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Politics in traditional society table. Traditional society (pre-industrial society, primitive society)

03.03.2020

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"BASHKIR STATE PEDAGOGICAL

UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER M.AKMULLA»

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL CULTURE

Department of Theory and Methods of Physical Culture and Sports

Direction

Pedagogical education, profile physical culture 3 course

methodological features of education in children of senior school age involved in the athletics section

COURSE WORK

discipline: "Theory and methods of physical culture and sports"

KANYBEKOV VENIAMIN VIKTOROVICH

Scientific adviser: Ph.D. Emeleva T.F.

INTRODUCTION

Relevance. Athletics occupies one of the leading places in the system of physical education of youth and adults. Athletics is the most accessible and popular sport due to the variety of its types, a huge number of easily dosed and trained exercises that can be practiced everywhere and at any time of the year.

B.A. Ashmarin in his work notes that running is one of the most popular sports and is widespread throughout the world. Running is an effective and affordable means of physical improvement for all ages, contributing to the improvement of health and harmonious development, improvement of motor qualities and skills necessary for daily human activities. The main goal of athletics is to achieve physical perfection and the highest results while participating in competitions. Achieving high sports results in most types of athletics, especially those associated with long-term cyclic locomotor activity, is impossible without the required level of endurance development. With the development of endurance, the efficiency of all organs and systems of an athlete increases, the body begins to work smoothly, the pulse rate decreases, well-being improves, physical activity is better tolerated, which proves an improvement in sports form. All this happens with a rational and expedient planning of the training process, where the development of endurance is given due attention, especially when working with beginners. The problem of organizing and planning the training of middle-distance runners in athletics is becoming more relevant every year, especially in connection with the current trend towards earlier sports specialization.

Therefore, one of the most important tasks of sports training for middle-distance runners in athletics sections is to increase endurance. Because endurance is one of the most valuable qualities. By developing endurance in athletes, they solve important problems: developing a stable ability to perform cyclic work in an intensive mode, the ability to work with high productivity. By developing endurance, strength, the ability to endure high loads, and the desire to be the first among equals are brought up at the same time.

A.A. Guzhalovsky writes that at present, exercises for the physical training of athletes are used in different ways and in different sequences, with different dosages; which leads to the irrational use of students in competitions of their capabilities.

The above data indicates that the scientific and methodological support is currently insufficiently disclosed on this issue. Therefore, the development of a set of exercises aimed at developing the endurance of senior school students involved in the athletics section is relevant.

The purpose of the study: To determine the methodological features of the education of endurance in children of senior school age in the athletics section.

1. Determine the forms of manifestation of endurance in children of senior school age in the athletics section.

2. To identify methods and means of educating endurance in children of senior school age in the athletics section

CHAPTER 1. ANALYSIS AND SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND METHODOLOGICAL LITERATURE ON THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1.1 Endurance characteristic

Physical qualities are understood as certain socially determined sets of biological and mental properties of a person, expressing his physical readiness to carry out active motor activity.

Any personality traits are based on the leading functions of a person, which are basically the interaction of morphological, physiological, biochemical and mental processes of the corresponding motor activities, including training and competitive ones, we are not dealing with individual muscles, internal organs or biochemical reactions, but with a holistic living organism, which is a motor functional system (DNS).

The main physical qualities include: physical strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, dexterity.

Endurance is the ability to maintain the specified load power necessary to ensure professional activity and resist fatigue that occurs in the process of doing work.

There are also types of endurance: general and special.

General endurance is a combination of the body's functional capabilities that determine its ability for long-term performance with high efficiency of moderate-intensity work and constitute a non-specific basis for the manifestation of working capacity in various types of professional or sports activities.

General endurance plays a significant role in optimizing life, acts as an important component of physical health. (5) It can also be formed as the final result of specific types of special endurance, it is determined by the functionality of the autonomic systems of the body (CVS, respiratory), therefore it is called aerobic.

The main indicator of aerobic endurance is the maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) - an indicator that characterizes the ability of an athlete to perform long-term work of near-limit power.

Special endurance is the ability to endure long-term loads that are characteristic of a particular type of professional activity. Special endurance is a complex, multi-component motor quality. By changing the parameters of the exercises performed, it is possible to selectively select the load for the development and improvement of its individual components. Each profession or groups of similar professions may have its own combinations of these components.

Special endurance depends on the capabilities of the neuromuscular apparatus, the speed of consumption of resources of intramuscular energy sources, on the technique of mastering a motor action and the level of development of other motor abilities.

There are several types of manifestation of special endurance: to complexly coordinated, power, speed-strength and glycolytic anaerobic work; static endurance associated with a long stay in a forced position in conditions of low mobility or limited space; endurance to long-term work of moderate and low power; to long-term operation of variable power; as well as to work in conditions of hypoxia (lack of oxygen); sensory endurance - the ability to quickly and accurately respond to external environmental influences without reducing the effectiveness of professional actions in conditions of physical overload or fatigue of the body's sensory systems. Sensory endurance depends on the stability and reliability of the functioning of analyzers: motor, vestibular, tactile, visual, auditory.

The measure of endurance is the time during which muscular activity of a certain nature and intensity is carried out.

Endurance comes in two main forms:

1. In the duration of work at a given power level until the first signs of pronounced fatigue appear.

2. In the rate of decrease in performance in the event of fatigue.

Fatigue is a temporary decrease in performance. There are four types of fatigue: mental, sensory, emotional, physical.

1.2 Means and methods of developing endurance in children of senior school age in the athletics section

endurance education speed aerobic

The concept and types of endurance

There are many different points of view regarding the concept of endurance, in our work we will consider some of them.

Smirnov V.I. calls endurance - the ability of a person to perform any motor activity for a long time without reducing its effectiveness.

Matveev A.P. believes that endurance is expressed through a set of physical abilities that ensure the maintenance of the duration of work in various power zones.

Kholodov Zh.K. and Kuznetsov V.S. gave the following definition of endurance - it is the ability to resist physical fatigue in the process of muscular activity.

Shvarts V.B. proposes to understand endurance in physical education as the body's ability to deal with fatigue caused by muscle activity.

Since the duration of work is ultimately limited by the onset of fatigue, endurance can also be defined as the body's ability to resist fatigue. Fatigue is a state of the body that "arises as a result of prolonged or strenuous activity and is characterized by a decrease in efficiency. It occurs after a certain period of time after the start of work and is expressed in increased difficulty or inability to continue activities with the same efficiency. The development of fatigue goes through 3 phases:

The phase of compensated fatigue, when, despite increasing difficulties, a person can maintain the same intensity of work for some time due to greater than before volitional efforts and a partial change in the biomechanical structure of motor actions.

The phase of decompensated fatigue, when a person, despite all efforts, cannot maintain the necessary intensity of work. If you continue to work in this state, then after a while there will be a refusal to perform it.

The phase of complete fatigue. Endurance is necessary in one way or another in the performance of any physical activity. In some types of physical exercises, it directly determines the sports result (walking, running for medium and long distances, cycling, long-distance skating, cross-country skiing), in others it allows you to better perform certain tactical actions (boxing, wrestling, sports games). ); thirdly, it helps to endure repeated short-term high loads and provides quick recovery after work (sprinting, throwing, jumping, weightlifting, fencing).

The degree of development of endurance can be judged on the basis of two groups of indicators:

External (behavioral), which characterize the effectiveness of a person's motor activity during fatigue.

Internal (functional), which reflect certain changes in the functioning of various organs and systems of the body that ensure the implementation of this activity.

In any physical exercise, an external indicator of a person's endurance is the magnitude and nature of changes in various biomechanical parameters of a motor action (length, frequency of steps, repulsion time, accuracy of movements, etc.) at the beginning, middle and end of work. Comparing their values in different periods of time, determine the degree of difference and give a conclusion about the level of endurance. As a rule, the less these indicators change by the end of the exercise, the higher the level of endurance. Internal indicators of endurance: changes in the central nervous system, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and other systems and organs of a person under conditions of fatigue.

Endurance - depends on the level of development of other physical abilities in a person. In this regard, it is proposed to use two types of indicators:

1. Absolute - without taking into account the level of development of power, speed and coordination abilities.

2. Relative - taking into account the development of power, speed and coordination abilities.

The duration of mechanical work until complete fatigue can be divided into three phases: initial fatigue, compensated and decompensated fatigue. The first phase is characterized by the appearance of initial signs of fatigue, the second - by progressively deepening fatigue, maintaining a given work intensity due to additional volitional efforts and a partial change in the structure of a motor action (for example, a decrease in the length and an increase in the pace of steps when running). The third phase is characterized by a high degree of fatigue, leading to a decrease in the intensity of work up to its termination.

The measure of endurance is the time during which muscular activity of a certain nature and intensity is carried out. For example, in cyclic types of physical exercises (walking, running, swimming), the minimum time to overcome a given distance is measured. In gaming activities and martial arts, the time is measured during which the level of a given efficiency of motor activity is carried out. In complex coordination activities related to the performance of movement accuracy (artistic gymnastics, figure skating), an indicator of endurance is the stability of a technically correct performance of an action.

