Subordinating conjunctions attach subordinate clauses to the main clauses of a complex sentence. Some subordinating conjunctions are also used in the construction of a simple sentence. Yes, union How can be placed before the nominal part of the compound predicate: House as a courtyard or enter into a modus operandi: Like smoke dissipated dreams(Lermontov), union to can attach the circumstance of the goal expressed by the infinitive: Gathered to discuss a plan of action. Wed: We met to discuss a plan of action.
Subordinating conjunctions are usually divided into semantic and asemantic. The latter include unions that attach subordinate explanatory sentences: what, how, to, as if. They are usually compared with grammatical cases, since with the help of explanatory conjunctions such syntactic places are often replaced, in which there may be a grammatical case. (The noise of the wind is heard, It is heard that the wind seems to be rustling; Spring is dreaming. Spring is dreaming; I remembered what happened. I remembered what happened). Like grammatical cases, explanatory conjunctions express syntactic relations predetermined (given) by the semantics of the word (or word form) to which the subordinate clause refers. The explanatory union does not form the syntactic meaning of a complex sentence, but only expresses it.
However, it would be wrong to think that in terms of content, explanatory conjunctions are empty words. Explanatory conjunctions differ among themselves by the modal components of the meaning. Union to expresses the desired modality (tell me to come) as if - uncertainty (I see that someone is standing) that And How associated with real modality.
Semantic subordinating conjunctions have their own meanings. They define syntactic relations in the structure of a complex sentence.
Semantic unions are divided into groups according to their meaning:
1) temporary alliances when, before, after, just ... as, as soon as, just,
2) causal because, because, since, in view of the fact that, especially since, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, as a result of the fact that;
3) conditional if, if... then, in case, in the event that, provided that, if and etc.;
4) concessions despite the fact that, although, despite the fact that, despite the fact that, despite the fact that, regardless of the fact that;
5) consequences so, resulting in;
6) goals so that, in order to, in order to, in order to, so that;
7) comparative: as, as if, as if, as if, just as, as if, as if, as if;
8) comparative unions that coincide with subordinating unions on a formal basis, but in meaning are not opposed to coordinating unions if ... then, while, meanwhile, how, then how, as, as, than ... that. For example, The fathers did not visit each other; she had not yet seen Alexei, while(= a) young neighbors only talked about him(Pushkin).
allied words
Allied words (or relative pronouns) are pronominal words of various parts of speech used in the construction of a complex sentence as a subordinating conjunction. Submission, formalized by the allied word, is usually called relative.
The following lexemes are used as allied words: who, what, which, which, what, whose, where, where, from where, when, how, why, why, why, how much.
Unlike unions, allied words are members of a sentence, a semantic question can be posed to them, and, importantly, they are introduced into subordinate parts on the basis of a syntactic connection with other components. For example, in a sentence The most amazing thing was how quickly they agreed(Fadeev) word How forms a phrase with an adverb fast, in which the value of the degree is expressed, and therefore cannot be considered a union. Similarly, the union word What - it is always or strongly controlled V. p. (Remember what you said in the morning), or I. p. subject (It's hard to understand what's going on).
The allied function of relative pronouns is based on their different properties.
1. When making subordinate explanatory sentences, pronouns implement their interrogative semantics and are selected depending on what the question is directed to: We were asked who is coming, what happened when the cold sets in, why the planes are not flying, what summer is expected and so on.
Note. lexeme When is a conjunction if it attaches a clause of tense.
2. If the subordinate clause refers to a noun or correlative pronoun, then its ability to be used anaphorically is realized in the allied word: most often it introduces the component mentioned in the main part into the subordinate clause: tell me about the letter you received; I am the one you are waiting for; we were where you go; on the birch that grows under my window, jackdaws have made a nest.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
LESSON #21
Subject. Complex sentences with subordinate explanatory clauses. Subordinating conjunctions and their spelling
Purpose: to deepen students' knowledge of a complex sentence; teach to find subordinate explanatory clauses, repeat the spelling of subordinating conjunctions; develop the skills of parsing and drawing up sentence schemes; to cultivate a culture of speech, a love of reading and fiction.
Equipment: textbook, dictionaries, handouts.
DURING THE CLASSES
Never be ashamed to ask about something you don't know.
J. W. Goethe
I. ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE THEME AND OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
II. MOTIVATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF SCHOOLCHILDREN
Reading the epigraph, working with it.
III. UPDATING STUDENTS' BASIC KNOWLEDGE
1. Checking homework.
(Students read the interpretation of the words “explain”, “explanatory”.)
To explain - to explain, to reveal the meaning.
Explanatory - revealing the meaning of the explained word.
2. Conversation with students.
3. Linguistic modeling.
- Replace direct speech with indirect speech. Draw diagrams of the proposals received.
1) “Where were you?” the father asked.
2) “We were in the store,” we answered.
IV. STUDY NEW MATERIAL
1. Working with a textbook article.
(The teacher may invite students to familiarize themselves with the theoretical material of the textbook.)
2. The word of the teacher.
Subordinate explanatory clauses answer case questions. They refer to members of a sentence that have the meaning of speech, thought, or feeling. These are most often verbs of speaking and thought (said, answered, asked, thought, remembered, decided, proud, rejoiced, felt, etc.), less often - other parts of speech: adjectives, adverbs, nouns (happy, known, clear; conversation, message, etc.).
1) We know (what do we know?) that they will keep their promise.
2) They talked (what were they talking about?) as if they had seen him in the city.
3) I am glad (what glad?) that you have successfully completed the work.
4) She gave her word (in what?) that she would do everything accurately and accurately.
Subordinate explanatory clauses are attached to the explained word in three ways:
1) with the help of unions what, as, as if, in order to;
2) with the help of allied words, relative pronouns;
3) with the help of the particle li, used in the meaning of the union.
In the main sentence, with the words being explained, there may be a demonstrative word that serves to highlight the content of the subordinate clause. Compare:
1) It was difficult for him to admit that he committed this act.
2) It was difficult for him to admit that he committed this act.
Subordinate explanatory clauses are used to convey indirect speech. With the help of unions that, as if, they express indirect messages, with the help of the union to - indirect motives, with the help of allied words and particles whether - indirect questions (after an indirect question, a question mark is not put).
V. CONSOLIDATION OF THE STUDYED MATERIAL
1. Work with the textbook.
(Students do the teacher's choice exercise.)
