The Library of Alexandria has recently reopened. The project to resurrect her was implemented for about 20 years and all this time was sponsored by UNESCO and the governments of many countries. The library occupies an 11-story building. But the main goal of the project is the creation of an international electronic library. One can hope that very soon people from different parts of the world will be able to visit the oldest library in the world with the help of the Internet.
The Pergamon Library was founded by King Eumenes II in the 2nd century BC. BC. The building was located in the central square of the city. Books were placed in four large rooms. In the center of the main hall, on a marble pedestal, stood a statue of Athena, one and a half human height. The niches for the scrolls in the book depository were lined with cedar, as it was believed that it protected the manuscripts from insects. The staff included scribes, translators, there was a catalog.
The Pergamon Library was inferior to the Library of Alexandria only in terms of the size of the fund, which amounted to 200 thousand lists. Its largest part was made up of medical treatises Pergamum was considered the center of medicine. Once the Pergamon Library bought the works of Aristotle, giving them exactly as much gold as the manuscripts weighed. Fearing competition, the Egyptian rulers forbade the export of papyrus to Pergamum. Then the Pergamians invented their own material for writing. It was parchment, specially beaten, wiped and smoothed skin of goats and lambs. Scrolls were not glued from parchment, but notebooks were folded and sewn into books. It was much more expensive than papyrus, but stronger; in addition, parchment could be made everywhere, and papyrus - only in Egypt. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, when exports from Egypt ceased, all of Europe switched to parchment. But in ancient times, papyrus dominated, and the Pergamon library was never able to catch up with the Alexandrian one.
The history of the Pergamon Library ended in 43 BC. when Pergamon was already a province of Rome. Mark Antony donated most of the library to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, and the scrolls ended up in the Library of Alexandria. Today, Pergamum (Peregamon) is located in Turkey and the ruins of the library are among the tourist sites.
In the 1st century BC. troops of the Roman Empire capture Greece and a number of Hellenistic states. In military campaigns, books were taken as trophies. Dozens of workshops for copying books open in Rome; in bookstores you can buy works of authors from all countries of the ancient world. The first rich private libraries appear. Julius Caesar, who captured Alexandria, decided to take the famous Library of Alexandria to Rome, where he was going to open a public library on its basis. However, in 44 BC. Caesar was killed, and the books prepared for shipment to Rome were burned. Caesar's plan was put into practice in 39 BC. orator, politician, historian and writer, friend of Horace and Virgil Asinius Pollio. He opened a public library in Rome, on the Aventine Hill, in the Temple of Liberty. It was the world's first public library. The Romans greeted the innovation with enthusiasm, the poets composed hymns in honor of the library and its founder, "who made the works of the human mind in the public domain." In the following years, libraries in Rome were founded by Augustus, Trajan, and other emperors.
By the 4th century AD Rome had at least 30 public libraries. They were located in the covered galleries of large marble buildings, in palaces, in temples or near temples, as well as at the baths - public baths. Library architecture and the doctrine of organizing the work of libraries are developing. In accordance with the ideas of the famous architect Vitruvius, their windows faced east, so that in the morning there would be a lot of light in the halls the Romans preferred the morning hours for their studies. In addition, this way it was better possible to protect the papyrus scrolls from dampness, which penetrated the windows with frequent south and west winds. The halls rectangular or semi-circular were decorated with statues of gods, busts and portraits of great men. But all the decorations were placed in deep niches, the floor was made of dark marble, the ceilings were not gilded - so that nothing irritated the reader's eyes. Cabinets stood along the walls or in the middle of the hall. Shelves in cabinets were divided by vertical partitions into nests for manuscripts, which were stored horizontally in a systematic manner.
Readers of ancient Roman libraries poets, scientists, officials, noble and wealthy citizens could take manuscripts home. Libraries had catalogs. Compilation manuals were compiled: “On the acquisition and selection of books”, “Which books are worthy of purchase”. In Rome, there were also special libraries containing manuscripts in one branch of knowledge (for example, grammatical treatises).