Tasks for the development of endurance. The main task for the development of endurance in schoolchildren is to create conditions for a steady increase in general aerobic endurance on the basis of various types of motor activity provided for mastering in the compulsory physical education programs.

There are also tasks for the development of speed, power and coordination-motor endurance. To solve them means to achieve a versatile and harmonious development of motor abilities. Finally, another task arises from the need to achieve the highest possible level of development of those types and types of endurance that play a particularly important role in sports chosen as a subject of sports specialization.

In practice, the abundance of all forms of manifestation of endurance is usually reduced to its two types: general, special.

General endurance is a person's ability to perform long-term and effective work of a non-specific nature, which has a positive effect on the development of specific components of human performance, due to increased adaptation to loads and the presence of "transfer" phenomena of fitness from non-specific activities to specific ones.

General endurance is also understood as a long-term performance of work with optimal functional activity of the main life-supporting organs and structures of the body. The ability to perform work for a long time that involves many muscle groups and places high demands on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. This mode of operation is provided mainly by the ability to perform motor actions in the zone of moderate loads.

General endurance, otherwise it is also called aerobic endurance. A person who can sustain a long run at a moderate pace for a long time is able to perform other work at the same pace (swimming, cycling). The main components of general endurance are the possibilities of the aerobic energy supply system, functional and biomechanical economization.

Endurance in relation to a certain activity, chosen as a subject of specialization, is called special. There are as many types of special endurance as there are types of sports specialization. Different types of endurance are independent or little dependent on each other. For example, you can have high strength endurance, but insufficient speed or low coordination endurance.

Special endurance is the ability to perform work effectively and overcome fatigue in conditions determined by the requirements of a particular type of activity.

Special endurance is characterized by the duration of work, which is determined by the dependence of the degree of fatigue on the content of the solution of the motor task,

Special endurance is classified: a) according to the signs of a motor action, with the help of which a motor task is solved (for example, jumping endurance); b) according to the signs of motor activity, in the conditions of which the motor task is solved (for example, game endurance); c) according to the signs of interaction with other physical qualities (abilities) necessary for the successful solution of a motor task (for example, strength endurance).

Physiological and psychological substantiation of endurance

The concept of "endurance" is used in everyday speech in a very broad sense in order to characterize a person's ability to perform a particular type of mental or physical (muscular) activity for a long time.

The characteristic of endurance as a physical physical quality (ability) of a person is relative: it refers only to a certain type of activity. In other words, endurance is specific - it manifests itself in each person when performing a certain, specific type of activity.

Depending on the type and nature of the physical (muscular) work performed, there are:

1. static and dynamic endurance, i.e. the ability to perform static or dynamic work for a long time, respectively;

2. local and global endurance, i.e. the ability to carry out local work for a long time (with the participation of a small number of muscles) or global work (with the participation of large muscle groups - more than half of the muscle mass);

3. strength endurance, i.e. the ability to repeatedly repeat exercises that require the manifestation of great muscle strength;

4. anaerobic and aerobic endurance, i.e. the ability to perform global work for a long time with a predominantly anaerobic or aerobic type of energy supply.

In sports physiology, endurance is usually associated with the performance of such sports exercises that require the participation of a large muscle mass (about half or more of the entire muscle mass of the body) and continue continuously for 2-3 minutes or more due to the constant consumption of oxygen by the body, which provides energy production in working muscles. predominantly or entirely aerobically. In other words, in sports physiology, endurance is defined as the ability to perform global muscular work of a predominantly or exclusively aerobic nature for a long time.

Sports exercises that require the manifestation of endurance include all aerobic exercises of a cyclic nature, in particular athletics running at distances from 1500 m, walking, road cycling, cross-country skiing at all distances, skating at distances from 3000 m, swimming at distances from 400 m, etc.

Relative power zones

The manifestation of endurance can be most fully characterized on the basis of taking into account the nature and characteristics of the activity, the requirements imposed by this activity on various physical abilities and the level of its intensity. It is necessary to distinguish the general speed endurance to work of maximum intensity from the general speed endurance to work of submaximal or high intensity. Each form of manifestation of endurance, in turn, can include a number of types and varieties. Various factors underlie these forms of manifestation of endurance. Therefore, the methodology of their development will be different.

Endurance education is carried out by solving motor tasks that require the mobilization of mental and biological processes in the phase of compensatory fatigue or at the end of the previous phase, but with a mandatory exit to the phase of compensatory fatigue. The conditions for solving problems should ensure the variable nature of work with necessarily changing loads and the structure of a motor action (for example, overcoming obstacles while running over rough terrain).

The leading physical abilities, expressing the quality of endurance, include endurance to loads in the maximum, submaximal, large and moderate zones of loads. All these abilities have a single meter - the maximum operating time before the start of its power reduction.

Endurance under conditions of maximum loads in primary school age increases gradually. The main means for its development include cyclic exercises, the duration of which does not exceed 5-10 s, which can be compared with running segments of 20-40 m at maximum speed. As a rule, these exercises are performed by a repeated method, in series. Rest intervals between running exercises are usually 30-45 seconds, and between series 1.2-2 minutes. Pauses for rest are filled with relaxation exercises, walking, alternating with breathing exercises. Active rest accelerates the recovery of the body for subsequent work. The number of series or running exercises in a series is determined by the well-being of schoolchildren and their functional state. Here the teacher can focus on two main indicators: heart rate (HR) and running speed. In junior schoolchildren, a repeated load is allowed with a heart rate of no more than 116-120 beats / min and with a decrease in running speed to an average of 70-75% of the maximum.

Endurance under conditions of submaximal (near-limit) loads at primary school age begins to intensively increase in boys from the age of 10 and in girls from the age of 9. The main means of developing endurance at this age are cyclic (for example, running) and acyclic (jumping) exercises. The intensity of the load in this case is 75-95% of the maximum, and the duration of the exercise is from 20 s to 1.5 min. For example, if the maximum running speed for class III boys is 4.6-5.0 m/s, then with a submaximal load it decreases to approximately 4.2-4.6 m/s. These exercises can be performed with additional weights, but with the obligatory correction of the duration, number of repetitions and speed of execution.

Leading in the development of endurance is the method of strictly regulated exercise, which allows you to accurately set the magnitude and volume of the load. Repeated performance of the exercise or series can be started at a heart rate of 110-120 beats / min. In pauses for rest, breathing exercises, muscle relaxation and development of mobility in the joints are performed. It is expedient to develop endurance at submaximal loads after exercises for the development of coordination of movements or training in motor actions in the beginning of fatigue. The duration of the exercises, their number and the intervals for rest between them should be correlated with the nature of the previous work.

Endurance under conditions of heavy loads increases most intensively in boys from 8 to 11 years old, and in girls from 9 to 11 years old. The main means of its development are cyclic exercises (for example, running, swimming, skiing), performed with an intensity of 65-70% of the maximum. According to their effects, exercise should cause a significant increase in heart rate and pulmonary ventilation. Depending on the age, the heart rate can reach 180-200 beats/min, and the minute respiratory volume from 40 to 60 l/min at a respiratory rate of 45-60 cycles/min. The development of endurance under conditions of heavy loads is carried out by methods of strictly regulated and game exercises. The latter allows, due to increased emotionality, to achieve a greater amount of work. At primary school age, the duration of running loads reaches 3-5 minutes, and the intervals for rest are 6-8 minutes. Repeated performance of the exercise is carried out with a heart rate of 110-115 beats / min and a minute breathing volume at the level of 110-120% of the initial value. Endurance under conditions of heavy loads is developed, as a rule, at the end of the main part of the lesson against the background of initial fatigue. The greater the fatigue from previous work, the less time is needed to obtain a one-time training effect in the development of endurance.

Endurance under conditions of moderate loads develops effectively throughout the entire primary school age, but the best result can be achieved in boys 8-10 years old and girls 7-9 years old. The main means for developing endurance under conditions of moderate loads are long-term cyclic exercises (for example, long walking, cross-country running, ski marches up to 1.5 km). These exercises increase heart rate from 130-140 to 160-170 beats/min, and pulmonary ventilation from 12-14 to 40-50 l/min. One of the features of the development of endurance in these conditions is the need for a long exercise, which is difficult in physical education lessons. Therefore, in school classes it is advisable to teach skiing at an appropriate speed, and it is better to increase the amount of work, increasing the duration of its implementation, in the course of doing homework.

Endurance Education Means

As a means of educating endurance, general preparatory, specially preparatory and competitive exercises are used, which, depending on the effect on the body, are divided into general exercises (running, swimming, etc.) and local effects (repeated raising and lowering of arms and legs).

Exercises of local influence allow to selectively activate the activity of individual muscle groups that are lagging behind in their development, to increase the strength, speed-strength and speed components of endurance.

With the development of general endurance, continuous long-term remote work is used, performed at a uniform or variable speed, lasting at least 25-30 minutes for beginners and from 50 to 120 minutes or more for trained (running, swimming, rowing), and in cross-country skiing, in cycling sports even more.