2. Analysis of linguistic phenomena.
- Write sentences with punctuation marks; indicate complex sentences with subordinate explanatory clauses; make schemes 2 and 4 sentences; pay special attention to the spelling of unions.
1) I fell in love with this small outskirts and was sure that it was the most picturesque in the world.
2) She dreams of being (that) (would) she is walking along a snowy meadow.
3) No matter what they say, I will do this work.
4) I was always surprised how this already old man managed to do several things at once.
5) Take on (what) what you are akin to if you want that (b) there was a successful end in business.
6) Are you glad that you are at home?
7) With whom you will lead (from) that you will type.
8) You should not judge me (by) what I do.
9) (On) this shore it is better to go (because) there is more shade here.
3. Linguistic construction.
- Convert simple sentences into complex ones, replacing the underlined words with subordinate explanatory clauses or subordinate clauses; write complex sentences with punctuation marks; highlight grammar points.
Sample: 1) Those participating in the performance went to rehearsal.- Those who participate in the performance went to rehearsal. 2) We read about Przhevalsky's travels. - We read about how Przhevalsky traveled.
1) Those who come to Kyiv admire the beautiful monuments of (ancient) Russian literature and art..tva.
2) He talked about a trip along the Dnieper.
3) Those who arrived at the conference were accommodated in a city hotel.
4) We closely followed the game of our team.
5) He asked his friends for help.
6) Everyone was happy about the arrival of the long-awaited (n / nn) spring.
4. Linguistic modeling.
– Make complex sentences with subordinate explanatory clauses using the words in the frames; highlight grammar points.
5. Linguistic construction with editing elements.
- Find the shortcomings in the story, correct the mistakes. First, build a dialogue, and then replace direct speech with indirect speech, using complex sentences with subordinate explanatory clauses.
“And I told him, sister, that you are beautiful with us, and he, sister, said: “Well, so what?” - and I, sister, said: why, everyone loves beauties, and he said: “Everyone loves stupid ones”, and I said: “Don’t you love them?” - and he said: “I don’t have time.” - And I told him, sister,: so you don’t want to meet Verochka? - and he said: "I have many acquaintances without her."
VI. SUMMING UP THE LESSON, EVALUATION OF STUDENTS' LEARNING ACHIEVEMENTS
Interview with students.
1) What is a compound sentence?
2) What are the types of complex sentences?
3) What types of subordinate clauses do you know?
4) What questions do the attributive clauses answer?
5) What questions do the subordinate explanatory clauses answer?
6) With the help of what are the subordinate explanatory clauses attached to the explained word?
7) What place do the subordinate explanatory clauses take in relation to the main?
8) What should I pay attention to when writing unions? (Conjunctions must be distinguished from combinations of prepositions with pronouns.)
VII. HOMEWORK
1. Learn and repeat the theoretical material, prepare for the thematic test.
2. Complete the exercise from the textbook of the teacher's choice.
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V. Y. Apresyan, O. E. Pekelis, 2012
Subordinating unions are unions used to express a subordinating syntactic connection (see the articles Subordination and Union). In the general classification of unions, subordinating unions are opposed to coordinating ones.
1. Introduction
The classification of subordinating conjunctions is based on semantic principles. In accordance with AG-1954. [Grammar 1954: p. 1012] in this article the following groups of conjunctions are distinguished:
(1) causal conjunctions ( because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that);
(2) conjunctions of consequence ( so, and then, and not that);
(3) target unions ( so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that);
(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when);
(5) concessive alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, while; it would be good, let it be; only truth);
(6) temporary alliances ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as soon as, after, since, until, until, until, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, a little, a little, a little, before, while);
(7) comparative conjunctions ( as, that, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (like), like, exactly, exactly (like), than, rather than).
(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, what, as if, how);
The composition of the groups is given according to AG-1954, with the exception of the group of concessive unions (see): its composition is somewhat wider than what is proposed in the grammar. Concession unions are described in this article in accordance with the works of [V. Apresyan 2006. a, b, c] and [V. Apresyan 2010].
Unions are considered in each subsection only in their main meaning; for example union to(see ) has, in addition to the target ( He did it to help her.), the optimal value ( For him to be empty), which is used to express a negative wish; union though has, in addition to the concessive ( We went for a walk, even though it was very cold), also the value of free choice ( Come at least in a ball gown, even in a tracksuit), as well as many others, but they are not mentioned in this article.
2. Causal unions
List of causal unions: because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that.
Causal conjunctions constitute one of the largest groups among subordinating conjunctions; cf. Unions / p. 4. Statistics. Semantically, they form a very homogeneous group, with some semantic and stylistic variations.
General semantics of this group of unions X because<так как, ….> Y-‘Y is the cause of X’. Syntactically, all unions of this group introduce the valency of the cause, i.e. subjugate a causal subordinate clause.
2.1. union because
Union because the most neutral stylistically and therefore the most frequent (117.467. occurrences in the Main Corpus):
(1) Executives are not afraid to expand IT services,<...> because thanks to ITSM, they consider themselves insured against the risk of loss of IT management [N. Dubova]
(2) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time [O. Zueva]
Syntactically because differs in that it cannot occupy the initial position in the sentence. Wed:
(3) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time<…>["Dasha" (2004)]
(4) *Because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time, I was rushing around the kitchen.
This syntactic feature is apparently explained by the following semantic-communicative property because: this union introduces information about the causal relationship between the situations expressed by the dependent clause and the main one, as unknown to the Listener; the unknown, meanwhile, tends to coincide with the end of the statement - with the rheme (see Communicative structure).
2.2. Stylistically colored causal conjunctions
2.2.1. Unions because, because the, thanks to
Because,because the, thanks to somewhat shifted towards unnecessary and therefore less frequent:
(5) In this case, Newton's law of gravity is used, because the gravitational field of black holes at large distances is close to Newtonian. [Vestnik RAS (2004)]
(6) The fees charged are also drastically reduced, because the reducing the cost of translations. ["Questions of statistics" (2004)]
(7) Only thanks to we held on as a team of like-minded people, the magazine retained its face. ["Science and Life" (2009)]
All of these unions are rather slightly official in connotation and are rarely found in the Poetic Subcorpus (10 occurrences per million - because, 1 occurrence per million - because the, thanks to does not occur).
