhov's hero is not allowed to remain himself within the framework of everyday life; having chosen the generally accepted path, he loses his face. This is what happens to Dr. Startsev, the hero of the story "Ionych". Having obeyed the flow of life, a series of everyday worries and thoughts, he comes to complete spiritual devastation, to an absolute loss of personality. Even the memory of his own recent past, of the only vivid feeling, the author does not leave him. The successful Ionych is not only soulless, but also insane, obsessed with the mania of senseless hoarding.

Just as soulless are some of Chekhov's other heroes who did not dare to challenge their usual life: Belikov, Chimsha-Himalayan. Life itself opposes man.

Such a strong, prosperous, well-equipped and comfortable, it promises all the benefits, but in return requires the rejection of oneself as a person. And therefore, the theme of "withdrawal", the denial of the established way of life, becomes the main one in the work of the late Chekhov.

We have already talked about the drama of teacher Nikitin. Having fulfilled all the desires of the hero, giving him the happiness that Nikitin so passionately dreamed of, Chekhov led him to a certain threshold, to the line, remaining beyond which, Nikitin would renounce his own face and become the same idol that Dr. Startsev became. And for the author it is infinitely important that the teacher Nikitin is able to step over the threshold, that the quiet, safe loss of himself is more terrible for him than the complete uncertainty of the break with his former life. What new life Nikitin will come to, what will be revealed to him beyond the threshold - we don’t know, just as we don’t know what, besides the joy of deliverance, the heroine of the story “The Bride” found. This is a separate topic for Chekhov, he almost does not touch it.

Only in the story "My Life" did Chekhov follow his "stepping over the threshold" hero. And he discovered that Misail Poloznev gained only one thing in his new life: the right to independently manage his own destiny, to answer only to his own conscience for his every step. The new, half-starved and homeless life of Misail gave the hero the main thing that was missing in the habitual path prepared for him by his father: a sense of self-worth, the unconditional significance of his own personality - not because he is obsessed with megalomania, but because every human personality is the highest, absolute value.

The problem of "leaving" in Chekhov's work is deeply connected with the theme of love. Love for his heroes is always a turning point, a path to another reality. Having fallen in love, a person inevitably interrupts the usual course of life, stops. This is a time of rethinking, self-awareness: even the quietest Belikov, having fallen in love, felt this breakthrough into other worlds, saw himself, thought about his own soul and personality. Having fallen in love, Chekhov's hero ceases to be a man without a face, one of the crowd. He suddenly discovers his own individuality - unique and inimitable. This is a man who has woken up, entered into a spiritual reality: “Love shows a person how he should be,” wrote Chekhov.

But Chekhov's hero can be frightened by this abyss of his own soul that has opened up to him, frightened by the sudden transformation of the familiar and comfortable world into complex and unknowable. And then he will renounce love and himself, like Belikov, like Startsev. If the feeling that gripped the hero is truly strong, it transforms him, does not allow him to return to his usual track. Subtly, but unstoppable, there is a spiritual growth, a rebirth of the personality. So the cynic and bon vivant Gurov, having fallen in love with Anna Sergeevna, gradually turns into a thinking, suffering, tormented person. Gurov is unhappy, and Anna Sergeevna is also unhappy: they are doomed to live apart, to meet occasionally, furtively, like thieves, doomed to lie in the family, to hide from the whole world. But there is no way back for them: the souls of these people have come to life and a return to the former unconscious existence is impossible.

The very course of life in Chekhov's world opposes love: this life does not involve feelings, it opposes it, which is why the story "About Love" ends so dramatically. Alekhin is sympathetic to Chekhov, the author sympathizes with the desire of his hero to "live in truth." Alekhine becomes a landowner by force. After completing a course at the university, he puts the estate in order in order to pay off his father's debts, that is, for Alekhine it is a matter of honor, a deeply moral task. His new life is alien and unpleasant to him: “I decided that I would not leave here and that I would work, I confess, not without some disgust.” The lifestyle does not allow Alekhine to visit the city often, to have many friends. His only close acquaintances are the Luganovich family. After some time, he realizes that he is in love with Luganovich's wife Anna Alekseevna and this love is mutual. Neither Alekhine nor Anna Alekseevna dare not only open up to each other - they hide from themselves a “forbidden feeling”. Alekhin cannot violate the happiness of her husband and children, does not consider himself worthy of such a woman. Anna Alekseevna also sacrifices her feelings for the sake of her family, for the sake of her lover's peace of mind. So the years pass And only saying goodbye forever, they confess their love to each other and understand, "how unnecessary, petty and deceptive was everything that ... interfered with love."

The moral problem of the story is the right to love. Chekhov put it in "The Lady with the Dog", in the story "About Love" he goes further. Before the heroes there are other questions than before Anna Sergeevna and Gurov. They do not dare to love, they drive it away from themselves in the name of moral principles, which are unshakable for them. These principles are really beautiful: do not build happiness on the misfortune of your neighbor, doubt yourself, sacrifice yourself for the sake of others ... But in Chekhov's world, love is always right, love is the need of the soul, its only life. And the situation in which Alekhin and Anna Alekseevna find themselves is hopeless, they face a task that has no solution.

What should a person do to save a living soul? Not wanting to hurt others, he will betray himself; he must either give up high morality, or give up his feelings, which fate gives him as a chance. After all, the compromise chosen by the heroes of “The Lady with the Dog” is also not a solution - it is the same dead end, the same hopelessness: “It was clear to both that the end was still far, far away and that the most difficult and difficult was just beginning.” Every hero of Chekhov who has fallen in love comes to this hopelessness: he sees everyday life with new eyes, the routine of habitual worries and conversations seems unnatural to him. The feeling that awakens the soul requires a different reality, and a person is already bound by life and he cannot escape without destroying the destinies of loved ones. Gurov is so horrified: “What wild customs, what faces! What senseless nights, what uninteresting, imperceptible days! A frantic game of cards, gluttony, drunkenness, constant talk all about one thing. Unnecessary deeds and conversations all about one thing grab the best part of the time, the best forces, and in the end there remains some kind of short, wingless life, some kind of nonsense, and you can’t leave and run away, as if you are sitting in a madhouse. In the light of this Chekhovian dilemma, the theme of happiness takes on a special meaning. Chekhov peers with horror at the faces of the lucky ones: Belikov, Startsev, Chimshi-Himalayan. Here are those who have found peace, who have managed to live joyfully in this world! Chekhov's heroes are always happy, inferior, spiritually flawed people: they are organic to this world. That is why the writer's favorite heroes "by definition" cannot be happy in this world, even the love that illuminated their lives is obviously doomed. Chekhov leaves us with these questions. Here are the lines from Chekhov's letter to A.S. Suvorin: “You are confusing two concepts: the solution of an issue and the correct formulation of the issue. Only the latter is obligatory for the artist.” The personal drama of Chekhov's heroes is one of the manifestations of the global conflict between living feeling and the entire established life form. The writer's heroes are hostages of the system of values ​​that was formed long before them, against their will. They are her prisoners. Unable to escape, they crave deliverance from the outside. Maybe that's why the philosopher L. Shestov called Chekhov "the killer of human hopes"?

Functions of an artistic detail-landscape in the story "Steppe"

At the end of the 19th century, stories and short stories became widespread in Russian literature, replacing the novels of Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy. Actively used the form of a short work and A.P. Chekhov. The limited scope of the narrative required a new approach to the word from the writer. In the fabric of the novel there was no place for multi-page descriptions, lengthy reasoning that reveals the author's position. In this regard, the choice of details, including the details of the landscape, which has not disappeared from the pages of even the smallest sketches of a mature Chekhov, is extremely important.

