The literature of Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over the course of seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single entity with all the variety of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works, there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems that heroes of all centuries think about, talk about, meditate on. The works form love for the Fatherland and their people, show the beauty of the Russian land, therefore these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.
The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. So the images, ideas, even the style of compositions were inherited by A. S. Pushkin, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
Old Russian literature did not arise from scratch. Its appearance was prepared by the development of the language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria, and was conditioned by the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works that appeared in Rus' were translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.
The very first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, belong to the end of the 11th-beginning of the 12th century. V. There was a formation of Russian national literature, its traditions were formed, features that determine its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.
The purpose of this work is to show the features of ancient Russian literature and its main genres.
II. Features of ancient Russian literature.
2. 1. Historicism of content.
Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's fiction. The authors of works of art, even if they describe the true events of real people, conjecture a lot. But in ancient Rus', everything was completely different. The Old Russian scribe told only about what, according to his ideas, really happened. Only in the XVII century. Everyday stories appeared in Rus' with fictional characters and plots.
Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. So the chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Rus'. After the death in 1425 of the Moscow prince Vasily Dmitrievich, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to judge their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.
2. 2. Manuscript nature of existence.
Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' did little to change the situation until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special reverence for the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to the instability of ancient Russian works of literature. Those writings that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could continue for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as "manuscript" (handwritten text) and "list" (rewritten work). A manuscript may contain lists of various works and may be written by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term "edition", i.e. purposeful processing of the monument, caused by social and political events, changes in the function of the text or differences in the language of the author and editor.
The existence of a work in manuscripts is closely related to such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.
The authorial principle in ancient Russian literature is muted, implicit; Old Russian scribes were not careful with other people's texts. When rewriting the texts, they were reworked: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or some episodes were inserted into them, stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the ideas and assessments of the author were even replaced by the opposite ones. Lists of one work differed significantly from each other.
Old Russian scribes did not at all seek to reveal their involvement in literary writing. Very many monuments remained anonymous, the authorship of others was established by researchers on indirect grounds. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated "weaving of words." The style of Ivan the Terrible's epistles is inimitable, impudently mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of a simple conversation.
It happens that in the manuscript one or another text was signed by the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally correspond or not correspond to reality. So among the works attributed to the famous preacher St. Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave additional authority to these works.
The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the Old Russian “writer” deliberately did not try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.
2. 4. Literary etiquette.
A well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term for designating the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”.
Literary etiquette is composed of:
From the idea of how this or that course of an event should have taken place;
From ideas about how the actor should have behaved in accordance with his position;
From the ideas of what words the writer had to describe what is happening.
Before us is the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and verbal etiquette. The hero is supposed to behave in this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.
III. The main genres of ancient Russian literature.
The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the "poetics of the genre". It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature, the genre did not play such an important role.
A sufficient number of studies have been devoted to the genre originality of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.
3. 1. Hagiographic genre.
Life is a description of the life of a saint.
Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, the literary form in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed.
The compositional and verbal forms of life have been polished for centuries. A lofty theme - a story about a life that embodies the ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of narration. The author of the life narrates with excitement, he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic, admiration for his righteous life. The emotionality of the author, his excitement paint the whole story in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.
When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) had to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of the correct life should be three-part: an introduction, a story about the life and deeds of a saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author apologizes to the readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narration, etc. The life itself followed the introduction. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, random. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names of historical persons. The action of life takes place, as it were, outside historical time and concrete space, it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of hagiographic style.
At the conclusion of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, requiring great literary art, a good knowledge of rhetoric.
The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of Pechora.
3. 2. Eloquence.
Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of the most ancient period in the development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: instructive and solemn.
Solemn eloquence required depth of conception and great literary skill. The orator needed the ability to effectively build a speech in order to capture the listener, set it up in a high way, corresponding to the topic, shake him with pathos. There was a special term for solemn speech - "word". (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called a "Word".) Speeches were not only delivered, but written and distributed in numerous copies.
Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrowly practical goals, it required the formulation of problems of a wide social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for the creation of "words" are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, domestic and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.
The oldest monument of solemn eloquence is Metropolitan Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace, written between 1037 and 1050.
Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to the people of that time. Teachings could be given by church leaders, princes.
Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes, they contain the information necessary for a person. "Instruction to the brethren" by Luka Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of conduct that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not say "shameful" words. Go to church and behave in it quietly, honor elders, judge by the truth, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.
Theodosius of Pechersk, founder of the Kiev Caves Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: do not be late for church, make three bows to the earth, observe deanery and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechorsky demands a complete renunciation of the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot severely denounces idleness, money-grubbing, intemperance in food.
3. 3. Chronicle.
Chronicles were called weather records (according to "years" - according to "years"). The annual entry began with the words: "In the summer." After that, there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids by steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.
It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.
Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk, who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. In those days, it was customary to start a story about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had first of all to find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each one that he considered necessary to include in his own work. When the materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler proceeded to present the incidents of his time. The result of this great work was the annalistic code. After some time, this code was continued by other chroniclers.
Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the annalistic code, compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).
Nikon's work formed the basis of another annalistic code, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature, he received the conditional name "Initial Code". Its unnamed compiler supplemented Nikon's collection not only with news of recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities.
"The Tale of Bygone Years"
Based on the annals of the tradition of the 11th century. The greatest annalistic monument of the era of Kievan Rus - "The Tale of Bygone Years" was born.
It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th c. According to some historians, its likely compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor, also known for his other writings. When creating The Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler drew on numerous materials with which he supplemented the Initial Code. Among these materials were Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.
The compiler of The Tale of Bygone Years set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among European and Asian peoples.
The chronicler tells in detail about the settlement of the Slavic peoples in antiquity, about the settlement by the Eastern Slavs of the territories that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the customs and customs of different tribes. The "Tale of Bygone Years" emphasizes not only the antiquities of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.
The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. The story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Rus', about the spread of a new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the Tale.
The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a bright publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the "Tale", sought to imitate him and almost always placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle collection.
The verbal art of the Middle Ages is a special world, largely "hidden" for modern man. He has a special system of artistic values, his own laws of literary creativity, unusual forms of works. This world can only be opened by those who are initiated into its mysteries, who have known its specific features.
Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which went through a long, seven-century path in its development, from the 11th to the 17th century. For the first three centuries it was common for the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian peoples. Only by the 14th century are there differences between the three East Slavic peoples, their language and literature. During the formation of literature, its "apprenticeship", Kyiv, the "mother of Russian cities", was the center of political and cultural life, therefore the literature of the 11th-12th centuries is usually called the literature of Kievan Rus. In the tragic for Russian history of the XIII-XIV centuries, when Kiev fell under the blows of the Mongol-Tatar hordes and the state lost its independence, the literary process lost its former unity, its course was determined by the activities of the regional literary "schools" (Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Ryazan, Vladimir -Suzdal and others). Since the 15th century, a tendency has been manifested in Rus' to unite creative forces, and the literary development of the 16th-17th centuries is marked by the rise of a new spiritual center - Moscow.
Old Russian literature, like folklore, did not know the concepts of "copyright", "canonical text". Works existed in handwritten form, and the scribe could act as a co-author, create a work anew, subjecting the text to sampling, stylistic editing, including new material borrowed from other sources (for example, chronicles, local legends, monuments of translated literature). This is how new editions of works appeared, differing from each other in ideological, political and artistic settings. Before publishing the text of a work created
in the Middle Ages, it was necessary to do a lot of rough work on the study and comparison of various lists and editions in order to identify those that are closest to the original appearance of the monument. These goals are served by a special science of textual criticism; its tasks also include the attribution of the work, that is, the establishment of its authorship, and the solution of questions: where and when was it created, why was its text edited?
The literature of Ancient Rus', like the art of the Middle Ages in general, was based on a system of religious ideas about the world; it was based on a religious-symbolic method of cognition and reflection of reality. The world in the mind of an ancient Russian person, as it were, split in two: on the one hand, it is the real, earthly life of a person, society, nature, which can be known with the help of everyday experience, with the help of feelings, that is, “bodily eyes”; on the other hand, it is a religious-mythological, “higher” world, which, unlike the “lower”, opens up to the chosen people, pleasing to God, in moments of spiritual revelation, religious ecstasy.