2.2.2. Union because of
Union because of tends to high style, which is why it is quite frequent in poetry:
(8) It was even more difficult for me because of I, after all, knew: he did not love the one / Who was no longer there ... [Z. Gippius]
(9) I would like to find a scapular, / Because of my time is near... [A. Akhmatova]
From a synonymous union because because of differs in that it cannot express a causal relationship between the proposition of the dependent clause and the epistemic modality included in the meaning of the main clause (see Illocutionary use of conjunctions). Wed inability to replace because on because of in the relevant context:
(10) There was nothing to delay: I shot, in turn, at random; sure, the bullet hit him in the shoulder, because<*оттого что> suddenly he lowered his hand … [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of our time (1839-1841)]
Because of, moreover, is not subject to the prohibition on the initial position in a sentence, which applies to because(cm. ). Wed:
(11) Because of <*because> Clara now knew his hardships, his languid smile squeezed her with sympathy. [A. Solzhenitsyn. In the first circle (1968)]
2.2.3. Unions due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that
Due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that- book associations:
(12) Had to curtail work due to The deposit turned out to be unsuitable for industrial exploitation. [IN. Skvortsov]
(13) Aerolites, or meteorites, are iron or stone masses that fall out of world space onto the Earth in the form of pieces of various sizes, melted from the surface due to the fact that they become hot as they travel rapidly through the atmosphere. [IN. Obruchev]
(14) I was suffocating in Moscow, in general in Russia, where, like a cancerous tumor, the national financial pyramid grew due to the fact that the government and the population, by mutual agreement, deceived themselves and each other. [IN. Skvortsov]
2.2.4. Union due to the fact that
Due to the fact that has an official shade:
(15) He<...>showed me two resolutions: one - on bringing me to justice under such and such an article of the criminal code and under such and such a note to it - and the other - on choosing a measure of restraint (a written undertaking not to leave) due to the fact that due to health reasons, the accused cannot participate in the investigation and trial [Yu. Dombrovsky]
2.2.5. Unions for And then what
For And then what outdated or high style; however for, like many other obsolete unions, it is quite widespread in modern newspaper language (30 occurrences per million in the Newspaper subcorpus).
(16) Therefore, those who do not know the matter should<...>take on it: for what is said in Scripture is said not only so that they know, but also so that they do it. [Bishop Ignatius (Bryanchaninov)]
(17) Developed countries will not want to let in all the migrants, for this means that you will have to part with your development, with your usual standard of living [RIA Novosti (2008)]
(18) I have never called you my sister before, then what could not be your brother then what we were uneven, then that you were deceived in me! [F. M. Dostoevsky]
Among other causal unions for stands apart: although this union is traditionally considered subordinating, due to a number of its formal properties for approaches the composition (for more details, see the article Composition).
2.3. Differences in the semantics of causal conjunctions
Unions thanks to,due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that And due to the fact that retain the semantic features of the prepositions from which they are formed (see the article Preposition); most of these features are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004].
Yes, union thanks to indicates not only the cause, but also the desirability of the effect: He made a full recovery due to the fact that medical care was provided on time., but not * He died due to the fact that medical care was not provided on time.. Wed Also:
(19) My fate was developing successfully thanks to Mother had well-established friends and well-married friends who were happy to help us. [L. Vertinskaya]
Unions due to And due to the fact that indicate a direct, close connection between cause and effect, and due to the fact that- to a more indirect one:
(20) Judgment was annulled due to the fact that <due to> gross violations in the conduct of the process were revealed. - direct connection
(21) Parkinson's disease develops due to the fact that the content of the neurotransmitter dopamine begins to decrease in the brain - an indirect connection
when weird:
(22) Parkinson's disease develops due to <due to the fact that>brain levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine begin to decline
In addition, for unions due to the fact that And due to the fact that characterized by the presence of an objective connection between events, and for the union due to the fact that - a motive that motivates a person to act in a certain way.
Due to the fact that often used metatextually, to indicate logical connections in inferences and conclusions: Demand for apartments has risen again, perhaps due to the fact that the supply remains low. Wed Also:
(23) The constituent pairs of such elements have fairly close atomic weights due to the fact that are formed from a single proto-kernel [Geoinformatics (2003)]
3. Conjunctions of consequence
List of coercive alliances So(cm. ), and then, not that(cm.
3.1. Union so and combination so / such + that
Unlike the meaning of ‘cause’, which is expressed in Russian by numerous unions (see), the meaning of ‘consequence’ is directly “served” by a single union - So. Union So is a semantic converse of the union because. Thus, the meaning of the union So can be defined through the meaning of ‘cause’: x, soY= 'X causes Y':
(24) She worked conscientiously, So panicles of palm leaves had to be changed every half an hour. [A. Dorofeev]
(25) Alyosha ate enough, So was very happy. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
Syntactically union So introduces the valency of the consequence, i.e. subordinates the subordinate clause of the consequence.
The meaning of ‘consequence’ can also be expressed by the adverb So or adjective such in the main clause in combination with the union What in the subordinate:
(26) So got scared What he seemed to be paralyzed, he could not take a step towards the black abyss and huddled against the bench. [IN. Bykov]
(27) It was written on Gosha's face such genuine confusion, What no one doubted his sincerity. [IN. Belousov]
3.2. Unions of threat: otherwise
Alliances "threats" and then... And not that... can conditionally be attributed to conjunctions of the consequence, but in fact their semantics is more complicated. Phrases like X, but (not) thenY assume that if condition X is not met, then an undesirable situation Y will arise (i.e., failure to fulfill X entails unpleasant consequences Y):
(28) Get away otherwise <not that> will crush you; fall behind otherwise <not that> ladies in the face.
Their exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with disjunctive conjunctions. otherwise And not that, which, however, are much rarer, as well as with the union A combined with a pronoun That.
4. Target alliances
List of target unions: so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that.
The meaning of 'goal', expressed by the unions of this group, has been repeatedly discussed in the linguistic literature; the classic work [Zholkovsky 1964] is devoted, in particular, to the word target; prepositions with the meaning of purpose, first of all For And for the sake of are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004], [V. Apresyan 1995].