The means of developing general (aerobic) endurance are exercises that cause maximum performance of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Muscular work is provided by a predominantly aerobic source; the intensity of work can be moderate, large, variable; the total duration of the exercises is from several to tens of minutes.

In the practice of physical education, the most diverse physical exercises of a cyclic and acyclic nature are used, for example, long running, cross-country running (cross-country), skiing, skating, cycling, swimming, games and game exercises, exercises performed according to the method of circular training (including 7-8 or more exercises performed at an average pace in a circle). The main requirements for them are as follows: exercises should be performed in zones of moderate and high power of work; their duration is from several minutes to 60-90 minutes; work is carried out with the global functioning of the muscles.

Most types of special endurance are largely determined by the level of development of the anaerobic capabilities of the body, for which they use any exercises that include the functioning of a large muscle group and allow you to perform work with maximum and near-limit intensity.

An effective means of developing special endurance (speed, strength, coordination) are specially preparatory exercises that are as close as possible to competitive ones in form, structure and features of the impact on the functional systems of the body, specific competitive exercises and general preparatory means.

To increase the anaerobic capacity of the body, the following exercises are used: Exercises that mainly increase alactic anaerobic capacity. The duration of work is 10-15 s, the intensity is maximum. Exercises are used in the mode of repeated execution, in series. Exercises that allow you to simultaneously improve alactate and lactate anaerobic abilities. The duration of work is 15-30 s, the intensity is 90-100% of the maximum available. Exercises that increase lactate anaerobic capacity. The duration of work is 30 - 60 s, the intensity is 85 - 90% of the maximum available. Exercises that allow you to simultaneously improve alactic anaerobic and aerobic capabilities. The duration of work is 1 - 5 minutes, the intensity is 85 - 90% of the maximum available.

The intensity of the exercise is characterized in cyclic exercises by the speed of movement, and in acyclic exercises - by the number of motor actions per unit of time (tempo). Changing the intensity of the exercise directly affects the functioning of the functional systems of the body and the nature of the energy supply of motor activity. At a moderate intensity, when the energy consumption is not yet high, the respiratory and circulatory organs provide the amount of oxygen necessary for the body without much stress. A small oxygen debt, which is formed at the beginning of the exercise, when aerobic processes are not yet fully active, is paid off in the process of doing the work, and in the future it occurs in a true steady state. This intensity of the exercise is called subcritical.

With an increase in the intensity of the exercise, the body of the student reaches a state in which the need for energy (oxygen demand) will be equal to the maximum aerobic capacity. This intensity of exercise is called critical.

The intensity of the exercise above the critical is called supercritical. With such an intensity of exercise, the oxygen demand significantly exceeds the aerobic capacity of the body, and the work takes place mainly due to the anaerobic energy supply, which is accompanied by the accumulation of oxygen debt.

The duration of the exercise has an inverse relationship with respect to the intensity of its implementation. With an increase in the duration of the exercise from 20–25 s to 4–5 min, its intensity decreases especially sharply. A further increase in the duration of the exercise leads to a less pronounced, but permanent decrease in its intensity. The type of energy supply depends on the duration of the exercise.

The number of repetitions of exercises determines the degree of their impact on the body. When working in aerobic conditions, an increase in the number of repetitions causes a long time to maintain a high level of activity of the respiratory and circulatory organs. In the anaerobic mode, an increase in the number of repetitions leads to the exhaustion of oxygen-free mechanisms or to their blocking of the central nervous system. Then the exercise either stops, or their intensity decreases sharply.

The duration of rest intervals is of great importance for determining both the magnitude and, in particular, the nature of the body's responses to the training load.

The duration of the rest intervals must be planned depending on the tasks and the training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at primarily increasing the level of aerobic performance, one should focus on rest intervals at which the heart rate drops to 120-130 bpm. This allows you to cause shifts in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which to the greatest extent contribute to an increase in the functionality of the heart muscle. Planning rest breaks, based on the subjective feelings of the student, his readiness to effectively perform the next exercise, underlies a variant of the interval method called repeated.

When planning the duration of rest between repetitions of an exercise or different exercises within the same session, three types of intervals should be distinguished. Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition almost the same restoration of working capacity that was before its previous execution, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional strain on the functions. Tense (incomplete) intervals, in which the next load falls into a state of more or less significant under-recovery, which, however, will not necessarily be expressed within a certain time without a significant change in external quantitative indicators, but with an increasing mobilization of physical and psychological reserves. Minimax interval. This is the smallest rest interval between exercises, after which there is increased performance (supercompensation), which occurs under certain conditions due to the laws of recovery processes. The nature of the rest between individual exercises can be active, passive. With passive rest, the student does not perform any work, with active rest, he fills the pauses with additional activities.

When performing exercises at a speed close to critical, active rest allows you to maintain respiratory processes at a higher level and eliminates abrupt transitions from work to rest and vice versa. This makes the load more aerobic.

Endurance Education Methodology

The main methods for the development of general endurance are: 1) the method of continuous (continuous) exercise with a load of moderate and variable intensity; 2) the method of repeated interval exercise; 3) circuit training method; 4) game method; 5) competitive method.

For the development of special endurance, the following are used: 1) methods of continuous exercise (uniform and variable); 2) methods of interval intermittent exercise (interval and repeated); 3) competitive and game methods.

The uniform method is characterized by a continuous long-term mode of operation with a uniform speed or effort. At the same time, the student seeks to maintain a given speed, rhythm, constant pace, amount of effort, range of motion. Exercises can be performed with low, medium and maximum intensity.

The variable method differs from the uniform one by sequentially varying the load during a continuous exercise (for example, running) by directional changes in speed, pace, range of motion, and magnitude of effort.

The interval method provides for the performance of exercises with standard and variable loads and with strictly metered and pre-planned rest intervals. As a rule, the rest interval between exercises is 1-3 minutes (sometimes 15-30 seconds). Thus, the training effect occurs not only and not so much at the time of execution, but during the rest period. Such loads have a predominantly aerobic-anaerobic effect on the body and are effective for the development of special endurance.

The circuit training method involves performing exercises that affect various muscle groups and functional systems by the type of continuous or interval work. Usually, the circle includes 6-10 exercises ("stations"), which the student goes through from 1 to 3 times.

The competitive method involves the use of various competitions as a means of increasing the level of endurance of the student.

The game method provides for the development of endurance during the game, where there are constant changes in the situation, emotionality.

Using one or another method for cultivating endurance, each time specific load parameters are determined.

Methodology for the development of general endurance

For the development of general endurance, cyclic exercises lasting at least 15-20 minutes, performed in an aerobic mode, are most widely used. They are performed in the mode of standard continuous, variable continuous and interval load. In doing so, the following rules are observed.

Availability. The essence of the rule is that the load requirements must correspond to the capabilities of those involved. Age, gender and level of general physical fitness are taken into account. In the process of training, after a certain time, changes in the physiological state will occur in the human body, i.e. the body adapts to stress. Therefore, it is necessary to reconsider the availability of the load in the direction of its complication. Thus, the availability of the load means such a difficulty of the requirements that creates optimal prerequisites for its impact on the body of the practitioner without harming health.

Systematic.

The effectiveness of physical exercises, i.e. their influence on the human body is largely determined by the system and sequence of impacts of load requirements. It is possible to achieve positive changes in the development of general endurance if strict repetition of load requirements and rest is observed, as well as the continuity of the training process. In working with beginners, the days of physical exercises for the development of endurance should be combined with days of rest. If running is used, it must be combined with walking, i.e. walking here acts as a rest before the next run.

Graduality. This rule expresses the general trend of a systematic increase in load requirements. Significant functional changes in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems can be achieved if the load is gradually increased. Therefore, it is necessary to find a measure of increasing loads and a measure of the duration of fixing the achieved rearrangements in various body systems. Using the method of uniform exercise, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the intensity and duration of the load. Work is carried out on a pulse of 140 - 150 beats / min. For schoolchildren aged 8 - 9 years, the duration of work is 10 - 15 minutes; 11 - 12 years - 15 - 20 min; 14 - 15 years - 20-30 min.

With practically healthy people, work is carried out at a speed of 1 km in 5-7 minutes. For people with good physical fitness, the speed varies within 1 km in 3.5 - 4 minutes. Duration of work from 30 to 60 - 90 min.

In classes with trained people, the method of variable exercise is used. The essence of this method is to change the speed in certain sections and to include spurts and accelerations in certain sections of the distance, combined with uniform work. This allows you to master large volumes of load with a fairly intense level of exposure. The work is gradually brought up to 120 minutes, if necessary. Variable continuous work places higher demands on the cardiovascular system than uniform work. When applying the method of variable continuous exercise, oxygen debt is formed in some sections of the distance, which subsequently must be repaid in the next section of the distance.

A significant effect in the education of general endurance gives the method of interval exercise. Anaerobic work is a strong stimulus that stimulates the functional restructuring of cardiac activity. Oxygen consumption increases, stroke volume increases, etc. The main difficulty in applying this method lies in the correct selection of the best combinations of load and rest.