The Kingdom of Pergamon was founded by immigrants from mainland Greece. The ruins of one of the most prominent Hellenistic states in the world can be seen on the outskirts of the city of Bergam in Turkey.
The ancient city of Pergamon, the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon, amazed everyone with its beauty and grandeur. Truly breathtaking and grandiose were the temples built in honor of the goddesses Athena and Demeter, the majestic Pergamon altar and Asclepium. But Pergamum gained world fame and fame thanks to its unique library.
Library rivaling Alexandria
The Pergamon Library was founded in the 2nd century BC. during the reign of King Eumenes II and was located in the Acropolis. During its heyday, more than 200 thousand scrolls were kept in its funds. If we take into account that the inhabitants of Pergamum also numbered somewhere around 200 thousand people, then we can say with confidence that at least one book from the royal book treasury accounted for one inhabitant of the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon.
In those days, only the Library of Alexandria surpassed that of Pergamon in the richness and diversity of its collections. Alexandria, not wanting to share the title of world center of culture and science with Pergamum, did everything possible so that the glory of the Library of Alexandria could not be surpassed by anyone else. Therefore, the Alexandrian ruler Ptolemy V banned the export from Egypt of papyrus, which served as the most common and cheapest writing material in the ancient world. As a result, the replenishment of the collections of the Pergamon Library was put at risk.
Parchment - an invention of Pergamon
However, this event not only did not destroy the Pergamon Library, but gave it a new impetus in development. The Pergamum king Eumenes II ordered to urgently invent an alternative material for writing and creating books. And such material was found in a fairly short time. Even its name, "parchment", it received the name of the city where it was invented. Parchment was made from pieces of the finest, skillfully dressed goat, ram and calf skin. Of course, this material was much more expensive than cheap papyrus, and it took more time to dress and process it. But parchment turned out to be much stronger and more durable than its papyrus counterpart.
Unlike papyrus, parchment has withstood the test of time. In the future, it was he who, before the invention of paper, became the material most used in the world for writing. Thanks to this invention, the Pergamon Library competed worthily with the library of Alexandria for about a hundred years. At first, parchment, like papyrus, was stored in the form of scrolls that were wound on wooden sticks. But then they learned to fold it into separate notebooks (“fours”), which have a rectangular shape (the so-called “codes”). Later, such notebooks began to be sewn into books in the form that we know them now.
Funds and arrangement
The funds of the Pergamon Library were universal. Manuscripts of ancient Greek authors, scientific and religious works were kept here, but the largest part of the funds was medical literature. Thanks to this feature of the Pergamon Library, ancient Pergamum gained fame as a world medical center, thousands of people flocked here to study the medical treatises stored in the famous library.
In addition, a temple was built in Pergamon in honor of the god Aesculapius, the patron saint of medicine and doctors. A living serpent was kept in the temple, under the guise of which Aesculapius was revered, and who, as a deity, was honored. It was from here that the tradition of depicting a snake wrapped around a bowl of poison as a symbol of medicine began.
The priests of this temple were engaged in healing, and the temple itself in many ways resembled a hospital. Those suffering from illnesses and those wishing to learn the secrets of medicine, the mysterious magical rituals used by priests to cure ailments, aspired to his sanctuary.
The Attalais, the rulers of the Kingdom of Pergamum, like their crowned Alexandrian brothers, did not skimp on replenishing their royal book collection. For example, such a fact is known when for the purchase of the works of the famous ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, gold was paid exactly as much as the manuscripts themselves weighed.
The Pergamon Library was located in the temple of Athena, who was considered the patroness of the city of Pergamon and the library itself. It was located in rather spacious rooms, which served both as storage facilities and as reading rooms. Manuscripts were kept in strict order in special niches made of cedar wood, as it was believed that this material contributes to the best preservation of books and protects them from pests. The bookshelves were arranged in such a way that air could freely circulate between them, which, in the humid warm climate of Antalya, helped prevent the accumulation of excess moisture in books.
The Pergamon Library employed a whole staff of curators, scribes and translators. All books were systematized, a detailed catalog of manuscripts in the library was maintained.
