Provide a description of the ancient agricultural and pastoral tribes according to the plan, the place of settlement, the main occupation, the dwelling, the tools of labor, the main products. Central Asian farmers and pastoralists

REPORT AT THE THEORETICAL SEMINAR, READ AT THE INSTITUTE OF ARCHEOLOGY OF THE USSR Academy of Sciences, MARCH 31, 1960

Recently, the Soviet scientific community celebrated the 75th anniversary of the publication of a work that V.I. Lenin described as "one of the main works of modern socialism" - the book by F. Engels "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, in connection with the study of L G. Morgan. This book provides an example of a scientific, materialistic study of the primitive history of mankind. V. I. Lenin speaks of this work as a work in which "one can treat each phrase with confidence, with confidence that each phrase was not said at random, but on the basis of enormous historical and political material."

For us archaeologists, of particular importance is the periodization of the history of primitive society set out in this book, the division of the entire history of mankind into three periods: savagery, barbarism, civilization, and each of the first two periods into three stages in accordance with success in the production of means of subsistence. Morgan, according to Engels, "was the first who competently tried to introduce a certain system into the prehistory of mankind, and as long as a significant expansion of the material does not force changes, the periodization he proposed will undoubtedly remain in force."

The periodization of Morgan-Engels has gained the recognition of archaeologists - primitives from different countries and remains in force, despite the expansion of materials, despite the discovery of new, previously unknown cultures. At the same time, it is the subject of attacks by the enemies of Marxism.

As an example of modern bourgeois criticism of the Morgan-Engels periodization as obsolete and evolutionary, one can cite the article by K. Narr “The Beginning of Agriculture and Cattle Breeding. Old questions and new findings and research”: “Especially for those researchers who adhere to concepts similar to the concept of L. Henry Morgan, who still used his long outdated system for periodization of prehistory and early history (with three stages of “savagery”, “barbarism” and "civilizations") and locked themselves in the above considerations, it was a great surprise to see how the seemingly solid foundations of the "Neolithic" disintegrated; ergological and economic criteria no longer agree, since the newly discovered, already food-producing inhabitants lack pottery!” .

Engels characterizes the period of barbarism as "the period of the introduction of cattle breeding and agriculture, the period of assimilation of methods for increasing the production of natural products with the help of human activity." During this period, humanity takes a number of very important steps towards progress. These include: the introduction of pottery; domestication of domestic animals, cultivation of edible plants; the use of raw brick (adoba) and stone for the construction of houses, the smelting and processing of metal; the invention of alphabetic writing and its use for recording verbal creativity. Archeology allows us to establish how, when and where these steps on the path of progress were taken by mankind.

From the time of Morgan ("Anciet Society" in 1877), the presence of ceramics was a sign of the "lower stage of barbarism." Archaeologists have tended to rate the appearance of this trait very highly. Excavations over the past quarter century at Tell es Sultan (Jericho) in Palestine, Jarmo in Iraqi Kurdistan, Khirokitia in Cyprus at Kili Ghul Mohammed in Balochistan, and Huaca Prieta in Peru have unearthed permanent settlements with well-defined residential structures whose inhabitants have already made important steps towards food production, but did not yet know ceramics. On the other hand, examples of food gatherers using pottery are known. It seems to us that the appearance or absence of ceramics cannot always be considered a defining feature in establishing the stage of development. In this regard, the question arises that the period of barbarism cannot always begin with the appearance of ceramics, with the introduction of pottery. In some areas, the beginning of the period of barbarism is characterized by the introduction of cattle breeding and agriculture. At the same time, man begins to build houses of raw brick and stone. And only later, the settled agricultural and pastoral population, living in solidly built houses, began to produce ceramics.

So, the period of barbarism is, first of all, the period of agriculture and cattle breeding, which fully corresponds to the above-mentioned description given by Engels. Between periods of savagery and barbarism is an important qualitative change. This qualitative change is the first major social division of labor.

Having at his disposal only the data of Indo-European linguistics for the Old World, which testified to the separation of the Aryan pastoral tribes, Engels believed that "the pastoral tribes stood out from the rest of the mass of barbarians." This event starts the middle stage of barbarism in the Old World. But we can consider that the separation of agricultural tribes begins the same stage in the New.

We do not currently have data to contrast the course of social development in the western and eastern hemispheres. Therefore, we say that the first social division of labor, taken on a world-historical scale, was the separation of agricultural and pastoral tribes.

The question of what used to be - agriculture with cattle breeding (we do not know pure agriculture) or cattle breeding - is far from a simple issue that is still being debated and still cannot be considered finally resolved.