If the work intensity is higher than the critical one (75 - 85% of the maximum), and the heart rate by the end of the load is 180 beats / min, then repeated work is given when the heart rate drops to 120 - 130 beats / min. The duration of repeated work is 1 - 1.5 minutes, the nature of the rest is active. The number of repetitions is determined by the ability to maintain the achieved level of the IPC (3 - 5 repetitions). The method of repeated-interval exercise is used only with sufficiently qualified athletes. Its use for more than 2 - 3 months is not recommended.

Methodology for the development of speed endurance

It is customary to talk about speed endurance in relation to exercises of a cyclic nature (running, walking, swimming, rowing, skiing, cycling). Any of them can be performed at different speeds. More enduring will be the one who can maintain a given speed of movement longer than the other. Naturally, depending on the speed of movement, the duration of the exercises will also be different: the higher it is, the shorter the duration of the work will be, and vice versa. For example, running at maximum speed cannot be long. It lasts tens of seconds, and during this time a short distance is covered - 100 - 200 m. If a person runs a long distance, then he reduces the intensity of running, i.e. runs slower. Based on the analysis of world records in running at various distances, V. S. Farfel established that the “speed-time” dependence breaks up into four straight sections, which he called zones of relative power: the zone of maximum, submaximal, high and moderate power. Each of these zones included groups of distances existing in practice - short, medium, long and extra long. It was found that the division of the curve of records into segments is typical not only for records in running, but also for other cyclic exercises - in swimming, in skating, in cycling.

In all cases, the criterion for the power (intensity) of work is not the distance, but the time required to complete it. Therefore, for example, running 500 meters and swimming 100 meters can be relatively the same in power, since both exercises require approximately the same time - about a minute. If a runner runs 200 m in 19.72 s, then for him this work will be of maximum power, but if the runner covers the same distance in only 40 s, then for him this work will turn out to be submaximal in power. The maximum power for such a runner will be running at a higher speed, which, however, he will be able to maintain for much less time 10-15 seconds, having covered only 50 m.

Classification of power zones proposed by V.S. Farfel, in connection with the growth of world records in running, has been repeatedly refined and improved. It turned out that the “record curve”, firstly, breaks up not into 4, but into a larger number of zones. For example, N.I. Volkov proposed subdividing the zone of submaximal power into two subzones: lasting from 15 to 40 s. and 40s. - 2 minutes. The zone of moderate power is also sometimes divided into two parts - the zone of carbohydrate respiration and the subzone of fat respiration. Secondly, for people of different ages, gender and preparedness, the time limits of work in each zone have certain differences. Knowing the time intervals of relative power zones at different ages is of great practical importance. These data serve as a guideline for the normalization of high-speed loads in the classroom.

It has been established that the physiological mechanisms of fatigue in cyclic exercises related to different power zones (say, running 100 and 10,000 m) differ significantly. At the same time, if the exercises belong to the same zone (for example, running 100 and 200 meters), then the mechanisms of fatigue, and, consequently, endurance will be largely similar. Naturally, other factors also influence the level of its development in each case. Differences in the activity of organs and systems of the body largely determine the different methods of developing speed endurance.

Endurance is manifested only when there are phenomena of fatigue. It has been proven that the better the speed endurance is developed, the later during the movement at a distance the phenomena of fatigue begin to appear and, as a result, a decrease in speed. The moment is postponed when elements of decompensated fatigue begin to appear.

Consequently, speed endurance in a particular power zone develops only when a person in the process of training reaches the necessary degrees of fatigue - in this case, the body, as it were, responds to such phenomena by increasing the level of endurance development.

The main way to improve speed endurance in each power zone is to use in the classroom a little more intense work compared to that which is typical for it in different age groups. Such work is movement at a speed exceeding the competitive speed at distances falling into the corresponding zone. Of course, the distance will be shorter than the competition, so the impact on the body is not enough. To achieve the required nature of the responses, their magnitude and direction in the development of endurance, training segments in one lesson are overcome several times. Depending on the nature of the energy supply of muscle activity, three types of movement speeds are distinguished, which are of great importance for normalizing loads during the development of endurance in each of the zones.

The subcritical speed, at which the energy consumption is low and the oxygen demand is less than aerobic capacity (i.e., the current oxygen consumption fully covers the needs), has a predominant effect on the development of aerobic functions.

The critical speed at which oxygen demand is equal to aerobic capacity and exercises are performed under conditions of maximum oxygen values develops aerobic-anaerobic functions.

The supercritical speed, at which the oxygen demand exceeds the aerobic capacity of a person, and the exercise is performed under conditions of oxygen debt, contributes to the improvement of anaerobic capacity.

The absolute indicators of subcritical, critical and supercritical speeds largely depend on the type of cyclic exercises, age, gender and preparedness of those involved. For example, the critical speed of the strongest male athletes in swimming is 1.6 m/s, in track and field running - 5.92 m/s, in skating - 11.2 m/s, in cycling - 13, 5 m/s.

Exercises for the development of speed endurance in the zone of maximum and submaximal power are performed at supercritical speed, for the development of endurance for high-speed work in the zone of high power, with supercritical and critical speed, for the development of endurance in the zone of moderate power - mainly with subcritical and critical speed.

Speed endurance in maximum power work is typical for exercises with a maximum duration of 9 to 20 s. For example, athletics running at a distance of 30-60m. - for juniors, 100m. - for older students, 100-200m. - skilled runners.

The main means of developing speed endurance in the zone of maximum power is to overcome segments equal to or even greater than the competition distances, with a maximum speed or close to it. In this case, we mean not the record speed of a person, but the maximum in relation to his capabilities on the day of classes.

In the process of developing speed endurance in this power zone, one should take into account the dynamics of speed changes due to the increase in fatigue. If a person feels the resulting fatigue already in the first seconds of work and the speed decreases rapidly (for example, in a 20-meter run the result is high, and relatively low in a 50-meter run), then there is a lack of endurance in the starting acceleration. If fatigue comes later, and the speed begins to fall from the middle of the distance or towards the end of it, then we must talk about the insufficiency of high-speed distance endurance. The methodology for developing endurance in these cases will be different. In order to fully demonstrate their capabilities at the beginning of work and not to reduce the speed of movement, repeated exercises are used with an intensity of 95-100% of the maximum and a duration of 3-8 s. with rest intervals between repetitions of 2-3 minutes. The number of repetitions in one series is 3-5 times. For a deeper effect of the load on the body, 2-4 series of exercises are performed. Rest time between series 4-6 min. Such work is typical for training sessions at very short distances.

Along with the repeated method, interval sprints are also used in the classes. In it, exercises are performed in the form of 10 s accelerations at a speed of 95-100% of the maximum and 10-15 s. with rest breaks filled with low-intensity work. Series 3-5, in each series 3-5 repetitions of the exercise. Rest between series - 8-10 min. In order to cover a distance at a high pace without slowing down to the finish line (or slowing down a little), it is necessary to improve the ability to maintain a relatively high speed for a longer time. This is achieved by overcoming segments equal or even longer in length than the main competitive distance. True, it is impossible to unnecessarily exceed the competitive distance, since this is associated with a decrease in the intensity of work to a level that does not meet the requirements of the main Distance.

In the process of training, mainly a repeated method is used, which involves performing exercises with an intensity of 90-95% of the maximum and a duration of 10-20 seconds. The number of repetitions of the exercise in each series is 3-4. The number of series for those who do not have sports categories is 2-3, for well-trained people 4-6.

Speed endurance in the work of submaximal power in people of different ages and fitness is manifested mainly in exercises of a maximum duration of at least 50 s and no more than 4-5 minutes. For example, for children 10 years old, a run lasting from 9 to 90 seconds. which corresponds to a distance of 50-400 m. For children aged 13-14, running in the range from 15 s to 4 min 30 s at distances of 90-1600 m; for adult highly qualified athletes, the duration of the run is in the range from 20 s to 2 min 16 s. During this time, they overcome from 200 to 1000 m.

The main means of developing speed endurance when working in the zone of submaximal power is to overcome training segments of various lengths at a speed exceeding the competitive one. For many distances related to the zone of submaximal power, the amount of increase in endurance depends on the range of used speeds of movement, which has a critical limit of deviation from the competitive speed in the range of approximately 10-15%. When planning the load, one should take into account not only the speed of the exercises, but also the proportion of work of varying intensity in the total volume of the load or in the overall balance of time. In all cases, work to severe fatigue is the main form of increasing the level of endurance. The development of speed endurance when performing cyclic exercises in different ranges of submaximal power has certain differences. When working with submaximal power for a maximum duration of 40-45 s, exercises are performed at a very high intensity with an oxygen demand that is far from being satisfied, despite its limiting consumption. The energy supply of muscle activity in this case is carried out mainly due to anaerobic glycolytic power (the amount of glycogen decomposing to lactic acid per second).