Both the library itself and the area around it were lined with busts and statues of famous philosophers and writers, and in the center of the main hall stood a majestic statue of the goddess Athena.
The Pergamon Library had a grammar school founded by Crates of Mallos, a famous grammarian and Stoic philosopher. He not only headed the Pergamon Grammar School, but was also the head of the famous library. Scientifically and culturally, Pergamon has been rightly compared to Alexandria and Antioch.
disappearance
The disappearance of the Pergamon Library is associated with the name of the ancient Roman commander Mark Antony. This happened when the Kingdom of Pergamon lost its independent status and became a Roman province, passing under the authority and control of Rome. Presumably in 43 BC. Madly in love with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, Mark Antony made a grandiose gift to his passionately adored queen - 200 thousand manuscripts, which were the main value of the Pergamon Library. Cleopatra was very happy about the possibility of reviving the greatness of the Library of Alexandria, which was significantly damaged during a large-scale fire. And the Pergamon Library, which became part of the funds of its more famous rival, disappeared forever as an independent book collection.
City of Pergamon
History of the library
The Pergamon Library was founded by Eumenes II and is located in the northern part of the Acropolis. It became the second most important (after Alexandria) library of antiquity. According to Plutarch, about 200 thousand books were stored in it. One of the head of the library in the II century. BC e. was Crates of Mallos, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher. He was born in Cilicia, educated in Tarsus, and then moved to Pergamon, where he lived under the patronage of Eumenes II and Attalus II. There he founded the Pergamon Grammar School; this scientific center was Alexandria's main competitor. Crates was interested in the works of Homer. Some fragments of his Iliad and Odyssey commentaries were preserved by scholiasts and other ancient Greek writers.
According to Plutarch, Mark Antony ended the existence of the Pergamon Library. He gave Cleopatra all 200,000 books for the Library of Alexandria as a wedding present. Of course, no indexes and catalogs that confirmed or refuted this evidence and would report on the size and composition of the library have survived.
The Pergamon Library had a large reading room surrounded by numerous shelves. The empty space between the outer walls and shelves served to circulate air. This was done in order to protect the library from excessive moisture in the warm climate of Anatolia and can be considered one of the first technologies for the preservation of manuscripts. In the main reading room stood a statue of Athena, the goddess of wisdom.
parchment
The invention and the very name of parchment is associated with the Pergamon Library. When Ptolemy V banned the export of papyrus from Egypt, Eumenes II ordered that alternative writing material be found. This led to the development of a technology for the production of parchment, which was made from thin pieces of sheep or goat skin. Despite its high cost, parchment reduced the dependence of other countries on the export of Egyptian papyri. In the future, this invention played a huge role in the preservation of ancient culture and the spread of European literature.
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See what the "Pergamon Library" is in other dictionaries:
This term has other meanings, see Library (disambiguation) ... Wikipedia
Library of Congress Reading Room, USA Library (Greek βιβλιοθήκη, from βιβλίον "book" and θήκη "place of storage") an institution that collects and stores works of art ... Wikipedia
- (269 197 BC) King of Pergamon in 241 197 Possessing at first a small fortress of Pergamon, Attalus I, in a war with the Galatians and the Seleucids, took possession of almost all of Asia Minor, creating a new kingdom of Pergamon due to these conquests. With him in honor of the victory ... Historical dictionary
The system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel in the field of philosophy. Until the 2nd half of the 19th century. F. o. performed the functions of general education training; in the future, it focuses on the training of specialists in various fields ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- (Attalos) kings of Pergamum: A. I (269 197 BC) ruled in 241 197. The possessions of A. I originally consisted of a fortress and a small adjacent area. In the war with the Galatians and the Seleucids, he captured almost all of M. Asia up to the city of Taurus and formed at the expense of ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
History of the library
The Pergamon Library was founded by Eumenes II and is located in the northern part of the acropolis. It became the second most important (after Alexandria) library of antiquity. According to Plutarch, about 200 thousand books were stored in it. One of the head of the library in the II century. BC e. was Crates of Mallos, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher. He was born in Cilicia, educated in Tarsus, and then moved to Pergamon, where he lived under the patronage of Eumenes II and Attalus II. There he founded the Pergamon Grammar School; this scientific center was Alexandria's main competitor. Crates was interested in the works of Homer. Some fragments of his Iliad and Odyssey commentaries were preserved by scholiasts and other ancient Greek writers.