The author's attitude to the characters and the world around him, his thoughts and feelings are expressed through the selection of certain artistic details. They focus the reader's attention on what the writer thinks is most important or characteristic. Details are the smallest units that carry a significant ideological and emotional load. “The detail ... is designed to represent the depicted character, picture, action, experience in their originality, uniqueness. An expressive, happily found detail is evidence of the writer's skill, and the ability to notice and appreciate details is evidence of the culture, philological literacy of the reader ”rightly drawing attention to its great semantic and aesthetic significance, some artistic details become multi-valued symbols that have a psychological, social and philosophical meaning. Interior (fr. - internal) - an image of the interior decoration of a room. In works of fiction, this is one of the types of recreation of the subject environment surrounding the hero. Many writers used the characterological function of the interior, when each item bears the imprint of the personality of its owner.

A.P. Chekhov, master of capacious detail. Landscape (fr. - country, locality), one of the content and compositional elements of a work of art: a description of nature, more broadly - any open space of the outside world.

In Russian prose of the 19th-20th centuries, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, M.A. Sholokhov. Each of them is interesting for the originality of the author's manner, unique handwriting, the artistic world that he created on the pages of his works. In the literature, the principle of figurative parallelism is widespread, based on a contrasting comparison or likening of the internal state of a person to the life of nature. The “discovery” of nature is associated with the realization of a person as a particle of the Universe included in her life. The description of the landscape in this case creates an idea of ​​the state of mind of the characters. The psychological landscape correlates the phenomena of nature with the inner world of man.

E. Dobin reveals the peculiarities of Chekhov's manner of working with detail: “And in the landscape ... we meet a wide range of details that go beyond the boundaries of the landscape itself and enter the psychological sphere. The phenomena of nature are animated - a feature that permeates all fiction ... The novelty of Chekhov's descriptions of nature is primarily in the fact that he avoids elation, scope, "scale". Chekhov's descriptions of nature are rarely majestic. They are not characterized by beauty ... He liked Turgenev's descriptions of nature ... But, Chekhov believed, "I feel that we are already weaning from descriptions of this kind and that something else is needed." .

“Chekhov's landscape detail is closer to the viewer and to the ordinary course of life. It is tuned in unison with everyday life, and this gives it a new, unusually individualized flavor. "A streak of light, creeping up from behind, darted through the cart and horses." “The moon rose very purple and gloomy, as if sick.” “It was as if someone had struck a match in the sky ... someone walked on an iron roof.” “Softly burring, a brook murmured” ... “The green garden, still wet from dew, is all shining from the sun and seems happy.” “In a clear, starry sky, only two clouds ran ... they, alone, like a mother and child, ran after each other.” .

The landscape can be given through the perception of the character in the course of his movement.

Chekhov's story "The Steppe". Egorushka, a boy “about nine years old, with a face dark from a tan and wet with tears”, was sent to study in the city, at a gymnasium, “... and now the boy, not understanding where and why he is going”, feels himself “an extremely unhappy person and he wants to cry. He leaves the familiar places dear to him, past which the "hated cart" runs. The author shows a flickering landscape through the eyes of a child. Here is “a cozy green cemetery ... white crosses and monuments that are hiding in the greenery of cherry trees peeped out from behind the fence ...” The sun, which briefly looked out and caressed both Yegorushka and the landscape, changed everything around. “A wide bright yellow stripe” crawled where “the sky converges with the earth”, “near the mounds and the windmill, which from a distance looks like a little man waving his arms.” Under the rays of the sun, the steppe "smiled and sparkled with dew." “But a little time passed ... and the deceived steppe took on its dull July appearance.” The impersonal sentence "How stuffy and dull!" conveys both a bleak picture of nature under the scorching sun, and the state of mind of a boy deceived by his "mother" and his own sister, who "loved educated people and a noble society." It is impossible not to feel the aching feeling of loneliness that seized Yegorushka, who saw on the hill “a lonely poplar; who planted him and why he is here - God knows him. Chekhov's story "The Steppe" is a vivid example of a psychological landscape that excludes description for the sake of description; it is an example of the writer's knowledge of the secrets of a child's soul.

Description of the landscape can perform an even more complex function. It can explain a lot about the character of the hero. Pictures of the steppe nature pass through a number of Chekhov's works - from early prose to mature creativity - and, of course, take their origins in the depths of the writer's still childish and adolescent worldview. Views of the steppe world gradually grow in Chekhov with new semantic colors, the ways of their artistic embodiment become more and more diverse, while color and sound details often come to the fore, conveying the multidimensionality of the steppe space, its associative links with the historical past, the secrets of the human soul. Color-sound views acquire a comprehensive character, which is clearly observed in the perception of the narrator in the story "The Steppe": "Nothing was seen or heard, except for the steppe ...".

The association of the steppe world with the experience of youth, young forces also appears in the story "The Steppe" (1888), having an effect on the system of color and sound images.

In the exposition of the story, Yegorushka’s gaze, which contains the psychological features of the children’s worldview, sets the color dominants of the picture of the surrounding reality with an enlightening effect: “comfortable, greenish cemetery”, “white crosses”, “white sea” of flowering cherry trees ... In the initial image of the actually steppe landscape, the horizon of infinity, the steppe distance melts in a more complex color incarnation than in the story "Happiness": "the hill ... disappears into the purple distance." The image of the lilac distance of the steppe will turn out to be end-to-end in the story and will be displayed in changing spatial perspectives, in a dialectical combination of the transtemporal immobility of the steppe world and its unsteady variability: “the hills were still sinking in the lilac distance”, “the lilac distance ... swayed and rushed along with the sky”. This image melts in the story and in the prism of a childish, “naturalizing” perception of nature, as a result of which the impressionistic elusiveness of the color image is fancifully mixed with the everyday color of everyday life: “The distance was visible, as in the daytime, but its warm purple color, shaded by the evening haze, disappeared , and the whole steppe hid in the darkness, like the children of Moses Moiseich under a blanket.

In one of the initial paintings of dawn in the steppe, a dynamic landscape is built on the active interpenetration of colors, colors, light, temperature feelings. Color properties become the main method of depicting a specific type of steppe nature, which becomes here in a long perspective, in transitional tones (“tanned hills, brown-greenish, lilac in the distance”), with a predominance of a rich yellow and greenish color palette that captures the abundance of the steppe - and in “bright yellow carpet” of “stripes of wheat”, and in the “slender figure and greenish clothes” of poplar, and in the way “thick, lush sedge turned green”. Even the color micro-detail in the image of the seething life of the steppe (the "pink lining" of the grasshopper's wings) falls into the narrator's field of vision.

In a similar abundance of light-saturated colors of the steppe, the deep antonymism of the author's gaze is revealed. In this lush richness of color flowers, the relentless pulsation of vital forces, the feeling of the bottomlessness of the natural cosmos are phenomenally mixed with the experience of loneliness, inescapable "longing", "heat and steppe boredom" of existence tormented by its monotony.

The multidimensionality of the color design of landscapes in the story "The Steppe" is largely due to the tendency to subjectify the pictorial series, due to which the steppe world, its "incomprehensible distance", "pale green sky", individual objects, sounds melt into moving, changing outlines, which are completed by the power of imagination: “In everything you see and hear, the triumph of beauty, youth, the flowering of strength and a passionate thirst for life begin to seem.” The active presence of the perceiving "I" fills the image of the steppe landscape, in its color and light shades, with philosophical reflections and generalizations about the "incomprehensible sky and darkness, indifferent to the short life of a person."

The story develops a kind of poetics of "double" vision, in which the ordinary is refracted into the mysterious and transtemporal. A similar "double" vision allows Yegorushka to discover a hidden dimension in the color palette of the evening dawn, where "guardian angels, covering the horizon with their golden wings, were placed for the night." Noteworthy in this connection are Yegorushka's observations of the "double" vision of Vasya's driver, who saw the poetic even in the "brown desert steppe", which, in his perception, "is constantly full of life and content."