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CONTENT
INTRODUCTION

1.8 Control exercises (tests) to determine the level of endurance development

2. ORGANIZATION AND RESEARCH METHODS

2.1 Research methods
2.2 Organization of the study

3. RESULTS OF THE STUDY OF LITERATURE DATA
CONCLUSION
LIST OF USED SOURCES
APPS

INTRODUCTION

Endurance is the most important physical quality, which is manifested in professional, sports activities and in everyday life of people. It reflects the overall level of human performance.

The purpose of the course work is to study the process of development of endurance in children of senior school age in the process of physical education.

Based on the goal, we solved the following tasks:

1) Analyze the scientific and methodological literature on the topic of the course work.

2) To identify the main criteria of endurance in schoolchildren.

3) To study the basic requirements for testing the endurance of children of senior school age.

The object of research is the physical quality - endurance.

The subject of the research is the means and methods of endurance development.

endurance senior student

1. ENDURANCE AS A PHYSICAL QUALITY OF A HUMAN ACCORDING TO THE DATA OF SPECIAL LITERATURE

1.1 The concept of endurance and its types

The concept of "endurance" has long been associated with the ability of a person to continue to more or less effectively perform activities in spite of the onset of fatigue.

According to Matveev L.P. by "endurance" in the most generalized sense is meant a set of properties of an individual, to a decisive extent determining his ability to resist fatigue in the process of activity. In short, it is the ability to resist fatigue.

Endurance as a motor quality is a person's ability to perform any motor activity for a long time without reducing its effectiveness.

Endurance is the ability to perform work without changing its parameters (for example, without reducing the intensity, accuracy of movements, etc.).

Endurance is the ability to withstand physical fatigue during muscular activity.

Ozolin N.G. gives an even more open definition of endurance. He believes that, in general, endurance is characterized as the ability to perform work for a long time at the required level of intensity, as the ability to deal with fatigue and recover effectively during and after work.

Based on the different points of view of the authors and proceeding to a holistic understanding of various scientific knowledge about endurance as a physical ability, and on the basis of this it can be concluded that the duration of work is ultimately limited by the onset of fatigue, then endurance can also be defined as the body's ability to overcome the onset of fatigue.

Fatigue is a functional state of the body that occurs as a result of prolonged and strenuous activity and is characterized by a temporary decrease in performance, changes in body functions and the appearance of a subjective feeling of fatigue. Fatigue occurs after a certain period of time after the start of work and is expressed in a decrease in muscle strength and endurance, deterioration in coordination of movements, in an increase in energy expended when performing the same work, in slowing down the speed of information processing, memory impairment, difficulty in the process of concentration, switching attention and etc., i.e. in increased difficulty or inability to continue activities with the same efficiency.

Fatigue is the subjective experience of signs of fatigue. It occurs either as a result of fatigue of the body, or due to the monotony of work. The reason for this is the different levels of endurance. For the development of endurance, it is important to form among athletes a positive attitude towards the appearance of fatigue and teach psychological techniques to overcome it.

There are four types of fatigue:

1. Mental (solving problems in mathematics, playing chess, etc.);

2. Sensory (fatigue of the activity of analyzers. Example: fatigue of the visual analyzer in shooters, etc.);

3. Emotional (as a result of emotional experiences. The emotional component of fatigue always takes place after performances at important competitions, exams related to overcoming fear, etc.);

4. Physical (as a result of muscular activity), divided into:

A. Local (local) fatigue - when less than 1/3 of the total body muscle volume took part in the work;

b. Regional fatigue - muscles that make up from 1/3 to 2/3 of the total volume of the muscles of the body are involved in the work;

V. General (global) fatigue - when working over 2/3 of the muscles of the body.

The duration of the motor activity until the development of complete fatigue can be divided into two phases:

1. The phase of compensated fatigue is characterized by progressively deepening fatigue, despite increasing difficulties, a person can maintain the same intensity of work for some time due to greater than before volitional efforts and a partial change in the biomechanical structure of motor actions (for example, a decrease in the length and an increase in the pace of steps during run);

2. The phase of decompensated fatigue, when a person, despite all efforts, cannot maintain the necessary intensity of work. If you continue to work in this state, then after a while there will be a "refusal" from its implementation;

The ratio of the duration of these two phases is different: in people with a strong nervous system, the second phase is longer, with a weak nervous system, the first phase. In general, the endurance of both can be the same. From the foregoing, the most important role of the athlete's volitional qualities follows, because they are the result of his conscious activity. Volitional tension, due to which the intensity of work is maintained, is a common component for all types of endurance. And therefore, volitional qualities largely determine the effectiveness of training and the success of participation in competitions that require great, sometimes extreme endurance.

Endurance is necessary in one way or another in the performance of any physical activity. In some types of physical exercises, it directly determines the sports result (walking, running for medium and long distances, cycling, long-distance skating, cross-country skiing), in others it allows you to better perform certain tactical actions (boxing, wrestling, sports games). and so on.); thirdly, it helps to endure repeated short-term high loads and provides quick recovery after work (sprinting, throwing, jumping, weightlifting, fencing, etc.).

The measure of endurance is the time during which muscular activity of a certain nature and intensity is carried out.

Distinguish between general and special endurance. The first is part of the general physical fitness of the athlete, the second is part of the special fitness. Let's consider these concepts in more detail.

General endurance is a person's ability to perform any work of moderate intensity for a long time and effectively, involving the global functioning of the muscular system (more than 2/3 of the muscles of the body are involved in the work) and making rather high demands on the cardiovascular, respiratory, central nervous system, etc. systems. Secondly, it is the ability to perform work with low intensity for a long time due to aerobic sources of energy supply. Therefore, it is also called aerobic endurance. Thirdly, Matveev L.P. believes that the term "general endurance" means a set of functional properties of the body, which form a non-specific basis for the manifestations of working capacity in various types of activity. Fourth, it is a person's ability to perform long-term and effective work of a non-specific nature, which has a positive effect on the development of specific components of human performance, due to an increase in adaptation to loads and the presence of phenomena of "transfer" of fitness from non-specific activities to specific ones. For example, a person who can withstand a long run at a moderate pace for a long time is able to perform other work at the same pace (swimming, cycling, etc.), since the level of development of the body's aerobic capabilities is the decisive factor in them.

The level of development and manifestation of general endurance is determined by the following components:

aerobic capacity of energy sources (due to the use of oxidative reactions of oxygen);

Aerobic capacity depends on:

A. aerobic power, which is determined by the absolute and relative value of the maximum oxygen consumption (MOC);

b. aerobic capacity - the total value of oxygen consumption for the entire work.

degree of economization of movement technique (biomechanical);

The level of development of volitional qualities.

Different authors give their own definition of endurance, but they all agree that general endurance is understood as the ability of a person to perform any work for a long period of time and without reducing its performance efficiency.

According to Kholodov Zh.K., Kuznetsov V.S. believe that general endurance is the basis of high physical performance necessary for successful professional activity; plays a significant role in optimizing life, acts as an important component of physical health, and besides, general endurance serves as the basis for the development of special endurance, which means that every athlete needs it as a solid foundation, a base on which you can move on to any another type of activity of a narrower focus.

Special endurance is the ability to effectively perform work in a particular labor or sports activity, despite the resulting fatigue. Secondly, the term "special endurance" means the ability to resist fatigue under conditions of specific loads, especially with the maximum mobilization of the body's functional capabilities for achievements in the chosen sport. Thirdly, Ozolin N.G. believes that special endurance is not only the ability to deal with fatigue, but also the ability to perform the task most effectively under conditions of a strictly limited distance (running, skiing, swimming, and other cyclic sports) or a certain time (football, tennis, boxing, water polo, etc.). Fourthly, it is endurance in relation to a certain motor activity.

Special endurance is a multi-component concept. the level of its development depends on many factors and is determined by the peculiarities of the requirements for the athlete's body when exercising in the chosen sport, and is determined by the specific preparedness of all organs and systems of the athlete, the level of his physiological and mental capabilities in relation to the type of motor activity.

The level of development and manifestation of special endurance depends on a number of factors:

1. General endurance;

2. Speed of expenditure of resources of intramuscular energy sources;

3. Of particular importance is the ability of the athlete to continue the exercise when tired due to the manifestation of volitional qualities;

4. Techniques for mastering a motor action, associated with rationality, economy of technology and tactics, i.e. technical and tactical skills.

5. Possibilities of the neuromuscular apparatus;

5.1. Speed capabilities (speed and flexibility of working muscles);

5.2. Coordination abilities (accuracy of movements);

5.3. Strength qualities and development of other motor abilities;

According to Kholodov Zh.K., Kuznetsov V.S. special endurance is classified:

1. According to the signs of a motor action, with the help of which a motor task is solved (for example, jumping endurance);

2. According to the signs of motor activity, in the conditions of which the motor task is solved (for example, game endurance);

3. According to the signs of interaction with other physical qualities (abilities) necessary for the successful solution of a motor task (for example, strength endurance, speed endurance, coordination endurance, etc.).

However, there are no such motor actions that would require the manifestation of any form of endurance in its pure form. When performing any motor action, various forms of endurance are manifested to one degree or another. Each form of manifestation of endurance, in turn, can include a number of types and varieties. Naturally, endurance is peculiar in different sports. In practice, it is often called speed, game, swimming, power, jumping, etc. endurance. An analysis of literary sources shows that at present over 20 types of special endurance can be named.