It was clear to the Old Russian scribe why certain events were taking place, he was never tormented by questions that Russian classics of the 19th century would think about solving: “who is to blame?” and “what to do?” to change a person and the world for the better. For a medieval writer, everything that happens on earth is a manifestation of God's will. If there was a “great star, rays of property like bloody,” then this served the Russians as a formidable warning about the coming trials, Polovtsian raids and princely strife: According to this, there was a lot of usokii / b many and the invasion of the filthy on the Russian land, this star, like a bloody one, showing the shedding of blood. For medieval man, nature had not yet acquired its own independent aesthetic value; an unusual natural phenomenon, whether it was an eclipse of the sun or a flood, acted as a kind of symbol, a sign of the connection between the "higher" and "lower" worlds, was interpreted as an evil or good omen.
Historicism of medieval literature of a special kind. Often two planes are intertwined in the work in the most bizarre way: real-historical and religious-fiction, and the ancient man believed in the existence of demons in the same way as in the fact that Princess Olga traveled to Constantinople, and Prince Vladimir baptized Russia. Demons in the image of the ancient Russian writer "blacks, wings, tails of possessions", they were endowed with the ability to perform human deeds:
scatter flour at the mill, lift logs to the high bank of the Dnieper for the construction of the Kiev Caves Monastery.
A mixture of fact and fiction is characteristic of the ancient part of The Tale of Bygone Years, whose origins are in folklore. Talking about the journey of Princess Olga to Tsargrad and her adoption of Christianity, the chronicler follows the folk legend, according to which Olga, the “wise maiden”, “switched” (outwitted) the Byzantine emperor. Struck by her “pretentiousness”, he decided to “give” Olga for himself, that is, to take her as a wife, but after the baptism of a heterodox (the condition of marriage put forward by Olga) he was forced to abandon his intention: the godfather could not become the goddaughter’s husband. Recent studies of this chronicle fragment, comparing it with the data of translated chronicles, indicate that Princess Olga at that time was at a very advanced age, the Byzantine emperor was much younger than her and had a wife. The chronicler used the folk-poetic version of this historical event in order to show the superiority of the Russian mind over the foreign, to elevate the image of a wise ruler who understood that without a single religion, the formation of a single state is impossible.
Glorifying the fortitude and wisdom of the Russian people, the medieval writer was the spokesman for the idea of religious tolerance, a humane attitude towards non-Christians. In the 11th century, Theodosius of the Caves in a letter to Izyaslav Yaroslavich, denouncing the "wrong Latin faith", nevertheless calls on the prince: whether it’s winter, whether it’s E "odoy odzhy-ml, the children of the Jews, whether the Jews, or Sorochinin, whether, volgdrin, whether a heretic, or ldtnnin, or from the weather, have mercy on everyone and from e * da izvdvi, as if you can, and mazdy from Eogd don’t bury-shishi. ”
Old Russian literature is distinguished by high spirituality. The life of the human soul is the center of gravity of the literature of the Middle Ages, the education and improvement of the moral nature of man is its main task. The external, objective recedes here into the background. As on an icon, where the “face” and “eyes” are given in close-up, that which reflects the inner essence of the saint, the “light” of his soul, in literature, especially hagiography, the image of a person is subject to the glorification of the proper, ideal, eternally beautiful moral qualities: mercy and modesty, sincere generosity and non-possession.
In the Middle Ages, there was a different system of artistic values than in our time, the aesthetics of similarity dominated, and not the aesthetics of originality. By definition, D.S. Likhachev, Old Russian
the writer proceeded in his work from the concept of "literary etiquette", which was composed of ideas about "how this or that course of events should have taken place", "how the character should have behaved", "what words the writer should describe what is happening. Before us, therefore, is the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words.
Old Russian literature valued the general, the repetitive, and easily recognizable, avoiding the particular, the accidental, and the unusual for the reader. That is why in the monuments of the 11th-17th centuries there are so many “common places” in the depiction of military or monastic deeds, in obituary characteristics of Russian princes and in laudatory words to saints. Comparison of the heroes of Russian history with biblical characters, citing books of Holy Scripture, imitation of the authoritative Fathers of the Church, borrowing entire fragments from the works of previous eras - all this in the Middle Ages testified to the high book culture, the skill of the writer, and was not a sign of his creative impotence.
The literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by a special system of genres. To a greater extent than in the literature of modern times, it is connected with non-literary circumstances, with the practical needs of ancient Russian society. Each literary genre served a certain area of life. So, for example, the emergence of chronicle writing was due to the need of the state to have its own written history, where the most important events would be recorded (the birth and death of rulers, wars and peace treaties, the founding of cities and the construction of churches).
In the 11th-17th centuries, several genre systems existed and actively interacted: folklore, translated literature, business writing, liturgical and secular, artistic and journalistic literature. Of course, the genres of liturgical literature ("Prologue", "Book of Hours", "Apostle", etc.) were more closely connected with the sphere of their existence, they were more static.
The basis of the selection of genres in the literature of Ancient Rus' was the object of the image. The feats of arms of the Russians were depicted in military stories, travel to other countries, at first only for pilgrimages, and then for trade and diplomatic purposes - in walking. Each genre had its own canon. For example, for a hagiographic work, where the object of the image was the life of a saint, a three-part composition is obligatory: a rhetorical introduction, a biographical part, and praise to one of the “hosts of Christ”. Type
the narrator in his life is a conventionally sinful person, “thin and unreasonable”, which was necessary for the exaltation of the hero – a righteous man and a miracle worker, therefore, for this genre, the idealizing way of depiction was the main thing, when the hero’s behavior was freed from everything temporary, sinful and he appeared only in the front moments of his life as a "positively beautiful person". The style of monuments of hagiographic literature, in contrast to the chronicle, is florid and verbally embellished, especially in the introductory and final parts, which are often called the "rhetorical mantle" of the life.
The fate of ancient Russian genres has developed in different ways: some of them have left literary use, others have adapted to the changed conditions, others continue to function actively, being filled with new content. Essay literature of the 19th - 20th centuries, literary travels of the 18th century go back to the traditions of ancient Russian wanderings - one of the most stable genre formations of the Middle Ages. Researchers see the origins of the Russian novel in everyday stories of the 17th century. The poetics of the ode in the literature of Russian classicism, of course, developed under the influence of the works of oratory of Ancient Russia.
Thus, ancient Russian literature is not a dead, bygone phenomenon, it has not sunk into oblivion, leaving no offspring. This phenomenon is alive and fruitful. She inherited the Russian literature of modern times with a high spiritual attitude and "teaching" character, the ideas of patriotism and a humane attitude towards people, regardless of their religion. Many genres of the literature of Ancient Rus', having undergone evolution, found a second life in the literature of the 18th - 20th centuries.
In this article we will consider the features of Old Russian literature. The literature of ancient Rus' was primarily church. After all, book culture in Rus' appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries became centers of writing, and the first literary monuments were mainly works of a religious nature. So, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was Metropolitan Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace. The author proves the superiority of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.
Literature was not created for entertainment, but for teaching. Considering the features of ancient Russian literature, it should be noted its instructiveness. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.
We note one seemingly insignificant feature of ancient Russian literature: it was handwritten. Books were created in a single copy and only then copied by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text became unusable from time to time. This gave the book a special value, gave rise to a respectful attitude towards it. In addition, for the Old Russian reader, all books originated from the main one - Holy Scripture.
Since the literature of Ancient Rus' was basically religious, the book was seen as a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of a righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction in the modern sense of the word. She in every possible way avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality, hiding behind the narrative form. He does not strive for originality, for the Old Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition, not to break it. Therefore, all the lives are similar to one another, all the biographies of princes or military stories are compiled according to a general plan, in compliance with the "rules". When The Tale of Bygone Years tells us about the death of Oleg from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like a historical document, the author really believes that everything was so.
The hero of ancient Russian literature does not possess neither personality nor character in our current view. The fate of man is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul is the arena of the struggle between good and evil. The first will win only when a person lives according to the moral rules given once and for all.
Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because the ancient Russian writers were not able to do this. In the same way, icon painters created planar, rather than three-dimensional images, not because they could not write “better”, but because they faced other artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be similar to an ordinary human face. An icon is a sign of holiness, not an image of a saint.
The literature of Ancient Rus' adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader pattern of correct behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh behaves like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.
Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids being grounded: it does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this narrative: neither a manifestation of feelings, nor an individual manner. (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not assume such immodesty - to put their name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? Therefore, the information available to us about ancient authors is so scarce.