An unusual sphere of artistic contemplation in the story is the views of the night steppe, which is associated with the mood of Panteley's stories about folk life, "terrible and wonderful", as well as thunderstorms. Passed through a child's perception of a thunderstorm background, with the "magic light" of lightning, it acquires a fabulously breathtaking spectrum, which is transmitted in the expression of personifications: "The blackness in the sky opened its mouth and breathed white fire." In the coloring of the thunderstorm, a new perspective of seeing the animated steppe distance arises, which now “turned black ... blinked with a pale light, like for centuries”, in a generalizing perspective, the polar manifestations of natural existence are highlighted: “The clear sky bordered on darkness ...”. The picture of the agitated steppe nature is built here on the mutual enrichment of color, sound and olfactory details (“whistling” of the wind, “the smell of rain and wet earth”, “moonlight ... has become, as it were, dirtier”).

In the story “The Steppe”, this steppe distance, changing in its own color incarnations, acquires a special psychological meaning in the finale, indirectly associated with the inscrutableness of that “new, unknown life that was just beginning” for Yegorushka and which, it is no coincidence, emerges here in an interrogative modality: “What is will this life be?

In synergy with the color scheme of the steppe landscapes, a system of sound images and associations is formed in Chekhov's prose.

In the story “Steppe”, the sounds of the steppe are an endless abundance of psychological colors: “Old men rushed about with a joyful cry, gophers called to each other in the grass, lapwings sobbed far to the left ... creaky, monotonous music.” The steppe “music” captures a great perspective of the steppe space and conveys the dialectic of the major, filled with excited joy of being “chirping” and the inescapable steppe sadness of loneliness (“one lapwing sobbed somewhere not close”), melancholy and the drowsy state of nature: “Gently burr, the brook murmured."

For Egorushka, the steppe sound symphony in its general and particular manifestations becomes the subject of concentrated aesthetic perception, as, for example, in the case of a grasshopper, when “Egorushka caught a violinist in the grass, raised him in his fist to his ear and listened for a long time as he played on his own violin." Tireless listening to the sound of the steppe leads the narrator to a deeper sense of the aesthetic significance of sound details even in the sphere of everyday life, expands the associative range of his psychological observations: “On a hot day ... the splash of water and the loud breathing of a bathing person act on the ear like excellent music.”

The most important place in the system of sound images is occupied by a female song, the sound of which is a conjugation of the natural and the human, rhyming with the way "alarmed lapwings sobbed somewhere and complained about fate." The psychological background of this “viscous and mournful, like a cry” female song is deeply antonymous, in which the melancholy and drowsiness of the steppe worldview melt together with a passionate thirst for life. This long-drawn-out melody, filling the steppe space with its echo, absorbs the feeling of difficult personal and national destinies and marks a breakthrough into the supertemporal dimension (“it seemed that a hundred years had passed since the morning”), becomes in Yegorushka’s holistic perception, as a continuation of natural music, the embodiment invisible spiritual world: "... as if an invisible spirit was hovering over the steppe and singing ... it began to seem to him that it was grass singing."

In the detailing of steppe sounds - “cod, whistling, scratching, steppe basses” - the fullness of self-expression of all living things is achieved and, which is especially significant, the depth of the inner self-perception of nature is revealed. This is a small river, which, “quietly grumbled”, “as if ... imagined itself to be a powerful and stormy stream”, and grass, which “is not visible in the darkness of its own old age, a joyful, youthful chatter rises in it”, and the “dreary call” of the steppe , which sounds like "as if the steppe is aware that it is alone." As in the case of color views, here there is a subjectification of the picture of the July steppe, the interpenetration of different perceptions: Yegorushka, with his childlike direct listening to the music of the steppe; the narrator, with his multifaceted experience of communicating with the steppe world (“you go and feel ...”, “it’s great to remember and be sad ...”, “if you peer for a long time ...”, “otherwise you used to go ...”); hidden sense of nature. Lyrical colors paint not only color, sound types, but also the details of the smells of the steppe: "It smells of hay ... the smell is thick, sweet-sweet and gentle."

In the story, single sound types become the basis for a large-scale, deeply antonymous embodiment of the steppe “rumble” type, in which different melodies are combined together and express the general worldview of the steppe. On the one hand, this is a “cheerful rumble” imbued with a sense of the triumph of beauty, but on the other hand, through this satisfaction, the “dreary and hopeless call” of the steppe comes through more and more clearly, which is generated by a woeful intuition about natural “wealth ... not sung by anyone and not suitable for anyone” , about the smallness of man in the face of the "heroic", "sweeping" elements of nature. This existential longing of the soul for the infinite is refracted in bewildered, "fabulous thoughts." Yegorushka about the steppe distance: “Who rides on it? Who needs that kind of space? It is incomprehensible and strange ... ".

In terms of the sound design of the steppe world, a triune series is built in the story, based on the inseparability of the three levels of the embodiment of steppe music: “chirping” (impressing the inflorescence of single manifestations of the steppe) - “hum” (opening a generalized perspective of the vision of the existence of the steppe landscape) - “silence”, which filled with a sense of the cosmic abyss of the universe, the scale of eternity, absorbing the earthly and heavenly. The motif of the steppe silence was especially vividly expressed in the story in the philosophical depiction of the night sky landscape (“stars… the very incomprehensible sky and darkness… oppress the soul with their silence”), as well as in the symbolic form of the silence of a lonely grave in the steppe, the deep meaning of which, filling the surrounding steppe life, is comprehended in the lyrically sublime word of the narrator: “In a lonely grave there is something sad, dreamy and highly poetic ... She is silent, and in this silence one feels the presence of the soul of an unknown person lying under the cross ... And the steppe near the grave it seems sad, dull and thoughtful, the grass is sadder, and it seems that the blacksmiths scream more restrained ... ".

In Chekhov's prose, color and sound dominants play a significant role in the artistic embodiment of steppe landscapes. The bases of this figurative sphere were formed in the early Chekhov's work, and above all in the story "The Steppe", then they were enriched with new semantic facets in later stories. The color and sound forms imprinted the colorful gamut of steppe life, in its secret conjugation with the rhythms of individual-personal, folk and natural-cosmic existence. Objective accuracy is combined here with an impressionistic variety of elusive tones, colors, which are drawn in the interpenetration of different “points of view”, levels of perception, which certainly fits the works of the considered figurative and semantic series into the general context of the search for renewal of the artistic language at the turn of the century.

The story "The Steppe" was a synthesis of those ideas and artistic features that characterized the "new" Chekhov. The Steppe is connected with Chekhov's earlier works by separate themes. But if in previous works Chekhov, a patriotic writer, denounced the social vices of contemporary society, in The Steppe he does not limit himself to denunciation; he asserts directly, directly, his poetic thoughts about his native land, about its people. The organic fusion of themes and images given in The Steppe and reflecting the ideas of denunciation and affirmation characteristic of Chekhov became a kind of creative program implemented by the writer in subsequent works, which developed and deepened in various ways the artistic problematics that was concentrated in the ideological content of The Steppe. .

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1. The literary process at the end of the 20th century

2. Features of L. Ulitskaya's short prose

3. The originality of the artistic world in the stories of T. Tolstoy

4. The specifics of "women's prose"

Bibliography

1. Literary process at the endXXcentury

In the mid-80s of the 20th century, with the “perestroika” taking place in the country, the Soviet type of mentality collapsed,

the social basis of a universal understanding of reality collapsed. Undoubtedly, this was reflected in the literary process of the end of the century.

Along with the normative social realism that still existed, which simply “left” into mass culture: detective stories, serials - a direction where the artist is initially sure that he knows the truth and can build a model of the world that will show the way to a brighter future; along with postmodernism, which has already declared itself, with its mythologization of reality, self-regulating chaos, the search for a compromise between chaos and space (T. Tolstaya "Kys", V. Pelevin "Omon Ra", etc.); along with this, in the 90s a number of works were published that are based on the traditions of classical realism: A. Azolsky "Saboteur", L. Ulitskaya "Merry Funeral", etc. Then it became clear that the traditions of Russian realism of the XIX century, despite the crisis novel as the main genre of realism, not only did not die, but also enriched, referring to the experience of returned literature (V. Maksimov, A. Pristavkin, etc.). And this, in turn, indicates that attempts to undermine the traditional understanding and explanation of cause-and-effect relationships failed, because. realism can only work when it is possible to discover these causal relationships. In addition, post-realism began to explain the secret of the inner world of a person through the circumstances that form this psychology, he is looking for an explanation for the phenomenon of the human soul.