4.1. Conjunctions in order to
Unions to And in order to express the same idea as the noun target and preposition For. Their meanings combine the meanings of cause, desire and action: X toY means that the action X performed by the subject will be, in his opinion, the cause of the situation Y he desires. To - one of the most frequent subordinating unions (1479 per million uses in the Main Corpus):
(29) Mom and dad generally slept standing up, propping each other up, to don't collapse. (A. Dorofeev)
(30) The hammerer was dragged away from the stone, - to did not interfere. (V. Bykov)
(31) Indeed, store navigation is intuitively simple, in order to collect a basket and place an order, you need to do just a few simple steps (O. Feofilova)
To can also act as an explanatory union, for these uses, see.
4.2. Stylistically colored target unions
Other target unions - stylistically marked and, accordingly, less frequent, synonyms to.
So that- colloquial or poetic version of the union to(300. uses per million in the Main Corpus, 546. - in the Oral, 1662. - in the Poetic):
(32) This is what I use now, so that write a dissertation [LiveJournal Entry (2004)]
So as to and especially then to- book synonyms of the union to (so as to has a touch of formality and is often found in newspaper texts):
(33) Leonid Polezhaev, speaking in the Federation Council, proposed holding a referendum, so as to toughen criminal liability for illegal production and distribution of drugs. ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]
(34) After all, we came then to put an end to all disputes that have been going on completely fruitlessly for the past seven years. [YU. Dombrovsky]
Union so that with the same meaning stylistically colored as obsolete, tall or, most commonly in modern parlance, jocular:
(35) Created distant skies, To contemplate from them all your creation ... [D. S. Merezhkovsky]
(36) Well, the powder will be kept warm for ten days, so that the microbes of anthrax, if its spores turn out to be a powder, showed themselves in all, so to speak, completeness ... ["Criminal Chronicle" (2003)]
5. Conditional unions
List of conditional unions: if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when. All of them except whether, have the option of That(if... then, if b(s)... then and etc.).
5.1. union if
The main conditional union, If devoted to a large literature. In some works, it is considered a semantic primitive, i.e. a word that cannot be decomposed into simpler semantic components; in some works, including within the framework of the Moscow Semantic School, attempts are made to interpret it. Special attention to the union If is given in recent works [Sannikov 2008] and [Uryson 2011], each of which offers, in particular, its interpretation. However, these interpretations are not used in this article, due to their formal complexity, as well as reliance on semantic components that are more complex in meaning than the union If(meaning ‘probability’ as interpreted by Sannikov, meanings ‘hypothesis’ and ‘influence’ as interpreted by E. V. Uryson). This article adopts a point of view on the semantic primitiveness of the union If, however, material from the works of V. Z. Sannikov and E. U. Uryson is used to explain and present its uses.
Union If there are two main meanings - If"conditions" (see) and "comparative" If(cm. ).
5.1.1. If conditions
bivalent union If"conditions" ( IfX, thenY) introduces the concept of such a relationship between two situations X and Y, when the presence of one of them (X) makes the presence of the other (Y) very likely:
(37) If their gang will be opened, Oleg will automatically go to jail. [IN. Tokarev]
It is characterized by the use of the verb with the future tense. The work [Paducheva 2004: 103–104] considers the implicature ‘and if there is no X, then there is no Y’, i.e. condition is usually understood not only as sufficient, but also as necessary: If you call, I will come[meaning ‘and if not, then no’].
The work [Uryson 2011] provides a more detailed classification of uses If"conditions":
(1) If"hypotheses" If the summer is dry, there will be no mushrooms(we are talking about single hypothetical situations);
(2) if “generalizations”: If we managed to get money somewhere, we immediately went for a bottle (we are talking about repeatedly repeated situations);
(3) If"given state of affairs": If you, Lelisha, ate the second lozenge, then I will bite off this apple again(M. Zoshchenko) - we are talking about a real-life situation that causes some other situation.
5.1.2. Comparative If
Much rarer and bookish usage, "comparative", rhetorical If can be illustrated with the following example:
(38) If Masha married at the age of seventeen and gave birth to eight children, her own sister Katya lived all her life in a monastery.
In this meaning If does not indicate the connection of situations, but reflects the speaker's idea of them as taking place simultaneously and contrasting with each other.
5.2. Unions once and for all
Union If in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see) the union is synonymous once, which also presents situation X as a given, which, according to the Speaker, "The addressee will not deny" [Iordanskaya, Melchuk 2007: 495]:
(39) Once he was so received at home, once made a criminal, they don’t shake hands, then he doesn’t need anyone either. [D. Granin]
Wed also the following example, where once used after If, as if reinforcing the hypothesis, which, being repeated, is already accepted as an axiom:
(40) Dostoevsky believed that if there is no God, then everything is permitted, and once allowed, then you can lose heart, despair. [D. Granin]
As soon as- book synonym If"state of affairs" and once(precise statistics are not possible due to homonymy with the noun once):
(41) And as soon as Ivanovsky crossed Europe to see his relatives, then it would not be difficult for him to take another five hundred steps to his, Yagudin's, home. [A. Rybakov]
(42) As soon as the world has become simpler, there is no place left for skilled work. [D. Bykov]
5.3. Unions if and if
Colloquial-reduced union if- a synonym for the conditional if in the meaning of "hypothesis" and sometimes in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see):
(43) He gave me a power of attorney for the right to conduct business and receive money, if such will follow. [A. Hair]
(44) If born a slave - it means that such is your bitter fate. [G. Nikolaev]
Examples on if"generalizations" (see) are not found in the Corpus, however, in principle, the following are possible:
(45) If money appeared, we immediately ran for a bottle.
If - obsolete synonym for conditional If, also commonly used in newspaper language, in all uses, with a large percentage of the use of "state of affairs" (see):
(46) The guys and I will add if[V. Astafiev] - if"hypotheses"
(47) A if did not take him, then he ran away from home and came on his own [B. Ekimov] - if"generalizations"
(48) Tom occupies a very good position in society, if was in the Bolshoi, and in the Small, and in the Art, and besides, she was treated to free gifts [L. Ulitskaya]
(49) So, there is a matter, your honor, if came. [A. Panteleev]
(50) Well, well, say if already started. [A.N. Ostrovsky] - if"state of affairs"
5.4. Conditional conjunctions on would: if b (s), if b (s), if only
Union if and its variant if only(for the distribution of these options, see Subjunctive mood / clause 3.4.1) are added to the meaning of the main conditional union If the semantic component of the imaginary, unreality of situation X, which in fact does not take place, which is why the situation Y following from it does not take place (the so-called counterfactual meaning, see Subjunctive mood / clause 2.1): If you were here, then we would go for a walk; If yes, if only, then mushrooms would grow in the mouth. Wed Also:
(51) If If you wanted Sasha and I to live normally, you would have invested your money. [IN. Tokarev]
(52) You wouldn’t even go to a restaurant then, if I didn't pay for you. [A. Gelasimov]
(53) If honestly pay for the work, then all the repairmen from the depot would have fled long ago. [IN. Astafiev]
(54) If only knew right away, but would he have uttered even a word? [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(55) If only not potatoes on three household acres, then fellow villagers would swell from hunger. [A. Azole]
Simultaneous to it ( as long as, as long as, as long as, as long as), cm. ;
following it ( before, before, before), cm. .