Speed endurance manifests itself mainly in activities that impose increased requirements on the speed parameters of movements in the zones of submaximal and maximum power of work, for a long time without reducing the effectiveness of actions.

Strength endurance is the ability to perform work for a long time without reducing its effectiveness, requiring a significant manifestation of strength. Secondly, it is the ability to overcome a given power voltage for a certain time. Depending on the mode of muscle work, static and dynamic strength endurance can be distinguished.

Static strength endurance is the ability to maintain muscle tension for a long time without changing the posture. Usually only certain muscle groups work in this mode. Here there is an inverse relationship between the magnitude of the static effort and its duration - the greater the effort, the shorter the duration.

Dynamic strength endurance is usually determined by the number of repetitions of an exercise and significant muscle tension at a relatively low speed of movement. With age, strength endurance to static and dynamic strength efforts increases.

Coordination endurance is endurance, which manifests itself mainly in motor activity, characterized by a variety of complex technical and tactical actions performed for a long time (sports games, artistic gymnastics, figure skating, etc.).

There are also playing, jumping, swimming endurance and other types of special endurance, each of which is characteristic of some kind of labor, household, motor action or sports exercise.

Different types of endurance are independent or little dependent on each other. For example, one can have high strength endurance, but insufficient speed or low coordination endurance.

1.2 Anatomical and physiological characteristics of endurance

The physiological basis of endurance is the aerobic capabilities of the body, which provide a certain amount of energy in the process of work and contribute to the rapid recovery of the body's performance after work of any duration and power, ensuring the fastest removal of metabolic products.

Anaerobic alactic energy sources play a decisive role in maintaining working capacity in exercises of maximum intensity lasting up to 15–20 s.

Anaerobic glycolytic sources are the main ones in the process of energy supply of work lasting from 20 s to 5-6 min.

Factors of functional and biochemical enonomization determine the ratio of the result of the exercise and the cost of achieving it. Usually, efficiency is associated with the energy supply of the body during work, and since the energy resources (substrates) in the body are almost always limited either due to their small volume or due to factors that hinder their consumption, the human body seeks to perform work at the expense of a minimum of energy consumption. At the same time, the higher the qualification of an athlete, especially in sports that require the manifestation of endurance, the higher the efficiency of the work performed by him.

Economization has two sides: mechanical (or biomechanical), depending on the level of technique or rational tactics of competitive activity; physiological-biochemical (or functional), which is determined by what proportion of the work is done at the expense of the energy of the oxidative system without the accumulation of lactic acid, and if we consider this process even deeper, then due to what proportion of the use of fats as an oxidation substrate.

Factors of functional stability make it possible to maintain the activity of the functional systems of the body during adverse changes in its internal environment caused by work (increase in oxygen debt, increase in the concentration of lactic acid in the blood, etc.). The ability of a person to maintain the given technical and tactical parameters of activity, despite increasing fatigue, depends on functional stability.

Personal-psychic factors have a great influence on the manifestation of endurance, especially in difficult conditions. These include the motivation to achieve high results, the stability of the attitude towards the process and the results of long-term activity, as well as such strong-willed qualities as determination, perseverance, endurance and the ability to tolerate adverse changes in the internal environment of the body, to perform work through "I can't".

Genotype (heredity) and environmental factors. General (aerobic) endurance is moderately strongly determined by the influence of hereditary factors (heredity coefficient from 0.4 to 0.8). Genetically, the factor significantly affects the development of the anaerobic capabilities of the body. High heredity coefficients (0.62-0.75) were found in static endurance; for dynamic strength endurance, the influences of heredity and environment are approximately the same.

Hereditary factors have a greater effect on the female body when working at submaximal power, and on the male body when working at moderate power.

Special exercises and living conditions significantly affect the growth of endurance. In those involved in various sports, the indicators for endurance of this motor quality are significantly (sometimes 2 times or more) superior to those of those who do not go in for sports. For example, athletes training in endurance running have 80% or more maximum oxygen uptake (VO2) levels above the average for the average person.

1.3 The relationship of personal characteristics of a person and physical abilities

In today's world, a person is needed with the maximum development of all human forces: physical, emotional, mental, intellectual, etc. In the field of non-professional physical education (preschool, school, university), its low efficiency is traditionally noted. Many schoolchildren, students, and nationwide - the majority of the population have an insufficient level of health, physical development and physical fitness, physical education illiteracy, lack of need for physical exercises, mastering the diverse values of physical culture. We can agree that the reasons for this were partly the shortcomings inherent in the former system of general education: ideologization and nationalization, dehumanization, and the growing lag behind science.

Among the many reasons for the discrepancy between the development of physical culture and the objectively increasing requirements of society and the individual, one of the most important is the insufficient development of its theoretical and methodological foundations. At the present time, apparently, it is already necessary to finally admit that the shift in emphasis mainly only to the development of a person’s physical abilities, leaving aside his personal development (i.e., breaking his somatopsychic and sociocultural unity), does not give tangible results in the formation of a person’s true physical culture, the need for it. In this case, a “dismembered” person is brought up, divided into separate and independent parts, which conflicts with the concept (idea) of his integrity, integral individuality, where the anatomical-physiological, psychodynamic, psychological, personal, socio-psychological levels of organization are distinguished in unity person. In the future, this approach will meet with increasing difficulties, and in fact today in many aspects it has already exhausted its potential.

Physical culture should not only be interpreted as an equal type of the general culture of a person and society, where all its types (material, spiritual, physical ...) mutually condition, mutually support, interpenetrate each other, but where its content characteristics must be justified based on the philosophical understanding of culture.

Physical activity (and its specific types) as a condition for the reproduction of a person in the entire integrity of his spiritual and physical existence is the essence and basis of the formation of physical culture. It is one of the fundamental types of human activity throughout a person's life, playing a different but significant role at different stages of his development (ontogenesis).

The modern understanding of the essence of physical exercises (the main element of physical activity) should be considered in the unity of its motor and invariably spiritual aspects (cognitive, design-semantic, emotional-evaluative, etc.), which have great opportunities in the development of both the organism and the personality of those involved, those. in the education of a whole person.

The object of the TPC is physical activity, forms and types of physical culture of a person and society; its subject area is the formation of physical culture (and its types) of a person and society; subject - features (patterns) of development, cognition and functioning of physical activity and its types in the practice of formation of physical culture of a person and society (and its types and forms).

The purpose of physical culture is to promote in every possible way the formation of a person with the harmonious development of physical and spiritual forces (abilities) based on the comprehensive improvement of his personal abilities in the process of physical culture, which is necessary for a full-fledged individual life and progress of society as a whole (i.e., in fact, we are talking about formation of personal physical culture).

Creation and development in the field of physical culture improvement of people of material and spiritual values necessary for their comprehensive physical and spiritual development.

Development, improvement, maintenance and restoration of material and spiritual values in the field of physical culture improvement of a person for self-realization of his spiritual and physical abilities related to their intrinsic value and fulfillment of duties in society.

Ensuring the transfer of material and spiritual values in the field of physical culture improvement of people to the next generations in order to maintain continuity and progress in the development of the physical culture of society and the individual.

A full-fledged realization of the goal and objectives can be achieved only when a stable, consciously spiritual need for physical culture (and its types) is formed among those involved (especially young people) based on the implementation of its following general principles in practical activities:

1) the integrity of a person, his somatopsychic and sociocultural unity, the integrative impact on him of physical activity and its main element - physical exercises;

2) realization of the physical as personal in the process of continuous use of types of physical culture activities in connection with the formation of the physical culture of a person at various age stages (periods) of his life;

3) interdependence and interconnection of physical culture and its types with all types of culture in the process of physical culture improvement of a person.

The formulated categorical apparatus of TPC, taking into account the above provisions, as well as the relationship of the concepts of the philosophical and cultural level with the fundamental concepts in the field of physical culture)], having a methodological nature, contributes to the solution (both in theory and in practice) of many of its substantive problems from the standpoint of cultural conformity . In many ways, it also determines the ways to improve the functioning of physical culture in the main areas of human life and society (education, work, leisure), taking into account the trends in their development.

Today, in the system of physical education, without rejecting the knowledge concerning the development of the body-motor (somatopsychic) component of physical culture, a deeper justification of its socio-cultural component is required, the establishment of a single relationship between the components in the real pedagogical process. It is especially important to form the interest and need among those involved in mastering the diverse values of physical culture. In this regard, it is advisable to build relationships between students and teachers, taking into account their transfer from an object-subject form to a subject-subject mutually motivated creative pedagogical activity. Students should be active subjects of physical culture and education, where it is necessary to unite its ideal (spiritual) and practical (visibly perceived motor) activities, during which it is important to harmoniously use and develop all the essential forces of a person (intellectual, psycho-emotional, moral, spiritual, physical) as indivisible integrity with the decisive role of spiritual and value consciousness and creative style of thinking, i.e. predominantly "sociocultural" component of physical culture. This requires the teacher (transferring the values of physical culture to students) to create a special "spiritual substance" - an image of a pedagogical situation for solving specific problems (where his interaction with students takes place, their interpersonal relations in joint collective activity), - which should be characterized by independence, originality, creativity and individuality. The pedagogical effect (as the implementation of the main functions of education: research, evaluative-selective, projective, orienting-regulatory, constructive-transforming, etc.) should not only consist in acquiring new physical education knowledge, the formation of motor skills and abilities, the development of physical abilities and a positive motivational-need attitude to physical culture, but also expressed (and this is the main thing) in their turn to self-development, self-expression, self-esteem, self-control, self-knowledge, self-education, self-regulation, self-determination, self-education, self-improvement, i.e. to self-realization, which is the most important phenomenon of culture. At the same time, the spiritual and moral personality of the teacher-teacher should be revived in the student.