At the same time, in ancient Russian literature, a special, national ideal of beauty, captured by ancient scribes. First of all, it is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to Western European literature of the same era, the knightly ideal of beauty is much less represented - the beauty of weapons, armor, victorious battle. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. War for the sake of glory, profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The world is valued as an unconditional good. The ancient Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide expanse, an immense, “decorated” land, and temples decorate it, because they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.
The attitude of ancient Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty. to oral-poetic creativity, folklore. On the one hand, folklore was of pagan origin, and therefore did not fit into the framework of the new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not but penetrate into literature. After all, the written language in Rus' from the very beginning was the Russian language, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impenetrable border between the book and the spoken word. Folk ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ones, Christianity penetrated into folklore almost without hindrance. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to take shape back in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as patriotic warriors and as defenders of the Christian faith, surrounded by "filthy" pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, ancient Russian writers use folklore images and plots.
The religious literature of Rus' quickly outgrew the narrow church framework and became a truly spiritual literature that created a whole system of genres. Thus, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” belongs to the genre of a solemn sermon delivered in the church, but Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic.
Genre of life
The most important for ancient Russian literature was the genre of life, the biography of the saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of a saint canonized by the church, to create the image of an ideal person for the edification of all people.
IN " Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb" Prince Gleb appeals to his killers with a request to spare him: "Do not cut the ear, which is not yet ripe, filled with milk of malice! Do not cut the vine, which is not fully grown, but bears fruit!" Abandoned by his retinue, Boris in his tent “weeps with a contrite heart, but is joyful in his soul”: he is afraid of death and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who were martyred for their faith.
IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh"It is said that the future saint in adolescence had difficulty comprehending reading and writing, lagged behind his peers in teaching, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired to the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the beast the last piece of bread.
In the traditions of life in the XVI century was created " The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”, but it already sharply diverged from the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of lives “Great Menaion” along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. The author of the 16th century did not turn out a life, but an entertaining story built on fairy tale motifs, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not just their Christian exploits.
A " Life of Archpriest Avvakum”, written by himself in the 17th century, turned into a vivid autobiographical work filled with reliable events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the bright character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.
Genre of teaching
Since religious literature was called upon to educate a true Christian, teaching became one of the genres. Although this is a church genre, close to preaching, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the then people's ideas about a correct, righteous life did not differ from church ones. you know" Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117 "sitting on a sleigh" (shortly before his death) and addressed to children.
Before us appears the ideal old Russian prince. He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. Another concern of the prince is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as a work for the salvation of the soul. This is the work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental. Diligence is the main virtue in the life of Monomakh. He made eighty-three large campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, studied five languages, did what his servants and vigilantes did.
Annals
A significant, if not the largest, part of ancient Russian literature is the works of historical genres that were included in the annals. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years"was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of Russia's right to state independence, independence. But if the recent events could be recorded by the chroniclers "according to the epics of this time", reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be restored from oral sources: legends , legends, sayings, geographical names... Therefore, the compilers of the chronicle turn to folklore... Such are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, etc.
Already in The Tale of Bygone Years, two most important features of Old Russian literature appeared: patriotism and connection with folklore. Literary-Christian and folklore-linguistic traditions are closely intertwined in the Tale of Igor's Campaign.
Elements of fiction and satire
Of course, ancient Russian literature has not been unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, more and more often satirical motifs penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. These are, for example, " The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"showing to what troubles disobedience can bring a person, the desire to "live as he pleases", and not as the elders teach, and " The Tale of Ersh Ershovich", ridiculing the so-called "voivodship court" in the traditions of a folk tale.
But in general, we can talk about the literature of Ancient Rus' as a single phenomenon, with its own cross-cutting ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its own general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.
Any national literature has its distinctive (specific) features.
Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, because, in addition to national features, it contains features of the Middle Ages (XI-XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and psychology of a person in Ancient Rus'.
Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.
The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person of the Russian Middle Ages.
Let's talk about the first block very briefly. First, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of the Russian literary process, the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs, and therefore it was called "veal" in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, instead of parchment, paper appeared, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to mass character”.
In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI - XIV centuries) was called a charter, the second (XV - XVI centuries) - semi-charter, the third (XVII century) - cursive.
Since the writing material was expensive, the book's customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the most interesting works of various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.
Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.
Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.
Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of the DRL.