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But until now, the literature of the so-called “New Wave”, which appeared back in the 70s of the XX century, remains completely unexplored. This literature was very heterogeneous, and the authors were often united only by the chronology of the appearance of works and the general desire to search for new artistic forms. Among the works of the "New Wave" there were books that began to be called "women's prose": T. Tolstaya, V. Tokareva, L. Ulitskaya, L. Petrushevskaya, G. Shcherbakova and others. And there is still no unanimous decision on the issue of the creative method these writers. After all, the absence of “established taboos” and freedom of speech enable writers of different directions to express their own without restrictions. artistic position, and the aesthetic search for oneself became the slogan of artistic creativity. Perhaps this explains the lack of a unified point of view on the work of the New Wave writers. So, for example, if many literary critics define T. Tolstaya as a postmodernist writer, then with L. Ulitskaya the situation is more complicated. Some see her as a representative of "women's prose", others consider her as a "postmodernist", and still others as a representative of modern neo-sentimentalism. There are disputes around these names, mutually exclusive judgments are heard not only about the creative method, but also about the meaning of the allusions, the role of the author, the types of characters, the choice of plots, the manner of writing. All this testifies to the complexity and ambiguity of the perception of the artistic text of the representatives of "women's prose".

2. Features of L. Ulitskaya's short prose

One of the brightest representatives of modern literature is L. Ulitskaya. In her works, she created a special, in many ways unique artistic world.

First, we note that many of her stories are not about today, but about the beginning of the century, the war or the post-war period.

Secondly, the author immerses the reader in the simple and at the same time oppressed life of ordinary people, in their problems and experiences. After reading the stories of Ulitskaya, a heavy feeling of pity for the heroes and at the same time hopelessness arises. But always behind this, Ulitskaya hides problems that concern everyone and everyone: the problems of human relationships.

So, for example, in the stories “The Chosen People” and “The Daughter of Bukhara”, with the help of very insignificant private stories, a huge layer of life is raised, which for the most part we not only do not know, but do not want to know, we are running from it. These are stories about the disabled, the poor and beggars (“The Chosen People”), about people suffering from Down syndrome (“Daughter of Bukhara”).

Not a single person, according to L. Ulitskaya, is born for suffering and pain. Everyone deserves to be happy, healthy and prosperous. But even the happiest person can understand the tragedy of life: pain, fear, loneliness, illness, suffering, death. Not everyone humbly accepts their fate. And the highest wisdom, according to the author, consists precisely in learning to believe, to be able to reconcile with the inevitable, not to envy someone else's happiness, but to be happy yourself, no matter what. And only those who understand and accept their destiny can find happiness. That is why, when Down syndrome patients Mila and Grigory in the story "The Daughter of Bukhara" walked down the street, holding hands, "both in ugly round glasses given to them for free," everyone turned to them. Many pointed their fingers at them and even laughed. But they did not notice someone else's interest. After all, even now there are many healthy, full-fledged people who could only envy their happiness!

That is why the wretched, beggars, beggars at Ulitskaya are the chosen people. Because they are wiser. Because they knew true happiness: happiness is not in wealth, not in beauty, but in humility, in gratitude for life, whatever it may be, in the awareness of their place in life, which everyone has - Katya, the heroine, comes to this conclusion story "The Chosen People" It is simply necessary to understand that those who are offended by God suffer more, so that it would be easier for the rest.

A distinctive feature of L. Ulitskaya's prose is a calm manner of narration, and the main advantage of her work is the author's attitude towards her characters: Ulitskaya captivates not just with interest in the human person, but with compassion for her, which is not often seen in modern literature.

Thus, in the stories of L. Ulitskaya there is always an exit to the philosophical and religious level of understanding life. Her characters, as a rule - "little people", old people, sick, poor, outcast people - are guided by the principle: never ask "for what", ask "for what". According to Ulitskaya, everything that happens, even the most unfair, painful, if it is correctly perceived, is certainly aimed at opening a new vision in a person. This idea is at the heart of her stories.

3. The originality of the artistic world in the stories of T. Tolstoy

One of the brightest representatives of "women's prose" can be called T. Tolstaya. As noted above, the writer herself identifies herself as a postmodernist writer. It is important for her that postmodernism has revived "verbal artistry", a close attention to style and language.

INTRODUCTION

1. The problem of time and space in philosophy

1.2 Space

1.3 Time in a literary work

2. Time in the work of S.D. Krzhizhanovsky

2.1 "I live in the distant future"

2.2 Space in the language of Krzhizhanovsky's prose

2.3 Time in the language and prose of Krzhizhanovsky

2.4 "Chronotope Man" in Krzhizhanovsky's stories "Memories of the Future" and "The Return of Munchausen"

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Time belongs to the categories most actively developed in science, philosophy, and artistic culture. A person does not think of himself outside of time, except for the states of consciousness described in religious literature, when the counting of minutes stops and contact with God acquires absolute significance. Literature as the art of the word models its own worlds, which are built according to the coordinates given by objective reality - spatial and temporal. Writers form their fictional worlds based on personal concepts of the meaning of human life, vision of the world, understanding of truth, goodness, eternity...

S. Krzhizhanovsky - unknown to a wide circle of readers, whose work is an interesting stage in the development of world literature, presents us his ideas about man and Time.

Goal of the work.

Explore the artistic features of the prose of Sigismund Dominikovich Krzhizhanovsky. Find the connection between the concepts of time-space, man-hero.

Task.

On the example of the stories "Memories of the Future" and "The Return of Munchausen" by S.D. Krzhizhanovsky, find the main philosophical views on the topic of the problem of the concept of time and space in human self-consciousness, and also trace the features of the artistic embodiment of this topic in the texts of works.

Relevance.

From ancient times to the present day, one of the most urgent questions of mankind is "What is Time?", "What is a person in this time?", "Is it possible to control time?". Despite the fundamental nature of this issue, the concept of time is widely used in the film industry, literature, art and other areas of our daily life, it becomes a familiar paradoxical sphere, which not everyone manages to penetrate.

Significance in practice.

It is possible to use the materials of this research work when studying the course of Russian literature, the course of philosophy and cultural studies, as well as for preparing for various seminars, etc.

1. Time problemand spacein philosophy

Space and time were considered either as objective characteristics of being, or as subjective concepts that characterize our way of perceiving the world. Two points of view on the relation of space and time to matter are considered to be the main ones: the substantial concept (Democritus, Plato), the relational concept (Aristotle).

The substantial theory, according to which space is the order of mutual arrangement of bodies, and time is the order of the sequence of successive events, was dominant until the end of the 19th century.

The relational theory of space and time received confirmation of its correctness in the general theory of relativity. Space and time express certain ways of coordinating material objects and their states. Modern scientists are inclined to the idea of ​​a single and objective space-time continuum. The universality of space and time means that they exist, penetrating all the structures of the universe.

Despite the fact that time and space have been studied by mankind for 2,500 years, we cannot say today that we know these categories better than before. We invented the clock, we measure space in the units of measurement that have become familiar, but still we don’t know the essence ...

The paradox and the first difficulty lies in the fact that the categories of time and space belong to the fundamental, that is, indefinable categories, and they are usually used as if they had an obvious meaning.

1.1 Time

The first and old as the world question: "What is Time?". The literature devoted to this problem is immense: starting with the works of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus and other Neoplatonists, or, say, from ancient Indian ("Moksha-dharma") or ancient Chinese ("I-ching") treatises, through innovative, almost phenomenological the spirit and method of reflection of Augustine in the XI book "Confessionum" up to studies on the nature of time by Kant, Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Bakhtin, at the other extreme - Vernadsky, the founder of chronosophy D. T. Fraser, I. Prigogine.