Thus, in the system of non-specialized physical education, a transition should be made from the traditional translation of motor experience (in the form of physical qualities, motor skills) of past generations to future generations, simultaneously to the development and creation of diverse spiritual values of physical culture by a person (in the form of the development of a culture of thinking , imagination, feelings, artistic creativity, etc.) in relation to the development of his corporality, on the creative basis of the phenomenon of culture, which most fully forms the value-normative sphere of the individual's consciousness.

The integrative essence of physical culture, affecting all aspects of human development (his intellectual, socio-psychological and motor spheres), must, of course, have a significant impact on his labor activity, during which in the modern period a person must manifest himself holistically. It is a person who has mastered the diverse spiritual and physical values of physical culture, sports, who has many professional qualities necessary for a specialist in work at the stage of scientific and technological revolution and emerging market relations, and therefore is capable of the fullest realization of his potential. At the same time, directly in the production process when using the means of physical culture, it is necessary to proceed from the understanding of its true cultural essence, intrinsic value associated with the self-realization of all essential, spiritual and bodily forces of a person. And only then focus on its economic efficiency, the adaptation of a person to the specific processes of labor activity. In real practice, production almost always traditionally went from utilitarianism, applied physical culture, little affecting the spiritual, personal sphere of a person. Apparently, this was one of the significant factors of the "non-acceleration" of many forms of physical culture in the workplace.

Physical culture in relation to labor activity by its own means and methods should, first of all, neutralize the negative impact of its specific factors on a person, maintain his psychophysical state at an optimal level. Physical exercises within the framework of specific types of physical activity, having a corrective ability, eliminating the one-sidedness of production activity, in this case become an important means of humanization of labor, the harmonious development of a person, and this, of course, has significant economic significance. The guarantor of the survival of many forms of physical culture at work is the formed need in a person to master its values, the optimal development of all his essential forces in the process of non-specialized physical education. These questions are also related to the problem of free time of the working people.

Physical culture, due to its multifunctionality, permeates all levels of leisure and is an integral component of free time. It plays a significant role not only in the restoration, maintenance, development, but also in the improvement of the physical and spiritual abilities of a person. Thus, she takes part in the performance of the main functions of free time: anthropological (associated with the restoration of physical and mental balance), social (associated with the awareness and satisfaction of more complex needs), cultural and educational (helping to improve the general culture, the formation of moral and aesthetic principles and etc.) . As you can see, here, too, there is an approach to free time associated with the realization within its framework of all the essential forces of a person. The main problem of physical culture within the framework of leisure is to increase its prestige among the population as a spiritual and physical phenomenon. This makes increased demands on the institutions of physical education, the family, as well as the effective work of the media.

Thus, the spheres of education, work, free time (leisure within its framework) in terms of the possibilities for the implementation of physical culture in them should complement each other with the aim of physical and spiritual improvement of each member of society.

1.4 Analysis of the means of educating endurance

The means of developing general (aerobic) endurance are exercises that cause the maximum performance of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Muscular work is provided by a predominantly aerobic source; the intensity of work can be moderate, large, variable; the total duration of the exercises is from several to tens of minutes.

In the practice of physical education, the most diverse physical exercises of a cyclic and acyclic nature are used, for example, long running, cross-country running (cross-country), skiing, skating, cycling, swimming, games and game exercises, exercises performed according to the circuit training method (including 7-8 or more exercises performed at an average pace in a circle), etc. The main requirements for them are as follows: exercises must be performed in zones of moderate and high work power; their duration is from several minutes to 60-90 minutes; work is carried out with the global functioning of muscles.

An effective means of developing special endurance (speed, strength, coordination, etc.) are specially preparatory exercises that are as close as possible to competitive ones in form, structure and features of the impact on the functional systems of the body, specific competitive exercises and general preparatory means.

To increase the anaerobic capacity of the body, the following exercises are used:

Exercises that primarily increase alactic anaerobic capacity. Duration
work 10--15 s, maximum intensity. Exercises are used in the mode of repeated execution, in series.

alactate and lactate anaerobic capacity. Duration of work 15--30 s, intensity 90--100% of the maximum
accessible.

Exercises that increase lactate anaerobic capacity. The duration of work is 30--60 s, the intensity is 85--90% of the maximum available.

Exercises that allow you to improve in parallel
alactic anaerobic and aerobic capacity. The duration of work is 1-5 minutes, the intensity is 85--90% of the maximum available.

1.5 Analysis of endurance training methods

The main methods for developing general endurance are:

1) the method of continuous (continuous) exercise with a load of moderate and variable intensity;

2) the method of repeated interval exercise;

3) circuit training method; 4) game method; 5) competitive method (see Appendix A).

For the development of special endurance, the following are used (see Appendix B): 1) methods of continuous exercise (uniform and variable); 2) methods of interval intermittent exercise (interval and repeated); 3) competitive and game methods.

The uniform method is characterized by a continuous long-term mode of operation with a uniform speed or effort. At the same time, the student seeks to maintain a given speed, rhythm, constant pace, amount of effort, amplitude of movement. Exercises can be performed with low, medium and maximum intensity.

The variable method differs from the uniform method by sequentially varying the load during a continuous exercise (for example, running) by directional changes in speed, pace, range of motion, effort, etc.

The competitive method provides for the implementation of exercises in the form of competitions.

The game method provides for the development of endurance during the game, where there are constant changes in the situation, emotionality.

Using this or that method for developing endurance, each time determine the specific parameters of the load.

For the development of general endurance, cyclic exercises lasting at least 15–20 minutes, performed in an aerobic mode, are most widely used. They are performed in the mode of standard continuous, variable continuous and interval load. In doing so, the following rules are observed.

1. Availability. The essence of the rule is that the load requirements must correspond to the capabilities of those involved. Age, gender and level of general physical fitness are taken into account. In the process of training, after a certain time, changes in the physiological state will occur in the human body, i.e. the body adapts to stress. Therefore, it is necessary to reconsider the availability of the load in the direction of its complication. Thus, the availability of the load means such a difficulty of the requirements that creates optimal prerequisites for the impact of the load on the body of the practitioner without harming health.

2. Systematic. The effectiveness of exercise
those. their impact on the human body is largely determined by
system and sequence of impacts of load requirements. It is possible to achieve positive changes in the education of general endurance if strict repetition of load requirements and rest is observed, as well as the continuity of the training process. In working with beginners, the days of physical exercises for the development of endurance should be combined with days of rest. In case of running
it must be combined with walking, i.e. walking here acts as a rest before the next run.

3, gradualism. This rule expresses the general trend
systematic increase in load requirements. Significant functional changes in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems can be achieved if the load is gradually increased. Therefore, it is necessary to find a measure of increasing loads and a measure of the duration of fixing the achieved rearrangements in various body systems. Using the method of uniform exercise, it is necessary first of all to determine the intensity and duration of the load. Job
carried out on a pulse of 140-150 beats / min. For schoolchildren aged 8-9 years, the duration of work is 10-15 minutes; 11--12 years old -- 15--20 min; 14--15 years old -- 20--30 min.

With practically healthy people, work is carried out at a speed of 1 km in 5-7 minutes. For people with good physical fitness, the speed ranges from 1 km in 3.5-4 minutes. Duration of work from 30 to 60 - 90 min.

If the work intensity is higher than the critical one (75-85% of the maximum), and the heart rate by the end of the load is 180 beats / min, then repeated work is given when the heart rate drops to 120--130 beats / min. The duration of repeated work is 1-1.5 minutes, the nature of the rest is active. The number of repetitions is determined by the ability to maintain the achieved level of the IPC (3-5 repetitions). The method of repeated-interval exercise is used only with sufficiently qualified athletes. Its use over 2-3 months is not recommended.

1.6 Exercise safety

When performing most physical exercises, their total load on the body is quite fully characterized by the following components: 1) the intensity of the exercise; 2) the duration of the exercise; 3) number of repetitions; 4) duration of rest intervals; 5) the nature of the rest.