1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Ancient Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedia. Therefore, in the Old Russian collections there are often monuments of various subjects and problems.
2. In the first centuries of the development of the DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was at the same time a monument of literature, and a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which in Ancient Rus' existed in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles up to the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianov-Peretz did the annals become an object of literary criticism.
At the same time, the special philosophical saturation of ancient Russian literature in the subsequent centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with all certainty: “Fiction is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prose writings of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>often the main philosophical problems are developed, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an open-minded and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just "literary" or "artistic", but philosophical and ingenious.
3. Ancient Russian literature had an anonymous (impersonal) character, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often referred to as scribes) did not seek to leave their name to the centuries, firstly, by virtue of the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves "unreasonable", "sinful" monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of their work as part of an all-Russian, collective cause.
At first glance, this feature seems to indicate a poorly developed personal beginning in the Old Russian author in comparison with the Western European masters of the artistic word. Even the name of the author of the brilliant Tale of Igor's Campaign is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can "boast" of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no question of the "backwardness" of ancient Russian literature or its "impersonality". We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Does it lack the manifestation of a human personality?
4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongolian period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that the ancient Russian authors "refuse" to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, "fixate" on the Russian land, depriving themselves of their individuality and sharply limiting the "universal" significance of DRL.
Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations through the richest Byzantine literature. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias Melissa (Bee) and Physiologist were translated into Old Russian.
Secondly, and most importantly, it must be borne in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European is formed on different worldview foundations: a Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance, exclusivity. This is connected with the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the person himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature - from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of an individualistic personality and establishes its heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.
5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious mindset. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the artistic word, even if it is fiction from the point of view of a secular person.
The conscious attitude to fiction will come later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century, during the period of intensification of the political struggle for leadership in the process of unification of the original Russian lands. The rulers will also appeal to the absolute authority of the written word. This is how the genre of political legend arose. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory "Moscow - the Third Rome", which naturally took on a topical political coloring, as well as "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir". In Veliky Novgorod - "The Legend of the Novgorod White Klobuk".
6. In the first centuries, DRL tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious) way of life is sinful, its image prevents an earthly person from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both the grandfather, and the father, and the son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.
Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life more and more penetrates the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday story (“The Tale of Ulyaniya Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday story will become the most popular.
7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", etc.
8. Old Russian literature wore instructive character. This means that the ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to lure the reader with a wonderful fiction, to lead away from life's difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.
So, we see that some specific features of DID will be gradually lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature, which determine the core of its ideological orientation, will remain unchanged up to the present time.
The problem of the authorship of literary monuments of Ancient Rus' is directly related to the national specifics of the first centuries of the development of the Russian literary process. “The author's principle,” noted D.S. Likhachev, “was muted in ancient literature.<…>The absence of great names in ancient Russian literature seems like a death sentence.<…>We biasedly proceed from our ideas about the development of literature - ideas brought up<…>for centuries when it blossomed individual, personal art is the art of individual geniuses.<…>The literature of Ancient Rus' was not the literature of individual writers: it, like folk art, was a supra-individual art. It was an art that was created through the accumulation of collective experience and made a huge impression with the wisdom of traditions and the unity of everything - mostly unnamed- writing.<…>Old Russian writers are not architects of separate buildings. These are city planners.<…>Any literature creates its own world, embodying the world of ideas of contemporary society. Hence, anonymous (impersonal) the nature of the work of ancient Russian authors is a manifestation of the national identity of Russian literature and in this regard namelessness"Words about Igor's Campaign" is not a problem.
Representatives of the skeptical literary school (the first half of the 19th century) proceeded from the fact that the “backward” Ancient Rus' could not “give birth” to a monument of such a level of artistic perfection as “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”.
Philologist-orientalist O.I. Senkovsky, for example, was sure that the creator of the Lay was imitating the samples of Polish poetry of the 16th-17th centuries, that the work itself could not be older than the time of Peter I, that the author of the Lay was a Galician who moved to Russia or was educated in Kiev. The creators of the "Word" were also called A.I. Musin-Pushkin (the owner of the collection with the text "Words"), and Ioliy Bykovsky (the one from whom the collection was purchased), and N.M. Karamzin as the most gifted Russian writer of the late 18th century.