The submission of temporary alliances in this article is largely based on [V. Apresyan 2010].
Another semantic feature is the time that passes between situations in case of their non-simultaneity. On this basis, unions formed from adverbs and particles with a low degree value are opposed to all the others, namely, unions barely, barely... as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, just, just, just, just, just a little, just a little, just a little indicate the immediate precedence of one situation to another, the absence of a time interval between the onset of the initial and subsequent situations.
The main and most frequent temporary union When(390. 262. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is neutral with respect to these signs, and can introduce both precedence, and following, and simultaneity: When he came he washed the dishes[precedence], When he arrived, the dishes had already been washed.[following], When you work with acid, keep the window open.[simultaneity].
7.1. Conjunctions with precedence value
The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that occurs before the situation introduced by the main clause.
7.1.1. Conjunctions indicating immediate precedence: as soon as, until and etc.
as soon as(15 020 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:
(82) Consideration of the case took no more than thirty minutes - as soon as the court was presented with photographs of the place of the "violation", the question of the forbidden exit to the opposite side of the road disappeared by itself. ["Driving" (2003)]
Its colloquial synonyms How And only are much rarer, but their statistics are impossible due to homonymy with other meanings:
(83) False ubopovtsy (this has already become clear) threw a bound prisoner with the words, they say, How let's figure it out - we'll come and let go. ["Daily News" (2003)]
(84) Only get out of this hollow - and skiff! [M. Bubennov]
Other unions of this group - barely, barely(3 occurrences per million in the Main Body) , only, just only(7 occurrences per million in the main body), just a little(0.2 occurrences per million) , just a little, just a little(1.5. occurrences in the Main Corpus) - typical for written texts (in the Oral Corpus - single occurrences in the desired meaning):
(85) Barely it was dawn when Valentin Kazarka appeared on the pier. [A. Azole]
(86) Barely Nerzhin wrote down this conclusion on a piece of paper, just as he was arrested. [A. Solzhenitsyn]
(87) And only a point will appear, move, it soars and suddenly falls down like a stone! [M. Bulgakov]
(88) Just he opened the door, Tanya immediately saw him and went out [Yu. Trifonov]
(89) Just a little he will lose his temper, she will immediately go to her room - and on the key. [TO. Chukovsky]
(90) a little if he gets a free moment, he immediately starts sweeping the carpet by the dustpan, by the broom, otherwise he rinses the cups, vacuums the sofa, or starts a little laundry. [YU. Trifonov]
(91) But You didn't know that just a little If a person rejects a miracle, then he immediately rejects God, for a person seeks not so much God as miracles. [IN. Rozanov]
Statistics barely, a little And only difficult due to homonymy with particles.
Standing apart in this group is the frequency union until(14 682. occurrences in the Main Corpus), which indicates that upon reaching the situation introduced by the union, the situation described in the main sentence stops:
(92) Close the lid and simmer for about 30 minutes or Bye chick Not will become soft. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)]
Its exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with the adverb Bye combined with particle Not: The work has not been completed yet. Its synonyms, unions until(392. entries in the main body) and not yet(109. entries in the Main Corpus) are obsolete or colloquial:
(93) So Lieutenant Yegor Dremov fought, until misfortune happened to him [A. N. Tolstoy]
(94) Continuing the service, Gribovsky Goryushka did not know, not yet added provocation to the denunciation. [YU. Davydov]
Unions Bye, as long as And meanwhile in this meaning are possible, but much less common (see more about them):
(95) Wait until I will die... Soon I will die ... [Z. Prilepin]
(96) However, mother pushed her little son to her father, and had to endure, as long as the giant will pat on the head or clasp his cheeks with his large plump palms and give him a few greasy sweets. [A. Varlamov]
(97) If I was sitting on a math test, not disturbing anyone, calmly waiting, meanwhile my friend will solve the problem, then everything was attributed to this my laziness, and not stupidity. [F. Iskander]
7.1.2. Conjunctions that do not indicate immediate precedence: after, since
Union after(10 157 occurrences in the Main Corpus) can indicate both immediate and more distant following:
(99) I watched "Star" by Nikolai Lebedev almost a year later after the film was released. [L. Anninsky] - remote follow
Since(3 222. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates that a certain period of time passes between the onset of the first situation and the onset of the second:
(100) Seventeen years have passed since then,How he told me this. [A. Gelasimov] - but not *immediately since then,How he told me that
Since has an additional semantic component - namely, it assumes that both situations occurred quite a long time ago relative to the moment of speech:
(101) Spivakov and Pletnev have known each other for a very long time, since Misha studied with Flier, with whom Volodya was friendly and in his youth even lived at his house [S. Spivakova] - but not * Since he called her an hour ago, she was on pins and needles
7.2. Unions with the meaning of simultaneity of situations
The union is most stylistically neutral and frequent in this group. Bye(see other uses Bye And until Also ):
(102) Scientists, businessmen and petty thieves<...>at the request of prosecutors, judges are sent to a pre-trial detention center for months, or even years, Bye investigation continues. [“MN Time” (2003)]
(103) Bye our crazy sultan / Promises us the way to the prison ... (B. Okudzhava)
Its precise statistics are impossible due to homonymy with the adverb Bye: We are still working on the article..