The intensity of exercise in cyclic exercises is characterized by the speed of movement, and in acyclic exercises - by the number of motor actions per unit of time (tempo). Changing the intensity of the exercise directly affects the work of the functional systems of the body and the nature of the energy supply of motor activity. With moderate intensity, when the energy consumption is not yet high, the respiratory and circulatory organs provide the body with the necessary amount of oxygen without much stress. A small oxygen debt, which is formed at the beginning of the exercise, when aerobic processes are not yet fully active, is paid off in the process of doing the work, and in the future it occurs in a true steady state. This intensity of the exercise is called subcritical.

The intensity of the exercise above the critical is called over critical. With such an intensity of exercise, the oxygen demand F significantly exceeds the aerobic capacity of the body, and the work takes place mainly due to anaerobic energy supply, which is accompanied by the accumulation of oxygen debt.

The duration of the exercise has a relationship inverse to the intensity of its implementation. With an increase in the duration of the exercise from 20–25 s to 4–5 min, its intensity decreases especially sharply.

A further increase in the duration of the exercise leads to a less pronounced, but permanent decrease in its intensity. The type of energy supply depends on the duration of the exercise.

The duration of rest intervals is of great importance for determining both the magnitude and especially the nature of the body's responses to the training load.

The duration of the rest intervals must be planned depending on the tasks and the training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at primarily increasing the level of aerobic performance, one should focus on rest intervals at which the heart rate drops to 120--130 bpm. This allows you to cause shifts in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which to the greatest extent contribute to an increase in the functionality of the heart muscle. Planning rest breaks, based on the subjective feelings of the student, his readiness to effectively perform the next exercise, underlies a variant of the interval method, called repeated.

When planning the duration of rest between repetitions of an exercise or different exercises within the same session, three types of intervals should be distinguished.

Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the moment
the next repetition is practically such a restoration of working capacity, which was before its previous execution, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional strain on the functions.

Tense (incomplete) intervals at which the next
the load enters a state of some under-recovery.
In this case, there will not necessarily be a significant change in external quantitative indicators (within a certain time), but the mobilization of the physical and mental reserves of the human body increases.

Minimax interval. This is the smallest interval of rest between exercises, after which there is increased performance (supercompensation), which occurs under certain conditions due to the laws of recovery processes in the body.

The nature of the rest between individual exercises can be active, passive. With passive rest, the student does not perform any work, with active rest, he fills in the pauses with additional activities.

1.7 Pedagogical control in the development of endurance of children of senior school age

Testing human motor abilities is one of the most important areas of activity for scientists and sports teachers. It helps to solve a number of complex pedagogical problems: it reveals the levels of development of conditional and coordination abilities, it allows to evaluate the quality of technical and tactical readiness. Based on the test results, you can: compare the readiness of both individual students and entire groups, conduct sports selection for practicing a particular sport, for participation in competitions; carry out, to a large extent, an objective control over the training (training) of schoolchildren and young athletes, identify the advantages and disadvantages of the means, methods and training used, forms of organizing classes; finally, to substantiate the norms (age, individual) of adolescents' physical fitness.

In addition, the tasks of testing are reduced to the following:

To teach the schoolchildren themselves to determine the level of their physical fitness and plan the complexes of physical exercises necessary for themselves;

Encourage students to further improve their physical condition (form);

To know not so much the initial level of motor ability development as its change over a certain time;

To stimulate students who have achieved high results, but not so much for a high level, for the planned increase in personal results.

One of the reasons for the fact that over the past 25 years the level of physical fitness among children and adolescents in the United States has not increased, but even decreased, is well-known specialist R.E. Kraft calls the traditional approach to testing, when the results of standardized tests and standards are compared with the result shown, which can cause most students to have a negative attitude towards testing. Testing should help increase the interest of schoolchildren in physical exercises, bring them joy, and not lead to the development of an inferiority complex. In this regard, the scientist speaks of the need to revise the organization of testing. They developed a battery of tests, in which:

What it is?

To a modern man of the industrial age, new to history and social sciences, it may not be clear what a "traditional society" is. We will consider the definition of this concept below.

Operates on the basis of traditional values. Often it is perceived as tribal, primitive and backward feudal. It is a society with an agrarian structure, with sedentary structures and with methods of social and cultural regulation based on traditions. It is believed that most of its history, mankind was at this stage.

The traditional society, the definition of which is considered in this article, is a collection of groups of people who are at different stages of development and do not have a mature industrial complex. The determining factor in the development of such social units is agriculture.

Characteristics of a traditional society

Traditional society is characterized by the following features:

1. Low production rates that meet the needs of people at a minimum level.
2. Large energy intensity.
3. Non-acceptance of innovations.
4. Strict regulation and control of people's behavior, social structures, institutions, customs.
5. As a rule, in a traditional society, any manifestation of individual freedom is prohibited.
6. Social formations consecrated by traditions are considered unshakable - even the thought of their possible changes is perceived as criminal.

The traditional society is considered agrarian, as it is based on agriculture. Its functioning depends on growing crops with a plow and draft animals. Thus, the same plot of land could be cultivated several times, resulting in permanent settlements.

The traditional society is also characterized by the predominant use of manual labor, the extensive absence of market forms of trade (the predominance of exchange and redistribution). This led to the enrichment of individuals or classes.

Forms of ownership in such structures, as a rule, are collective. Any manifestations of individualism are not perceived and denied by society, and are also considered dangerous, as they violate the established order and traditional balance. There are no impetuses to the development of science and culture, so extensive technologies are used in all areas.

Political structure

The political sphere in such a society is characterized by authoritarian power, which is inherited. This is explained by the fact that only in this way can traditions be maintained for a long time. The system of government in such a society was quite primitive (the hereditary power was in the hands of the elders). The people had virtually no influence on politics.

Often there is an idea about the divine origin of the person in whose hands the power was. In this regard, politics is in fact completely subordinated to religion and is carried out only according to sacred prescriptions. The combination of secular and spiritual power made possible the ever greater subordination of people to the state. This, in turn, strengthened the stability of the traditional type of society.

social relations

In the sphere of social relations, the following features of a traditional society can be distinguished:

1. Patriarchal device.
2. The main purpose of the functioning of such a society is to maintain human life and avoid its extinction as a species.
3. Low level
4. Traditional society is characterized by division into estates. Each of them played a different social role.

5. Evaluation of the individual in terms of the place that people occupy in the hierarchical structure.
6. A person does not feel like an individual, he considers only his belonging to a certain group or community.

spiritual realm

In the spiritual sphere, traditional society is characterized by deep religiosity and moral attitudes instilled from childhood. Certain rituals and dogmas were an integral part of human life. Writing in traditional society as such did not exist. That is why all legends and traditions were transmitted orally.

Relationship with nature and the environment

The influence of traditional society on nature was primitive and insignificant. This was due to low-waste production, represented by cattle breeding and agriculture. Also, in some societies, there were certain religious rules that condemned the pollution of nature.

In relation to the outside world, it was closed. The traditional society by all means protected itself from intrusions from the outside and any external influence. As a result, man perceived life as static and unchanging. Qualitative changes in such societies took place very slowly, and revolutionary changes were perceived extremely painfully.

Traditional and industrial society: differences

Industrial society arose in the 18th century, as a result primarily in England and France.

Some of its distinguishing features should be highlighted.
1. Creation of a large machine production.
2. Standardization of parts and assemblies of different mechanisms. This made mass production possible.
3. Another important distinguishing feature is urbanization (the growth of cities and the resettlement of a significant part of the population on their territory).
4. Division of labor and its specialization.

Traditional and industrial society have significant differences. The first is characterized by a natural division of labor. Traditional values and patriarchal structure prevail here, there is no mass production.

It is also necessary to highlight the post-industrial society. The traditional, in contrast, aims to extract natural resources, and not to collect information and store it.

Examples of Traditional Society: China

Vivid examples of a traditional type of society can be found in the East in the Middle Ages and modern times. Among them, India, China, Japan, the Ottoman Empire should be singled out.

China has had a strong state power since ancient times. By the nature of evolution, this society is cyclical. China is characterized by a constant alternation of several eras (development, crisis, social explosion). It should also be noted the unity of the spiritual and religious authorities in this country. According to tradition, the emperor received the so-called "Mandate of Heaven" - divine permission to rule.

Japan

The development of Japan in the Middle Ages and in also allows us to say that there was a traditional society, the definition of which is considered in this article. The entire population of the Land of the Rising Sun was divided into 4 estates. The first is the samurai, daimyo and shogun (personified the highest secular power). They occupied a privileged position and had the right to bear arms. The second estate - the peasants who owned the land as a hereditary holding. The third is artisans and the fourth is merchants. It should be noted that trading in Japan was considered an unworthy business. It is also worth highlighting the strict regulation of each of the estates.

Unlike other traditional eastern countries, in Japan there was no unity of the supreme secular and spiritual power. The first was personified by the shogun. Most of the land and great power were in his hands. Japan also had an emperor (tenno). He was the personification of spiritual power.

India

Vivid examples of a traditional type of society can be found in India throughout the history of the country. The Mughal Empire, located on the Hindustan Peninsula, was based on a military fief and caste system. The supreme ruler - the padishah - was the main owner of all the land in the state. Indian society was strictly divided into castes, whose life was strictly regulated by laws and sacred regulations.