Thus, The Lay was presented as a literary hoax in the spirit of J. Macpherson, who allegedly discovered in the middle of the 18th century the works of the legendary Celtic warrior and singer Ossian, who, according to legend, lived in the 3rd century AD. in Ireland.
The traditions of the skeptical school in the 20th century were continued by the French Slavist A. Mazon, who initially believed that the “Word” was supposedly created by A.I. Musin-Pushkin to justify the aggressive policy of Catherine II in the Black Sea: "We have a case here when history and literature deliver their evidence at the right time." In many ways, the Soviet historian A. Zimin was in solidarity with A. Mazon, who called Ioliy Bykovsky the creator of the Lay.
The arguments of the supporters of the authenticity of the Lay were very convincing. A.S. Pushkin: the authenticity of the monument is proved by “the spirit of antiquity, under which it is impossible to fake. Which of our writers in the 18th century could have had enough talent for that? VK Küchelbecker: “In terms of talent, this deceiver would have surpassed almost all the then Russian poets, taken together.”
“Surprises of skepticism,” V.A. rightly emphasized. Chivilikhin - were to some extent even useful - they revived the scientific and public interest in the Lay, encouraged scientists to look more sharply into the depths of time, gave rise to research done with scientific thoroughness, academic objectivity and thoroughness.
After disputes related to the time of creation of the Lay and Zadonshchina, the vast majority of researchers, even, ultimately, A. Mazon, came to the conclusion that the Lay is a monument of the 12th century. Now the search for the author of the Lay focused on the circle of contemporaries of the tragic campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, which took place in the spring of 1185.
V.A. Chivilikhin in the novel-essay "Memory" gives the most complete list of alleged authors of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and indicates the names of the researchers who put forward these assumptions: "they called a certain "Greek" (N. Aksakov), the Galician "wise scribe" Timofey (N. Golovin), "folk singer" (D. Likhachev), Timofey Raguilovich (writer I. Novikov), "Verbal singer Mitus" (writer A. Yugov), "thousand Raguil Dobrynich" (V. Fedorov), some unknown courtier the singer close to the Grand Duchess of Kiev Maria Vasilkovna (A. Soloviev), the "singer Igor" (A. Petrushevich), the "mercy" of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich chronicle Kochkar (American researcher S. Tarasov), the unknown "wandering book singer" (I. Malyshevsky), Belovolod Prosovich (anonymous Munich translator of the Lay), Chernigov governor Olstin Aleksich (M. Sokol), Kiev boyar Pyotr Borislavich (B. Rybakov), probable heir to the family singer Boyan (A. Robinson), unnamed grandson of Boyan (M .Shchepkin), in relation to a significant part of the text - Boyan himself (A. Nikitin), mentor, adviser to Igor (P. Okhrimenko), an unknown Polovtsian storyteller (O. Suleimenov)<…>».
V.A. himself Chivilikhin is sure that Prince Igor was the creator of the word. At the same time, the researcher refers to an old and, in his opinion, undeservedly forgotten report by the famous zoologist and at the same time a specialist in the Lay N.V. Charlemagne (1952). One of the main arguments of V. Chivilikhin is the following: “it was not for the singer and not for the combatant to judge the princes of his time, to indicate what they should do; this is the prerogative of a person who stands on the same social level with those to whom he addressed"
Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The intensity of its distribution is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.
History of appearance
Writing was used in various spheres of public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.
After the emergence of writing, the activities of scribes and translators were stimulated, and various genres of ancient Russian literature began to develop.
It served the needs and needs of the church, consisted of solemn words, life, teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Rus', chronicles began to be kept.
In the minds of the people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.
Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of X - beginning of XI century. in Rus', a huge amount of work was carried out aimed at translating literary sources from the ancient Greek language. Thanks to such activities, the Old Russian scribes managed to get acquainted with many monuments of the Byzantine period over two centuries, and on their basis create various genres of Old Russian literature. D.S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Rus' to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, singled out two characteristic features of such a process.
He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Rus'.
Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred writings, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narration, for example, "The Romance of Alexander the Great."
Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic intermediary, was a translation from the Greek language, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.
It is impossible to mechanically subdivide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original, they are organically connected parts of a single organism.
Reading other people's books in Ancient Rus' is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the field of artistic expression. At first, among the written monuments there were a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.