According to Plutarch, Mark Antony ended the existence of the Pergamon Library. He gave Cleopatra all 200,000 books for the Library of Alexandria as a wedding present.
There are also unverified reports of several ships sunk while transporting the library. Of course, any indexes and catalogs that would confirm or refute this evidence and report on the size and composition of the library have not been preserved.
The Pergamon Library had a large reading room surrounded by numerous shelves. The empty space between the outer walls and shelves served to circulate air. This was done in order to protect the library from excessive moisture in the warm climate of Anatolia and can be considered one of the first technologies for the preservation of manuscripts. In the main reading room stood a statue of Athena, the goddess of wisdom.
Parchment
The invention and the very name of parchment is associated with the Pergamon Library. When Ptolemy V banned the export of papyrus from Egypt, Eumenes II ordered that alternative writing material be found. This led to the development of a technology for the production of parchment, which was made from thin pieces of sheep or goat skin. Despite its high cost, parchment reduced the dependence of other countries on the export of Egyptian papyri. In the future, this invention played a huge role in the preservation of ancient culture and the spread of European literature.
See also
- Libraries of antiquity
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An excerpt characterizing the Pergamon Library
That same night, bowing to the Minister of War, Bolkonsky went to the army, not knowing where he would find her, and fearing to be intercepted by the French on the way to Krems.In Brunn, the entire court population packed up, and heavy loads were already sent to Olmutz. Near Etzelsdorf, Prince Andrei rode onto the road along which the Russian army was moving with the greatest haste and in the greatest disorder. The road was so crowded with wagons that it was impossible to ride in a carriage. Taking a horse and a Cossack from the Cossack chief, Prince Andrey, hungry and tired, overtaking the carts, went to look for the commander-in-chief and his wagon. The most ominous rumors about the state of the army reached him along the way, and the sight of the army running in disorder confirmed these rumors.
"Cette armee russe que l" or de l "Angleterre a transportee, des extremites de l" univers, nous allons lui faire eprouver le meme sort (le sort de l "armee d" Ulm)", ["This Russian army, which English gold has been brought here from the end of the world, will experience the same fate (the fate of the Ulm army). ”] He recalled the words of Bonaparte’s order to his army before the start of the campaign, and these words equally aroused in him surprise at the hero of genius, a feeling of offended pride and the hope of glory. "And if there is nothing left but to die? he thought. Well, if necessary! I will do it no worse than others."
Prince Andrei looked with disdain at these endless, interfering teams, carts, parks, artillery, and again carts, carts and carts of all possible types, overtaking one another and blocking the muddy road in three, four rows. From all sides, behind and in front, as long as hearing was enough, the sounds of wheels, the rumble of bodies, carts and gun carriages, the clatter of horses, blows with a whip, shouts of prodding, curses of soldiers, batmen and officers were heard. Along the edges of the road, one could see incessantly fallen horses, skinned and not skinned, now broken carts, in which, waiting for something, lone soldiers were sitting, then soldiers separated from the teams, who were heading in crowds to neighboring villages or dragging chickens, rams, hay or hay from the villages. bags filled with something.
On the descents and ascents, the crowds became thicker, and there was a continuous groan of cries. The soldiers, drowning knee-deep in mud, picked up guns and wagons in their arms; whips beat, hooves slipped, traces burst and chests burst with screams. The officers in charge of the movement, either forward or backward, passed between the convoys. Their voices were faintly audible in the midst of the general rumble, and it was evident from their faces that they despaired of the possibility of stopping this disorder. “Voila le cher [‘Here is an expensive] Orthodox army,’ Bolkonsky thought, recalling Bilibin’s words.