There is a hypothesis according to which cattle breeding and the nomadic state of tribes have existed in Central Asia since very remote times. It is mainly defended by representatives of the German historical school, in particular Fritz Flohr and W. Schmidt. G. Pohlhausen recently defended this hypothesis with the "accompaniment theory". According to it, hunters of large animals, roaming in herds across the tundra, arctic and boreal steppes, switched to accompanying these herds, and then to nomadic cattle breeding.

According to another hypothesis, pastoralism originated in the Middle East in agricultural communities and then spread to the steppes. According to the views of the founder of this hypothesis, E. Khan, farmers, in all likelihood, from sacred motives, tamed the animals of their environment and, thus, became the founders of cattle breeding. Cattle breeding soon made the population independent and made it possible to populate areas where agriculture was impossible. This theory is supported by Cote, Lattimore, Rich. Beardsley. The most controversial in this theory is the statement about the sacred grounds that prompted farmers to domesticate animals. Engels was certainly right in pointing to more realistic grounds.

Archaeological material seems to indicate a greater likelihood of E. Khan's hypothesis (in its realistic aspect). Thus, the zoologist C. Reid writes with reference to Fuhrer-Heimendorf that “although the dog appeared with the pre-agricultural hunter, the main food animals always appeared among the early farmers, and the domestication of the horse and reindeer ... occurred relatively late and had no effect on the most ancient agricultural communities and their immediate historical derivatives.

In any case, the first cattle were domesticated in agricultural and pastoral communities, which, it seems, cannot be said about small cattle, but we will return to this issue when we talk about the uneven development of human society from the beginning of the first social division of labor. .

The first major social division of labor - the separation of agricultural and pastoral tribes - was the transition to a new period in the history of mankind - to the period of barbarism and was of great importance. Mankind was able to move from simply appropriating the finished products of nature to the production of food. Hence the decisive significance of this event for the further development of society.

Western archaeologists, following Child, often use his expression "Neolithic Revolution", given by analogy with the industrial revolution in England to denote the concept of the first social division of labor. Child writes: "I have always tried to insist that this 'revolution' was ... a slow, continuous process whose culmination could only be determined arbitrarily." According to Child, the Neolithic revolution must take at least many decades, perhaps many centuries.

Expanding on the concept of the "Neolithic Revolution" in Man Makes Himself, Child writes: "The first revolution that transformed the human economy gave man control over his own food supply."

The purpose of this article is to show where, when and how the first social division of labor took place and what are its primary consequences.

Engels says that the first major social division of labor was the separation from the rest of the mass of barbarians of pastoral tribes with a new economy.

Could the process of formation of agricultural and pastoral tribes take place everywhere in the human ecumene? The first necessary condition for the origin of agriculture is plants that can be cultivated, and the first necessary condition for the emergence of animal husbandry is animals that can be domesticated. And these necessary conditions were not everywhere.

Let's turn to the natural sciences.

For more than a hundred years, archeology and botanical studies of cultivated plants have entered into a very fruitful alliance when, in the late 50s of the last century, many cereals were found in Swiss pile buildings. Both sciences owe this union to O. de Geer. Plant genetics and geography are particularly important in determining the origin of agriculture; the first defines the possibilities of species evolution and the scope of possible ancestors, and the second - the scope of possible wild progenitors of plants, delineating the areas in which only cultivation could begin. Soviet plant geographers, headed by N. I. Vavilov, did a great deal to determine the centers of origin of agriculture. Their merits are recognized by the whole world. Thus, one of the greatest modern experts on the origin of cultivated plants, E. Schiemann, writes that “N. I. Vavilov’s report on the “Geographical centers of our cultivated plants” at the Congress of Geneticists in 1927 gave a huge impetus to both the general study of cultivated plants and and new thoughts on the problems of rapshenits".

The natural sciences say that the vast expanses of Central Asia, Europe, humid subtropics with the most fertile soils, occupying a third of the earth's land area, should be excluded from the field of origin of ancient agriculture. “In essence, only a narrow strip of land on the globe played a major role in the history of agriculture,” writes N. I. Vavilov. He points out that the entire world agricultural culture has developed in the seven main centers of the globe, which in themselves occupy a very limited area. But to what extent are these foci or centers independent or primary?

It seems that three completely independent centers of origin of agriculture can be distinguished.

The first center - the center of origin of wheat, rye, flax, alfalfa and many fruit trees, grapes, many garden plants - is Southwest Asian, including Inner and Eastern Anatolia, Iran, Central Asia, as well as Syria and Palestine. Cattle, sheep, goat and one kind of pig are associated with this center.