We will forever desire a solution and, following St. Augustine, we will be able to say: "What is time? Until I am asked, I know it. And if they ask, I am lost." From space, Jorge Luis Borges believed, we can abstract, but not from time. Henri Bergson said that time is the main problem of metaphysics. By solving this problem, humanity will solve all riddles.

At the same time, the search for objective coordinates expressed in the language system - the pronouns "where", "when" - can be objectified based on the definition of a specific level, a kind of axiom that allows one to build more or less clear contours of concepts.

We are still, wrote Borges, experiencing the embarrassment that struck Heraclitus: no one will enter the same river twice ... The waters of the river are fluid, we ourselves are like a river - also fluid. Time passes. The invention of the concept of eternity allows us to reason in terms of space - eternity contains (place) time. But time is not subject to static. Plato said that time is a fluid image of eternity. The river metaphor is inevitable if we are talking about time. The gift of eternity, eternity allows us to live in sequences. Duration, one-dimensionality, irreversibility, uniformity are properties of time. One of the brightest spatial images of time is an hourglass:

Sand grains run to infinity

The same, no matter how much they flow:

So for your joy and sorrow

An untouched eternity rests.

H.L. Borges

1.2 Space

Speaking of time, it is worth saying a few words about space. The human mind cannot operate with the thought of time without reference to the category of space: in language, time exists for us in a vocabulary that traditionally belongs to spatial categories. Let's remember the image of the river.

Instruments for measuring time underlined o-spatial - hourglass, clepsydra, mechanical watch. Either the flow of one into another, or a journey around the circle of the dial ... " But something great and elusive seems to be a topos - that is, a place-space" (Aristotle).

Martin Heidegger encourages us to listen to language. What is he talking about in the word "space"? Prostration speaks in this word. It means: something spacious, free from obstacles. Space brings with it freedom, openness for human settlement and habitation. The extension of space brings with it terrain ready for this or that habitation. The philosopher denies emptiness as nothing. Emptiness is a released, collected space, ready to release something. Again, language suggests the direction of thought...

1.3 INremme in a literary work

Dividing the types of art into spatial and temporal, Mikhail Bakhtin summarized many years of experience in the perception of masterpieces. But, with all the evidence, why is literature and music denied spatial expression? Even in the pre-literate era, the word stretched over space to at the same time turn out to be an arrow of time shot from the bow of a folklore text (existing in an oral (!) form).

Take, for example, fairy tales. Roads, eternal crossroads, the time from birth to marriage or a feat passes instantly - "how long, how short." The binary world of folklore texts is also growing in literature, but the author who has declared himself, who has opened himself, needs something immeasurably more. The temptation to test oneself in the role of a demiurge is great, and the writer, sculpting the first line, is already building his "coordinate system".

In fact, art projects a world of imaginary realities (or observable, but subjected to the author's subjective interpretation), built in such a way as to focus people's attention on those moral, ethical, aesthetic and other problems that are actualized in this work. At the same time, the problems raised are presented in a vivid, emotionally colored form, awakening the reader’s response emotional experience, his conscious or hidden correlation of himself with the subject of experience, and with all this, they “educate” him on this example, cause in him the desire to appropriate the experience of someone else. understanding.

Unlike other forms of cognition of the world, which analytically divide it into separate cognizable fragments, segments and objects, art in general, and literature in particular, strives for cognition and figurative display of reality in its holistic, synthesized form through the creation of its complex models. The Russian philosopher and literary critic MM Bakhtin noted that the author cannot become one of the images of the novel, because he is "creative nature", and not "created nature". The author must maintain his position of outsideness and the excess of vision and understanding associated with it. A metaphor for a puppeteer whose puppets come to life, like Pinocchio, and enter into a lively dialogue with the author...

The approach to the study of spatio-temporal structures in literary criticism is formed in the context of the development of scientific thinking in the twentieth century. The psychology of personality can no longer do without the study of spatio-temporal relations. The term itself " CHRONOTOP" - was introduced into the scientific language by A. Ukhtomsky, later this synthetic term was used by M. Bakhtin: "We will call the essential interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature, the chronotope ... The chronotope is a formally meaningful category of literature." M. M. Bakhtin, under the influence of Einstein’s ideas, introduced this term (time-space) into literary criticism, it was he who first showed that the chronotopes of different authors and different genres differ significantly from each other.

The interaction of two processes (double activity: the text and the reader) allows the reader, on the basis of the narrative structure of the text, to form a model of his own being, the signifier of which is a certain deep question of human existence, and the signifier is the message itself (plot, narration) in its artistic originality.

This interaction allows the text to be realized as a carrier of information, i.e. to be read, meaningful and alive, to realize the timeless essence of the book. According to Gadamer, understanding does not primarily mean identification, but the ability to put oneself in one's place. another and examine yourself from there. Thus, the reader's consciousness appropriates the worlds created by the author. The concept of time, realized by literary works, serves the understanding of being.

The term "concept" itself goes back to the Latin conception - the ability to understand. In Russian, the word "concept" is used primarily in the sense of the concept. Philosophers often define concept and concept as the concept of an absent object of perception. .

2. Time in creativitye S. Krzhizhanovsky

2.1 " I live in the distant future"

The writer, whose work will be discussed, was "simultaneously both the subject and the object of the irrational "minus" space: he created according to some of his own" internal "matrices, in which the" natural "psycho-mental is almost inseparable from the" cultural ", but it, too, this "minus"-space, created it in its own way. So notes the isomorphism of the creator and the creation of Krzhizhanovsky V. Toporov.

The name of Krzhizhanovsky, a writer who is now rightfully put on the same level as Kafka and Borges, Bulgakov and Platonov, became known to the general reader mainly due to the creative efforts of V. Perelmuter, whose introductory articles precede the collections of the writer's works. The researcher writes: “Krzhizhanovsky knew that Russian literature had come at the wrong time: “I live in the margins of a book called Society. He also knew that the "mistake of fate" is not hopeless: "I live in such a distant future that my future seems to me the past, obsolete and decayed"

Throughout his life, the writer tried to publish a book, but all attempts were unsuccessful. Krzhizhanovsky was constantly in a "reader's vacuum"; during the life of the author, the reader did not see his books. True, some of the most well-read editors still knew the name of the author. But the circle of these persons was extremely narrow, and the writer could not expand it.

One of the distinguishing features of Krzhizhanovsky's prose is the pivotal meaning of the plot, the actual plot technique, genetically related to the "poetics of the title" invented by him. According to the writer, "the world is a plot. It is impossible to create a plot without a plot." The words constructed by the writer to create the effect of a special reality (“nety”, “est”, “loktizm”, “Zdesevsk”) continue the tradition of spatial and linguistic experimentation (V. Podoroga) in Russian literature, with all this, the texts of Krzhizhanovsky’s works are not fully correlated with organized literary and artistic directions.

The phenomenon of Krzhizhanovsky's prose is primarily linguistic. S. Krzhizhanovsky builds a special moral and ethical horizontal, along (deeper) which he settles pseudo-real and obviously fictional loci. Krzhizhanovsky consistently implements the didacticism inherent in Russian literature, for this the writer draws on a whole "arsenal" of playful "potentials" of the language, which he deliberately uses indirectly.

Metaphors and comparisons used in the texts of his works are mainly intellectual and associative, often "played" on the grammatical deformation of the word, its instantaneous transformation, for example, from a noun into a verb and vice versa (short story "Stumps"). Chess coordinates, graphic metaphors of the Chinese book of changes, missing syllables become a kind of "talking" intervals in discursive stream. The writer's artistic system occupies a special place both in a single period of Russian literature - the 20-30s - and in the general historical and literary context of Russian literature.