Folklore works became the main type of verbal art. To understand the originality and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside the genre systems”: Vladimir Monomakh’s “Instruction”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.
Primary genres
The genres of ancient Russian literature include such works that have become building material for other areas. They include:
- teachings;
- stories;
- word;
- life.
Such genres of works of Old Russian literature include annalistic story, weather record, church legend, and chronicle legend.
life
It was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, they were canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, able to reliably tell about the bright moments of his life. The text was composed after the death of the one about whom it was said. He performed an essential educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of a righteous existence, imitated by him.
Life helped people overcome the fear of death, the idea of the immortality of the human soul was preached.
Canons of Life
Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the life was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First, the origin of the hero was discussed, then a place was given to a detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with a glorification.
Arguing over which genres of ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.
Old Russian eloquence
Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence was in three versions:
- political;
- didactic;
- solemn.
teaching
The system of genres of ancient Russian literature distinguished him as a variety of ancient Russian eloquence. In teaching, the chroniclers tried to single out a standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: a commoner, a prince. The most striking example of this genre is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh from The Tale of Bygone Years, dated 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his lecture, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations on how to organize his life. He offers to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls to help people in need, to serve God.
Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from his own life. He proposes to build social relations in harmony with nature.
Sermon
Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratory church genre, which has a peculiar theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that was indicative of the era at some stages.
The sermon called "fathers of the church" Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Gregory the Dialogist. Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of New German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the originality of the genres of ancient Russian literature.
Historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Kirill Turvosky to be examples of Russian old pre-Mongolian sermons, which give a complete picture of the creation of the composition and elements of the artistic style. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegory, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, partial landscapes.
The following examples of a sermon, designed in an unusual stylistic design, are considered by professionals to be the "Words" of Serapion Vladimirsky, the "Words" of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art came in the 18th century, they dealt with the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.
Word
Analyzing the main genres of Old Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let's call The Tale of Igor's Campaign. This work of many historians causes serious controversy.
The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which The Tale of Igor's Campaign can be attributed, is striking in its unusual methods and artistic means.
In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author is first transferred to the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions that make it possible to enter various episodes: Yaroslavna's lament, Svyatoslav's dream.
The "Word" contains various elements of oral traditional folk art, symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: the Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:
- "Song of the Nibelungs";
- "The Knight in the Panther's Skin";
- "David of Sasun".
These works are considered one-stage, belong to the same stage of folklore and literary formation.
The Lay combines two folklore genres: lamentation and glory. Through the whole work there is a lamentation of dramatic events, the glorification of the princes.
Similar techniques are typical for other works of Ancient Rus'. For example, "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" is a combination of the lamentation of the dying Russian land with the glory of the mighty past.
The Sermon on Law and Grace, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, serves as a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of the complete independence of Rus' from the Byzantine Empire.
Under the "Law" Illarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called "Grace". Illarion writes that, as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus'.
Tale
Having considered the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will also pay attention to the stories. These are texts of an epic type, telling about military exploits, princes, and their deeds. Examples of such works are:
- "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky";
- "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan";
- The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River.
The most common genre in ancient Russian literature was the genre of the military story. Various lists of works relating to him have been published. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Rus', it inalienably belongs to the circle of church literature.
The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of a military feat that combines heroic and worldly traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts single out translated works: “Alexandria”, “Deed of Devgen”.
N. A. Meshchersky, who is engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that the “History” had an influence on the formation of the military story of Ancient Rus' to the maximum extent. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the Kyiv and Galicia-Volyn chronicles.
Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.
The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of him is similar to the description of the epic hero. The essence of the military feat has changed, the desire for death for great faith comes first.
A separate role was assigned to the princely ministry. The desire for self-realization passes into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with the verbal and ritual forms of culture.
chronicle
It is a kind of narration about historical events. Chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', it played a special role, because it not only reported on some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, it was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century, is considered to be the most ancient chronicle. It tells about the origin of the Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Chronicles are considered "unifying genres", which subjugate the following components: a military, historical story, the life of a saint, laudatory words, teachings.
Chronograph
These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the XV-XVI centuries. One of the first such works historians consider "Chronograph according to the great presentation." This work has not reached our time in full, so information about it is rather contradictory.
In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and originality of literary works created in Ancient Rus'.