Union as long as - obsolete or colloquial (2729. occurrences in the Main Corpus), union meanwhile(1250 entries in the main building) – obsolete or colloquial:
(104) But I, the high priest of the Jews, as long as I'm alive, I won't let my faith be desecrated, and I'll defend the people! [M. Bulgakov]
(105) As long as our President was preparing to send the Federal Assembly<...>, as long as he adapted himself to say about the need for a steady further improvement in the well-being of the people<...>, in the city of Volzhsky, located in the vicinity of Volgograd, events took place that made all this melody recitation meaningless. [Crime Chronicle (2003)]
(106) In these few seconds, meanwhile he ran to the other end, she managed to swing quite strongly. [F. Iskander]
Unused Union as(1667. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates not just the simultaneous existence of situations, but the gradual increase in the situation described in the main sentence, against the background and because of the gradual increase in the situation introduced by the union, i.e. as contains a component of causality, causality (for conjunctions of cause, see):
(107) Visual acuity improved as narrowed the outer opening of the eye. [A. Zaitsev]
(108) As trips were shortened, connections were broken, he began to suffer. [D. Granin]
rare union while describes the parallel unfolding of two situations:
(109) While the Supreme Court was considering the case of citizen A. A. Zhukov, many taxpayers calculated the amounts that they might have to pay extra for several years ["Accounting" (2004)]
Its exact statistics are difficult because of its polysemy, and its concessive meaning (see), which does not imply mandatory simultaneity, is much more frequent:
(110) It is also pointed out that Big Western Money will not come to Russia now, while under the old system, they came or promised to come ["Tomorrow" (2003)]
7.3. Conjunctions with the meaning of following
The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that follows the situation introduced by the main clause. Stylistically neutral union before(8 526 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:
(111) Before to proceed to the consideration of specific data on the composition of the jury, we will make a number of general remarks. (A. Afanasiev)
It usually introduces controlled actions, cf. weirdness ? We got everything cleaned up before it started to rain. and especially in preposition to the main clause ?? Before it started to rain, we cleaned everything.
Union before(2236. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is also stylistically neutral and, although it can introduce purposeful actions ( Before she began to sing, the Rotarov fans shouted: come on Rotaru!(I. Kio)) is mainly used in the context of uncontrolled events, processes and influences:
(112) Here she died before I was born, and she and I lived in the same century [E. Grishkovets]
(113) But before the stone was thrown, it had kinetic energy [V. Lukashik, E. Ivanova. Collection of problems in physics. 7-9. class (2003)]
(114) Often people knock on a neighbor's door long before before the smell of a decaying corpse will spread throughout the apartment. [A. Azole]
Synonym before(731. entry in the Main Corpus) - obsolete or bookish synonym before:
(115) Before I managed to answer something, she burst into tears [A. I. Herzen. The Thieving Magpie (1846)]
(116) Before an ear may appear above the ground, something inevitable must happen to the seed underground: it must dissolve, as if disappearing [Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom). "The Beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." Discourses on the Gospel of Mark (1990-1992)]
8. Comparative conjunctions
List of comparative unions: like, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, as, than than.
The work [Sannikov 2008] provides arguments in favor of the special status of comparative constructions and, accordingly, comparative conjunctions.
Comparative constructions come close to coordinating ones (see Essay) in the following ways:
(1) unlike subordinating conjunctions, coordinating and comparative conjunctions can attach syntactic units of a lower level than a clause:
(117) Dialed the code of Moscow and Sasha's phone number. [IN. Tokarev]
(118) Lid, How door, shut up after me... [Oh. Pavlov]
(2) the compared members, like the composed ones, have a dual syntactic status: on the one hand, there is a syntactic connection between the compared members (comparatives), on the other hand, there is a syntactic connection of each of the comparatives with the main word, i.e. comparative and subordinating connections are “superimposed” [Sannikov 2008: 395] on each other.
(119) <…>How grove in september, / Showers brains with alcohol [S. Yesenin]
This is not possible for composed members: cf. Katya and Misha came vs. impossibility * And Katya Misha came.
In this article, as in traditional Russian studies, comparative conjunctions are considered as part of subordinating ones.
For more information about comparative constructions, see the special article Comparative constructions.
8.1. union as
Basic Comparative Union, How(statistics not possible due to homonymy with temporary How, which is part of complex temporary unions (see), and very frequent explanatory How(see )), can attach members of a sentence or whole sentences:
(120) Driven in these questions, How bullets in the forehead [A. Gelasimov]
(121) All my soldiers<...>Abdulka loved and remembered like sons. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(122) The elephant's head is empty, How the streets of the city are empty during the hours of midday heat [A. Dorofeev]
In a comparative sense, it is semantically trivalent (although syntactically related only to the second comparat) and has the following semantics: P Z as Q 'The object P (the object of comparison) and the object Q (the standard of comparison) have a common attribute Z', see Comparative Constructions / Definition .
What- obsolete poetic synonym How:
(123) And Razin dreams of the bottom: / Flowers - What carpet boards [M. Tsvetaeva]
For What characteristic is the failure to mention the sign by which the comparison is made: And she is like death, / The mouth is bitten into the blood(M. Tsvetaeva) instead of She is as pale as death. Its statistics are impossible due to homonomy with one of the most frequent conjunctions of the Russian language - explanatory What, as well as with the pronoun What in the nominative case (see).
8.2. Synonyms as with a narrower meaning: as if, as if, exactly, etc.
Most other comparative conjunctions are as if as if), as if(statistics not possible due to homonymy with explanatory as if)as if, as if, as if (like), as if (as if),(on the distribution of options with would and without would see Comparative constructions / item 2.2), exactly(statistics not possible due to homonymy with much more frequent adverbs and short adjectives) , exactly (would)(statistics is impossible due to homonymy with a much more frequent adverb and a short adjective), just like- synonyms How, only with a narrower meaning, namely, they all emphasize that the two comparators are not equivalent, but only superficially similar. They are often used for figurative comparisons of really distant objects belonging to completely different classes; compare:
(124) Light as if <as if would, like> fluff
(125) The numbers somehow caught on in my head, as if pillow studded with sewing needles. [A. Dorofeev]
(126) This whole tin plane was shaking, like malarial fever. [IN. Bykov]
(127) The cloak dangled strangely on the shoulders - dull and scratched, exactly catering aluminum utensils. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(128) Sitting smooth Mother of God, / Yes, pearls will be lowered on a string [M. Tsvetaeva]
Wherein as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, exactly book unions, exactly - folk poetry. Syntactically, they can join both sentence members (see examples above) and whole sentences:
(129) He loved only himself in the world<...>lustfully, lustfully, as if one flesh lusted incessantly for another, more beautiful. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(130) Light high consonance to the accompaniment of calm basses - like in a communal apartment, a neighbor walks behind the wall. [A. Slapovsky]
(131) The floorboards in the hall creak by themselves, exactly someone came and walks [V. Pietsukh]
(132) And Razin dreams - ringing: / Smooth droplets silver drops [M. Tsvetaeva]
For the choice of union depending on the syntactic type of the comparative construction, see Comparative constructions / clause 3.2.2.