2.2 Space in the language of Krzhizhanovsky's prose

The world modeled by the writer has spatio-temporal coordinates constantly shifting to the moral realm. The writer introduces us, indeed, into a strange world. A world that can surprise both the narrator himself and, of course, the reader.

And in fact, at first the narrator is surprised at a very mysterious stranger, ridiculously comparing (!) His pocket watch against a painted (that is, clearly not real!) dial on the sign of a watch store, then he, the narrator, began to be perplexed about the very fact of existence in the city of immense a huge number of such painted clocks ("Crack Collector"). Moreover, the most important oddity does not escape the narrator's eye: the arrows on many of them for some reason "show" the same time - twenty-seven minutes past one. These dials have their own secret, yet inaccessible to the understanding of the narrator and the reader, the meaning.

The story is built on the principle of a kind of "matryoshka": the narration is inserted into another narration. The personal narrator, on behalf of whom the story is being told, a writer by profession, reads to the assembled friends his fairy tale "The Crack Collector" - about a strange collector who was interested only in all the cracks possible in this world that furrowed the surface of stones, boards, stoves, furniture and other material objects. These gaps are evidence of the steadily impending aging, the death of things. The world, alas, is fragile as long as there are insidious gaps prone to spread and growth.

And it is they, exciting and ubiquitous, that are tearing our world apart, bringing space into a state of imbalance, utter destruction.

Space itself lends itself to easy changes even on the part of a person - we can easily move objects in a room, see and analyze a new room for us, freely navigate in this reality for us ... We are accustomed from birth to the fact that space is organized, that it is divided. Transformations of space are due to the desire of a person to surround himself with only the necessary, functional and convenient.

As noted in E. Fedoseyeva’s study of the game component in S. Krzhizhanovsky’s prose, the sense of proportion often betrays us and we find ourselves either in a rarefied expanse of solitudes rotating on non-intersecting orbits, or in the crowded real world of Pushkin’s undertaker, where things lose their “realness” and space becomes hostile to man. Every new day we travel in space, not noticing the matter that permeates this degree of reality. Space is just an outer shell of a stronger energy. And the apparent homogeneity of reality is easily transformed and rebuilt into an inhomogeneous viscous system of coordinate dependencies. Coordinates of time and space...

2. 3 Time in the language of Krzhizhanovsky's prose

Time is much more persistent than space. A thin second hand pushes the entire array of life on and on. To resist her is the same as to die. The thrust of space is much weaker. The space endures the existence of soft armchairs, inviting to immobility, night shoes, gait with a flare. ... Time is sanguine, space is phlegmatic; time does not squat for a fraction of a second, it lives on the move, while space - as it is usually described - "lay down" behind a horizontal bump ... / "Salyr - Gul" /

Time and space appear in Krzhizhanovsky as subjects of action. The importance of both is undeniable. But can we influence time as easily as we can influence space? Time organizes us for itself. With the onset of night, we are used to going to bed, but the night does not come at the snap of our fingers. Experiments on seven good Fridays in Max Steerer's week were unsuccessful. Rather, time is accustomed to clicking left and right, transforming a person's life in accordance with some arbitrary periods.

Space, for the most part, is real, material. It is real and visible. Time is intangible, it runs ahead of us, a person cannot overtake it. Space and time appear in Krzhizhanovsky as individual psychotypes. Time is strong and mobile. Given Krzhizhanovsky's reference to the psychological type, time is socially adapted to the greatest extent.

In the duel "time - man", of course, time has the greatest power, however, a certain potential is also provided to man, allowing him to plan a fight against invincible time. In most of Krzhizhanovsky's texts, there is a clear predominance of interaction (struggle) with time as a subject (subjects).

And just here a new variable adjoins the time-space link, a new factor that can possibly defeat the established opinion about the invincibility of time as the fundamental factor of being, and space - the outer shield of this matter.

2. 4 " Hman - Chronotope" in the stories of S.D. Krzhizhanovsky " Memories of the futureeat" And" Return of Munchausen"

For Krzhizhanovsky, the plot engine in "Memories of the Future" is Stehrer's invention of the Time Machine, as a kind of non-material device that allows, through mechanical manipulations, to achieve direct interaction (duel, war) with time. "We need space in order to construct time, and thus determine the latter by means of the former." (Kant. Treatises and letters - M: 1980 - p. 629). "I'm not interested in arithmetic, but in the algebra of life," wrote Krzhizhanovsky.

The writer considered his works to closely convey reality. Much of his stories are problematic. These are personified thought processes carried out by actors. The protagonist in "Memories of the Future" is deprived of bright personal characteristics: there is no portrait characteristic, there is no social circle, contacts with people are minimized. The only character who awakens human feelings in Shterer is a roommate in a boarding house, a sick, slowly fading Ihil Tapchan.

To the mind of the researcher of time, the frail Jewish boy from Gomel seemed to be a vessel, giving a high leakage of time, rapidly sinking to the bottom, a mechanism with a disturbed regulator status, unduly quickly releasing the spiral winding.

Defying time, Stehrer finds himself outside the scope of generally accepted morality: he does not maintain contact with his father, as soon as he plunges into work on the creation of a machine, he enters into a relationship with a woman only when he needs financial assistance - again, to develop an invention.

You see, it's not about pleasing people. But in attacking time, hitting and overturning it. Shooting at a shooting range is not yet a war. And then, in my problem, as in music: an error of five tones gives less dissonance than an error of a semitone.

It should be noted that Krzhizhanovsky uses a third-personal form of narration - from the position of an omniscient author. The author's consciousness distances itself in relation to the problems solved by the characters. In "Memories of the Future" the narrator even uses a kind of "adapter" - a biographical source (Sterer's biography written by Iosif Stynsky).

Reliability is emphasized by the use of documentary evidence of the hero himself (Ikha's diary, Shterer's manuscript "Memories of the Future"). The material of the manuscript itself is a direct evidence of the content of the future tense - a kind of phantom, Steerer does not tell anything to those who have gathered to listen about the future society - there is no physical opportunity to describe what he saw using speech. The hero is partly equated with TIME, ceases to exist for the world of people and dissolves in time.

The time of Krzhizhanovsky is not the frozen time of Newtonian physics and only partly abstract time of Kant. In Krzhizhanovsky's story, the category of time is given in Einstein's dynamic coordinates, and time itself is considered as a phenomenon of human consciousness. The multiplicity of time is the idea that unites the philosophy of Einstein and the work of Krzhizhanovsky. Time = Life = Consciousness - this is Krzhizhanovsky's formula for time. Thus, the concept of time is inextricably linked with the self-consciousness of the human person.

Krzhizhanovsky uses the cultural experience of mankind for new scenarios of his ideas. Using the mundane, mundane as a foundation, which is adjacent to the existential and real mystical breakthrough - this is the writer's formula for success. His attention could not bypass the figure of Munchausen, firmly entrenched in the literary world. And in "The Return of Munchausen" the comicality of human existence is manifested, where fiction is equated with reality.

A certain balance is being created, where Baron Hieronymus von Munchausen is already acting as a ballast. This character is the peak for understanding the diffusion of time and space in a person, creating a new dual pseudo-reality that occurred through a "sick" consciousness and an indescribable fantasy. It was Baron Hieronemus von Munchausen - the character who synchronized with time as much as possible.

Probably, many of us in childhood read the fairy tale "The Return of Munchausen". In it we see those fables, that fantasy that even a child could figure out. The flight on the core, the rescue from the swamp, the horse tied to the weather vane - this is all just fiction. At the same time, in the work of Krzhizhanovsky, we relate to this same fiction, this rather sick fantasy, already through a philosophical context, through viewing the truth behind the lie given by the writer.

The spatial representation of the world in "The Return of Munchausen" is represented by alternating changes of places and action scenes. The baron's constant trips to one country or another create the effect of Munchausen's presence everywhere and at once. And apparently it is! Baron, could freely travel half the world in just a couple of days, collect everything at once. It looks like he was driven by the wind. The flight of smoke can only be compared with it ..

The word "smoke" and its various lexical forms in the work of SD Krzhizhanovsky "The Return of Munchausen" occurs 40 times. The word fog - 14 times. The image, the model of Smoke is the dominant feature in the work. After all, if the clock is a symbol of time, being is a tonic, then only the connection of Smoke, as an "instant", second phenomenon, can speak of the value of a unit of time. Fog is a veil of uncertainty both of the baron himself and of the "time" where he exists.

SMOKE - a volatile substance that is released during the combustion of the body; the flying remnants of a combustible body, when it decomposes in air, by fire. (Dal's Dictionary)

Indeed, the main character is like smoke. He, in constant "connection with time" becomes stunted, burns out from the inside, dies from every new moment, despite his age.

"... the face of Munchausen: unshaven cheeks retracted, the Adam's apple broke through a line with a sharp triangle, necks, from under the convulsive stroke of the eyebrows looked the centuries that had fallen to the bottom of the eye sockets; the hand, embracing the prickly knee, fell out of the sleeve of the dressing gown from a shriveled, shriveled sheet, dressed in a network of veined bones ; the moonstone on the index finger lost its game and went out ... "

Sad picture. The once famous, "living" and "inanimate" Baron Munchausen "extinguished". Now for him there is neither the meaning of life, nor the desire for fantasy.

But the life of the heroes of the works is constantly influenced by a very important aspect of human existence - Time. And along with the study of heroes, the question of the manifestation of time, as a special hero of both works, in space is very interesting.

Krzhizhanovsky in "Memories of the Future" represents the space of "Russia" and in the example of each individual "point" within the country, the influence of time on the "evenness" of the course of time is shown. The hero formulates the idea of ​​a “gap” of time, when cataclysms and revolutions occur during the divergence of the past and the present…

In this work, the writer presents us with a completely personal utopia, in which the solution of the formulas for victory over time enables a person to create "his own reality".

All this, as well as the "war of time" allows the hero to join this battle and find answers to all his questions in it. The surname Shterer (from German stein - stand, sterbe - die) gives a dynamic coloring to the hero, as "dying" inside himself, stopping time. Death "haunts" the hero on his heels, gradually destroying both the consciousness of Shterer and those close to him. With the death of Iha, Max "crosses" the line of "waiting" and begins active actions to defeat time. The name Maximilian (from Latin maximum - the greatest) gives confidence even before the completion of the work that we will learn the maximum about time and get even more questions about it.

Maximilian takes revenge on time, and time "attacks" in response with his dexterity, speed ... He is not connected with society, goes to where there is a worthy opponent - TIME ... Stehrer's alter ego - death, read in the hero's surname, there is a certain assemblage point indicating the space of TIME, which is not contained by human consciousness, as pure energy, absolute substance.

As we know, the baron lived all his life in illusions and legends, being the author of these ... Merdace veritas (from lies - truth) - this is Munchausen's motto. This is not even his position in life ... This is his job! A diplomat whose truth and falsehood penetrate each other irrevocably. The diffusion of truth and falsehood makes readers, like the German poet Weiding, ask themselves the question: "Is Baron Hieronymus von Munchausen himself not a new invention of Baron Hieronymus von Munchausen???". It seems to be a paradox, but people cannot do what the most venerable baron demonstrated to us. His trick with the book makes you admire and fear at the same time. Is time and space so easy to overcome? Is the key nearby? I want to find him, but then what?

End of the world? Ruin? Destruction? Further, what S.D. Krzhizhanovsky "saw" in "Memories of the Future" - emptiness, discharge of individual days and years ... The Baron understood the essence of "this key", which he carried with him in his pocket, and, not wanting to stay, goes to pages of books, to the "highest security point".

This was not the end of my acquaintance with the scientific and artistic world of Moscow... I visited a modest collector who collects cracks, attended the grand meeting of the "Association for the Study of Last Year's Snow"...

In the context of The Return of Munchausen, this episode gives a new idea. Isn't Krzhizhanovsky himself lying to us? And immediately we return to the sacred words of Hieronymus von Munchausen - merdace veritas.

Confession to a person with whom both opinions and possibilities diverge is a strange step. Apparently the baron is tired of the "mouse running around", he wants to retire, to find himself in the "truth". Now "Lie" and "Truth" change places - the tandem of dominance of the Lie over the truth has collapsed.

... Could I think that I would someday confess, tell myself, like an old whore in the bars of the confessional, let the truth into my tongue. You know, as a child, my favorite book was your German collection of miracles and legends, which the Middle Ages attributed to a certain Saint Nobody ...

In the future, Munchausen is waiting for an even greater test of "fire". A person who despises the ill-fated "length-width-height", feeling the thread of time, living in step with it on the hands of the clock, becomes a condemned slave ... A slave of his own fantasy fruit ... A slave of his "Work", enclosed on the pages of an old book ...

Here under the morocco cover

waiting for the judgment of the living, flattened in two dimensions

peace disturber measures

Baron Hieronymus von Munchausen.

This man, like a true fighter,

never deviated from the truth.

all his life he fenced against her,

parrying facts with fantasies, -

and when, in response to blows,

made a decisive attack -

I testify - the Truth itself

avoided the person.

For his soul, pray to Saint Nobody.

Man is not just a body. The alter ego of oneself constantly influences us, regardless of desire. And here is the paradox - we can "bite ourselves on the elbow", "see our back". But sometimes it is the Second Self that becomes the First Self. And then Eastern wisdom is recalled: "It is better to expect an enemy to strike from the front than a friend from behind."

... You can not turn to face your "I" without showing your back to your "not-I". And of course, I wouldn't be Munchausen if I thought about looking for Moscow... in Moscow. It is clear that by accepting the "USSR" task, I thereby received a moral visa to all countries of the world, except for the USSR ... and built my own MSSR ...

Internal non-existence and loss of time, loss of human essence leads the baron to the only right way out - to leave this world, not his world, and go to the pages of books, where he can continue his careless existence, waiting for a new MSSR, a new smoke in his head, a new turning the hands on the dial...

Sigismund Krzhizhanovsky begins to double the reality given to us. And he does this through interspersing the mental into the material. The essence is simple - the topography of the world doubles in the labyrinth of thinking. Remain real and saber.

And from here the usual understanding of the word FALSE goes back many points. When reading a text, there is not so much a change of concepts as a reassessment of the values ​​of both the author and the reader.

The refraction that is created by the baron sets in motion the mechanism of temporal-spatial identification. Now you will never accurately understand the mixture of man-time-space. Perhaps it is impossible for anyone to make the world for himself so skillfully ... No one normal.

Refraction, (astron.), deviation from the original direction of the beam of light coming from the luminary, when it penetrates into the earth's atmosphere, as a result of which the luminary seems to be higher than its actual position ...

Weeding - the only writer who had the "highest quota of access" to Munchausen's mind, to his thoughts, his actions - freely exercised power over the baron. How did he do it? - everything is simple! He was the creator of the baron. But in reality, the creation of a pseudo-ego, which, fixated on itself, will continue to evolve into new pseudo-egos, leads to only one inevitable finale - complete destruction!

At the end of both stories we see a terrifying picture. The Baron creates his last miracle, which is a displacement of the time-spatial framework of the world. The dissolution of Munchausen will subsequently lead Unding into a void, a rarefied time. Losing yourself in this space-time. A picture similar to Shterer from the story "Memories of the Future". Time is an all-consuming machine, but only a few come into direct combat with this adversary.

The systematic nature of creating a script for a work, vision of the beginning and end by 100% by the author - this is the hallmark of SD Krzhizhanovsky's prose.

The reverse turn of characters in space, the convergence from the races on the highway with a stronger opponent in advance is the last chance to stay alive in the game over time.

Sigismund Dominikovich brings the reader to the realization of the particular, authenticity of human life. He easily puts man - time - space on one level. He equates them and creates a new artistic being - "man-space-time".