8.3. Union, just like
Union similar to - book synonym for union How, which has the following syntactic restriction: it can link entire sentences, but not individual members of the sentence; compare:
(133) Similar to You may not notice the stupidity of a beautiful woman, so you may not notice the magnificence of a stupid man. [F. Iskander]
(134) Similar to the shadow of a person gives an idea of his figure, so anti-Semitism gives an idea of the historical fate and path of the Jews. [IN. Grossman]
but not * I love Katya like a daughter.
Use with an adverb So also characteristic of the union How when it links sentences:
(135) How little girls tirelessly dress up dolls, So and Pavel spent hours collecting and disassembling cardboard models of a person and his individual organs [L. Ulitskaya]
8.4. Unions of what and what
comparative union how and its synonym than (than) fundamentally different in their semantics from other comparative conjunctions. If most comparative conjunctions convey the idea of similarity between two objects on the basis of a common feature, how And than convey the idea of a difference between two objects on some basis: He is smarter than her;He will have to spend more time there than he expected.. The meaning of these unions can be formulated as follows: PZ than<нежели> Q‘P differs from Q in regard to the degree to which it has the attribute Z’. How And than are used with the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb that expresses a sign, according to the degree of which two objects are distinguished:
(136) At that moment he was more afraid of the Elector, how those that were on the tower [V. Bykov]
(137) Both flowers were even more fragrant with nectar, how oregano. [IN. Kologriv]
(138) Passing the hollow, which turned out to be much more extensive, than it seemed to Travkin during observation, the sappers stopped. [E. Kazakevich]
(139) And the knight had to beg a little more and longer after that, than he assumed. [M. Bulgakov]
Union than usually qualifies as bookish, which is refuted by corpus data - its general frequency, as well as statistics on the Oral and Newspaper corpus (in percentage terms 0.0057 in the Main corpus, 0.0024 in the Gazetny, 0.0012 in the Oral corpus).
9. Explanatory conjunctions
List of explanatory conjunctions: what, to, (as) as if, as.
(140) I know What he no longer works there; He said, What She is gone; I want, to You came; They say, as if <as if>he left He watched How carry hay.
This distinction has syntactic and semantic consequences. So, the main clause in the composition of a complex explanatory sentence is not a component (see Glossary) and therefore cannot be used in isolation; cf. wrong * He said, *I want, *They say, *He was watching. For other subordinating conjunctions, this is not necessary or uncharacteristic. Wed:
(141) I will come If <When> she will come; I will come, because <Although> it will not be; I decided to return to Moscow in advance, to everything was there by the time the children arrived; The rain is over So you can go for a walk.
(142) I will come; I decided to return to Moscow in advance; The rain is over.
Semantically explanatory conjunctions are the least filled of all subordinating conjunctions.
Accurate statistics of these unions is impossible due to their homonymy with allied words ( what how), pronouns ( What), pronominal adverbs ( How), target unions ( to), comparative conjunctions ( How, as if).
Stylistically neutral union What - the most common of all explanatory (and of all subordinating) conjunctions. In some contexts, instead of What used to. Office of subordinate clauses with union What and, less often, to characteristic of many classes of verbs, including verbs of speech ( say that<чтобы> ; claim that; report that;insist that <to> etc.), for mental predicates ( think that; understand that; know that; think that), verbs of perception ( see that; to hear that; make sure, etc.) and many others:
(143) And you They say, What your friend has already left… [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]
(144) PA speaks, to I didn't approach her with it. [L. Ulitskaya. Case of Kukotsky (2000)]
(145) Key stubbornly insisted, What Vertinsky is an outstanding poet, as proof of which he cited the line: "Hallelujah, like a blue bird." [IN. P. Kataev. My Diamond Crown (1975-1977)]
(146) Mom hard insisted that we got it right. [A. Alexin. Division of property (1979)]
Between What And to there is a compatibility-semantic distribution: when a speech verb conveys not only the content of someone else's speech, but also the wish of the subject of speech, as in examples (144) and (146), What is replaced by to. Wed impossibility in interpreting the transmission of wishes # She says I didn't hit on her(the only possible interpretation is ‘She denies there was any molestation’), # She insisted that we understood her correctly.(the only possible interpretation is ‘She claims we got her right’).
Verbs of speech ( talk, chat, weave), mental predicates with an unreliability value ( seem to wonder) and some other classes of verbs can also govern clauses with book conjunctions as if And as if, indicating the unreliability of the reported:
(147) What are you telling me as if don't play anything but Tchaikovsky! [WITH. Spivakov]
(148) So it seems to us, as if the stars are falling. ["Murzilka" (2003)]
(149) Rumors spread as if another monetary reform is coming. ["Results" (2003)]
(150) It seemed as if a whole family of grasshoppers settled in an abandoned children's coffin. [YU. Dombrovsky]
For verbs of perception it is often possible to manage a stylistically neutral conjunction How: see how; hear how; watch how and so on.
Verbs with a volitional meaning are characterized by the control of a stylistically neutral conjunction to: want to; require that; ask that etc.:
What can introduce facts or opinions, but not situations; cf. know that… And count…, but not * watch that.
How introduces situations, but not facts and opinions: watch how, but not * know how[in the meaning of an explanatory conjunction] and not * count how.
To, as if And as if cannot enter facts (cannot * know to, *know that, *know as if).
Explanatory conjunctions What And How must be distinguished from allied words, which, unlike unions, are members of the subordinate clause, obeying directly the verb in the subordinate clause; also, unlike unions, they carry a phrasal accent:
(151) I know ¯ What\ we need to do, I saw, ¯ How\ they treat her.
Due to their semantic unsaturation, explanatory conjunctions can be omitted: I know (what), he has already come.
Bibliography
- Apresyan V.Yu. (a) Concession as a backbone meaning // Questions of Linguistics, 2. 2006, pp. 85–110.
- Apresyan V.Yu. (b) From Although before even if
- Apresyan V.Yu. (c) Concession in language // Linguistic picture of the world and systemic lexicography. Apresyan Yu.D. (Ed.) pp. 615–712. M. 2006.
- Apresyan V.Yu. For And for the sake of: similarities and differences // Questions of linguistics, 3. 1995. P. 17–27.
- Apresyan V.Yu. Dictionary entries of the fields 'correspondence and inconsistency with reality', 'small quantity and degree', 'compliance' and 'organization' // Prospectus of the Active Dictionary of the Russian Language under the general supervision of Academician Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2010.
- Grammar 1954. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of Linguistics. Grammar of Russian language. v.2. Syntax. part 2. M. 1954.
- Zholkovsky A.K. Vocabulary of Purposeful Activity // Machine Translation and Applied Linguistics, 8. M. 1964.
- Jordanskaya L.N., Melchuk I.A. Meaning and compatibility in the dictionary. M. 2007.
- Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New Explanatory Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 1997. (1st ed.).
- Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2004. (2nd ed.).
- Paducheva E.V. Dynamic models in the semantics of vocabulary. M. 2004.
- Sannikov V.Z. Russian syntax in the semantic-pragmatic space. M.: Languages of Slavic cultures. 2008.
- Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. M.: Languages of Slavic cultures. 2011.
- Wierzbicka A. The semantics of “logical concepts” // The Moscow Linguistic Journal, 2. 1996.
Main literature
- Apresyan V.Yu. From Although before even if: to the systematic description of concessive units in the language // Russian language in scientific coverage, 1(11). 2006, pp. 7–44.
- Apresyan Yu.D., Boguslavsky I.M., Iomdin L.L., Sannikov V.Z. Theoretical problems of Russian syntax: the interaction of grammar and vocabulary. Rep. ed. Yu.D. Apresyan. Languages of Slavic cultures. M. 2010.
- Jordan L.N. Semantics of the Russian union times (in comparison with some other unions) // Russian Linguistics, 12(3).
- Latysheva A.N. On the semantics of conditional, causal and concessive conjunctions in Russian // Bulletin of Moscow State University, 5, ser. 9. Philology. 1982.
- Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. Languages of Slavic cultures. M. 2011.
- Uryson E.V. Union IF and semantic primitives // Questions of Linguistics, 4. 2001. P. 45–65.
- Khrakovsky V.S. Theoretical analysis of conditional constructions (semantics, calculus, typology) // Khrakovsky V.S. (Ed.) Typology of conditional structures. SPb. 1998, pp. 7–96.
- Comrie V. Subordination, coordination: Form, semantics, pragmatics // Vajda E.J. (Ed.) Subordination and Coordination Strategies in North Asian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2008. P. 1–16.
In general, this meaning has its own, quite numerous lexical means of expression - therefore, therefore, therefore- however, they are adverbs, not conjunctions (cf. their ability to be used with conjunctions - and therefore, therefore, and therefore).
Syntactically unions if only And if only are of a complex nature. On the one hand, they combine the properties of conjunctions and particles (cf. the possibility of being used in combination with other coordinating unions - but only, but only); on the other hand, they combine the properties of coordinating and subordinating: in example (77) if only forms a dependent clause, like a typical subordinating conjunction, and in example (78) it joins in combination with the conjunction But an independent clause, while another concessive union appears in the dependent one - let.
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worker and peasant youth, proletarian youth organizations that arose after the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia. From the first days of the revolution, a wide ...
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voluntary, more or less long-term, organized associations of wage workers, with the aim of counteracting the decline and promoting the improvement of the social position of their ...
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? Until 1905, professional and political unions were possible in Russia only as illegal unions, therefore, extremely few people and ...
Functional words used to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and independent sentences. Classification of unions: 1) by ...
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movement, the struggle of young people to meet their socio-economic and political demands, as well as their participation in the general political struggle. In M. d. ...
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In ordinary language, this term refers to various kinds of alliances that create a community of material interests between the contracting parties and do not belong to ...
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international socialism. ? Germany. ? France. ? Belgium and the Netherlands. ? Austria-Hungary. ? England. ? Italy. ? minor states of Europe. …
? In everyday language, this term refers to various kinds of alliances that create a community of material interests between the contracting parties and do not belong ...
? The R. question is the question of the economic, legal and social position of wage-workers and its improvement. It forms the main part…
Contents of the article: General overview. ? A. Anthropological. ? A. Astronomical. ? A. Biblical. ? O. Geological and mineralogical. ? ABOUT. …
- lexically dependent words that serve to express various semantic-syn-taken relations between words, sentences and parts of sentences, 472 COMPLEX and also ...
- a syntactic construction formed by combining several (at least two) sentences on the basis of allied relations of composition and subordination or zero allied connection ...
(from the Greek syntagma, lit. - together built, connected) - 1) intonation-semantic unity, which expresses in a given context and in a given situation ...
Coincidence in the main meaning (while maintaining differences in semantic shades and stylistic coloring) of morphemes, words, syntactic constructions, phraseological units. Synonymy...
A subordinate clause that answers any case question and refers to a member of the main clause that needs semantic expansion: without a subordinate clause ...
A complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are connected by the interconnection of this meaning and structure, by rhythmic and melodic means, without the help of conjunctions or relative words. Differ:…
1. pronoun. 1) a) Use. when posing a general question about an object, phenomenon, action. b) Use when asked about quantity, corresponding ...
pronoun 1) a) To whom does it belong? to whom does it apply? b) unfold From what family? from what kind? c) unfold From which…
adv. 1) From what or from what place? from what source? 2) a) trans. unfold Why? for what reason? b) ...
1. adv. 1) To what place? in the direction? 2) unfold Use as an exclamation with which they seek to detain someone. 3) Use …
pronoun 1) Use when asked about the person or persons in question. 2) unfold Same as: anyone. 3) ...
pronoun 1) What is in order, according to the account? 2) a) Which one, which of several? b) outdated. Who exactly, who from ...
1. adv. 1) a) What time? b) Use in rhetorical questions suggesting a negative answer, corresponding in meaning to the following: unless. …
pronoun 1) Use when expressing a question about the quality or property of someone, something; what is (1). 2) Use when designating quality assessment, ...
adv. 1) Use as a question about the quality of an action or state. 2) Use when expressing admiration, indignation, etc. smth. V …
pronoun 1) Use when expressing a question about the quality or property of someone, something; which one (1). 2) Use when designating quality assessment, ...
adv. 1) For what purpose? For what? 2) For what reason? Why? from what? 3) Use as a union word, adding explanatory ...