Conclusion“You can’t get used to life if there is unlife behind, a gap in being ... Time itself was going towards me, then here is the real, astronomical and general civil, to which, like compass needles to the pole, the hands of our clocks are stretched. Our speeds hit each other, we foreheads collided, the time machine and it's time, a bright glare in a thousand suns blinded my eyes ... My car died on the way. Burns on the fingers and across the frontal bone are the only trace left by it in space "(" Memories of the Future "). Based on of our research, we can confidently identify some of the main features of Krzhizhanovsky's prose. plot technique, genetically related to the "poetics of the title" invented by him; We also see another phenomenon of Krzhizhanovsky's prose - linguistic. spatio-linguistic experiment. Displacement of spatio-temporal realities allows you to see the world through the prism of the decomposition of reality into single segments, painted in a mental color palette. Infusion of time-space into a human model using the examples of Stehrer and, especially, Munchausen creates a personal theory of the writer about the existence of a united space-time model of the four-dimensional dimension, in which a person should become the control link. The philosophy of "I", which arose in the early 19th century, caused the first scientific version of the philology of "I". A hundred years later, "I" philosophy and "I" philology again reveal their relevance (though already in the "I" and "other") in the works of M. Bakhtin and other philosophers. This circle with full confidence can include the name of Sigismund Krzhizhanovsky, who attracted the "love of space", "brought the call of the future closer. And the following words can become the visiting card of the writer: Sigismund Dominikovich Krzhizhanovsky Supply of fantasies and sensations. List of used literaturecheers 1. Bart P. S/Z.-M., 19942. Bakhtin M.M. Under the mask - M., 19963. Borges Jorge Luis Works in three volumes. Volume I, Volume II. - Riga: Polaris, 19944. Brudny A.A. Psychological hermeneutics. - M., 19985. Dymarsky M.Ya. Problems of text formation and artistic text (based on Russian prose of the 19th - 20th centuries). 2nd edition. - M., 20016. Krzhizhanovsky S.D. The play and its title // RGALI7. Krzhizhanovsky S.D. Tales for geeks. - M., 19918. Krzhizhanovsky S.D. Collected works in five volumes. Volume I, II, III, IV - St. Petersburg// Symposium, 20019. Losev A.F. From early works. dialectic of myth. - M., 199010. Malinov A., Seregin S. Reasoning about the space and time of the scene / / Metaphysical research. Issue 4. Culture. Almanac of the Laboratory for Metaphysical Research at the Faculty of Philosophy of St. Petersburg State University, 1997. C. 111-12111. Nancy Jean-Luc. corpus. - M, 199912. Ortega y Gasset H. Time, distance and form in the art of Proust13. Podoroga V. Expression and meaning. M., 199514. Self-awareness of European culture of the XX century: thinkers and writers of the West in place of culture in modern society. - M., 199115. Tvardovsky K. Lecture at Lviv University on November 15, 189516. Text: aspects of the study of semantics, pragmatics and poetics / Collection of articles. - M., 200117. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, edited by D.N. Ushakov18. Toporov V.N. Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image: Studies in the field of mythopoetic: Selected works. - M., 199519. Tyupa V.I. Artistic analytics. - M., 200120. Philosophical dictionary. / Ed. I.T. Frolova. - 6th ed. - M., 199121. Heidegger Martin. Being and time. M., "Republic", 199322. Shklovsky V.B. On the theory of prose. - M., 1983

Continuing to write short stories and novellas, in 1855 Turgenev published the novel Rudin, followed by the novels The Noble Nest (1858), The Eve (1860) and Fathers and Sons (1862) with enviable frequency.

In Soviet scientific and educational publications, as a rule, emphasis was placed on those socio-historical realities appearing in these novels (serfdom, tsarism, revolutionary democrats, etc.), which were topical for Turgenev’s contemporaries and in many ways determined the sharpness of their perception of each of his “fresh” works (critic N.A. Dobrolyubov even believed that Turgenev had a special socio-historical intuition and was able to foresee the emergence of new real life types in Russia; however, one can conclude something opposite - that Turgenev voluntarily or involuntarily provoked the emergence of such life types from his prose, as young people began to imitate his heroes).

A similar approach to Turgenev's prose from its socio-historical side, associated with the official priority attitude of the Soviet era to literature as a form of ideology, inertially flourishes to this day in high school, but is hardly the only true one (and in general hardly contributes to aesthetic perception and understanding of literature). If the artistic significance of Turgenev's works were determined by those long-gone social conflicts that were refracted in their plots, then these works would also hardly have retained a genuine interest for the modern reader. Meanwhile, in Turgenev's stories, short stories and novels, something else is invariably present: the "eternal" themes of literature. With the dominant approach, they are only briefly mentioned in the process of educational comprehension of Turgenev's works. However, almost thanks to them, these works are read with enthusiasm by people of various eras.

First of all, Asya, Rudin, Noble Nest, Fathers and Sons, etc. are stories and novels about tragic love (On the Eve, where Elena successfully marries her beloved, but he soon dies of consumption, varies the same theme). The force of life circumstances gradually literally “squeezes out” the internally weak Rudin from the Lasunsky estate, despite the fact that Natalya fell in love with him. In The Noble Nest, Liza goes to a monastery, although she loves Lavretsky - after it turns out that his wife, who was considered dead, is alive. An unexpected death strikes Yevgeny Nazarov in "Fathers and Sons" just when he - contrary to his favorite anti-feminist rhetoric and unexpectedly for himself - fell in love with Anna Odintsova (Turgenev specifically emphasizes the irresistible irrational force of the love feeling that gripped the hero by making his heroine by no means a young girl like Asya, and a widow - moreover, a widow with a rather scandalous reputation in the eyes of the provincial society constantly slandering Odintsova).

In Turgenev's novels, the "eternal" (at least for Russian literature) question-theme invariably passes, which can be conditionally designated "What is to be done?" (using the title of the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky). Disputes about the ways of development of Russian society and Russia as a state are almost inevitable here (this is manifested to the least extent in the novel “On the Eve”, the main character of which is a fighter for the freedom of Bulgaria). The reader of the beginning of the XXI century. may be internally far from the specific problems discussed here and relevant in the time of Turgenev. However, the writer's novels have their own cultural and historical cognition. In the disputes of the heroes of Turgenev, the real history of the Fatherland was refracted. In addition, the very atmosphere of such disputes on socio-political issues perfectly corresponds to the Russian mentality, so that the modern reader easily and organically "accepts" this layer of Turgenev's plots, even a century and a half later, vividly following the twists and turns of discussions between Rudin and Pigasov, Lavretsky and Mikhalevich, Lavretsky and Panshin, Bazarov and Pavel Kirsanov - besides, sometimes these or those moments in them are involuntarily successfully “projected” onto the problems that are again relevant today.

As if from our time came the superficial arrogant chamber junker Panshin, who is largely of the same type as Pigasov. Panshin, filled with contempt for Russia and uttering banalities that allegedly “Russia has lagged behind Europe”, and “we must involuntarily borrow from others” (and that he would “turn everything around” if he had personal power), is easily defeated in a dispute patriot Lavretsky. Lavretsky is calmly convinced that the main thing for Russians is "to plow the land and try to plow it as best as possible." However, the Westerner Potugin from the novel Smoke (1867) will be “prepared” at the will of the author much more thoroughly (Potugin is an outstanding figure), and it will be much more difficult for Grigory Litvinov to resist his anti-Russian rhetoric.

Further, in all these novels, the motif of "noble nests" is carried out, which in our time, with its nostalgia for old Russia and noble culture, can find its grateful readers. In The Nest of Nobles, this cultural and historical motif is especially strong - several dozen pages at the beginning of this short, as always with Turgenev, novel are occupied with the history of the Lavretsky family, which is in no way directly connected with the plot (Fyodor Ivanovich Lavretsky is the son of a nobleman and peasant woman Malanya Sergeevna, - such was in reality, for example, the writer VF Odoevsky).