The second center is Southeast Asian: the Indochina peninsula is the birthplace of rice, a crop that feeds half of humanity, soybeans, sugar cane, cotton, mangroves. Soer and Kuhn insist on this center; they unite two centers of Vavilov, which are associated with the domestication of another type of pig - Sus vittattus.

The third independent center of the emergence of agriculture is the Central American center, which unites the southern Mexican and Peruvian centers of Vavilov. This hearth gave mankind corn, cotton, cocoa, beans, potatoes. In Peru, llamas were domesticated - alpaca, guinea pig.

The existence of such completely independent centers of origin of agriculture proves the unity of the laws governing the development of all mankind.

Agricultural culture, once formed, spreads from the centers of independent origin to the surrounding regions; secondary, non-independent foci are created. These are, for example, the Mediterranean and Abyssinian.

For the Mediterranean focus, N. I. Vavilov noted that “most of the field (and, therefore, the most ancient. - V. T.) plants in it are borrowed from other centers.” Plants that are characteristic of him and only peculiar to him - olive, fig, carob - a later phenomenon.

Now most botanists consider wild emmer to be the progenitor of cultivated tetraploid wheats. We must look for the place of its cultivation within the range of distribution of this species from Syria and Palestine to Iran and Iraq. It is most likely that its cultivation began in several places within this realm.

The Abyssinian center of origin of emmer (according to Vavilov) is very doubtful from both biological and archaeological positions as an independent and independent center of origin of agriculture. N. I. Vavilov notes that there is no archaeological evidence of the deep antiquity, the Abyssinian cultural center. We point out that there is little biological evidence. There are no wild wheats and barley in Abyssinia, and purely Abyssinian plants, teff (Eragrostis abyssinica), nougat (Guizotia abyssinica) have not gone beyond their homeland.

Since the beginning of the first social division of labor, the process of human development has become unequal. Engels points to this for the Old and New Worlds. This difference manifests itself, firstly, in the fact that centers of productive economy arise, as has already been pointed out, while the rest of mankind continues to remain at the stage of gathering.

Secondly, the unevenness of the process of human development lies in the fact that the emergence of the centers of the productive economy themselves is far from simultaneous. The oldest and most important center for the emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding is the Near East. As the most ancient, it can show us the whole process of the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry, and therefore we will deal with it in the future.

Thirdly, the unequal development of mankind since the beginning of the first social division of labor is also reflected in the fact that in some places cattle breeding, apparently, arises earlier than agriculture. Evidence of this is occasionally found in the caves of the South Caspian Sea, in the kitchen heaps of North Africa, in the early tardenois or sovieterry of France (Couzol de Gramat, Tevyek) and ancient Khortum near Arkel, where the bones of domesticated sheep and goats are found.

The Middle East center is the center of origin of the oldest cultivated plants - wheat and barley and the oldest domestic animals - sheep, goats, cattle and pigs.

The wheat genus Turgidum is divided into three genetic groups: diploid, whose cells contain 2 groups of 7 chromosomes, tetraploid (respectively 4 groups) and hexaploid (6 groups). The diploid group consists of einkorn, the tetraploid group includes spelt (emmer), turgidum, durum wheat, and the hexaploid group includes bread soft wheat Tr. vulgare, Compactum, Spelta.

Bees of wheat, except for einkorn, are related by their origin to Tg. dicoccoides, a wild emmer distributed from Syria and Palestine to Iran and Iraq.

Hexaploid naked wheats were supposed at one time to have appeared in Central Asia, where the center of their multiplicity can be established. Their origin has been attributed to chromosomal aberration in emmer. J. Percival pointed out that the grass could be involved in hybridization with emmer to produce soft wheats. If so, then the place of origin shifts to the west, to Transcaucasia, where the ranges of the emmer and Aegilops overlap. Hexapploid wheats, according to G. Helbeck, appear sporadically from the very beginning of agriculture, but as abnormalities; only when transferred to another environment did they become highly developed. The transfer to Egypt was unsuccessful, and in the dynastic period there are no soft wheats in Egypt, but successful in Europe. Whenever a valid variant of naked wheat can be established in ancient finds with sufficient certainty, it turns out to be dwarf common wheat Tr. compactum. The oldest find is the Neolithic el-Omari in Egypt. It exists in the Chalcolithic of Asia Minor, in Harappa in India and in the Neolithic of Europe from the Danube to Switzerland. In the monuments of the Michelsberg culture, a whole group of morphologically different types was found.

The einkorn seems to be the only species that is completely independent in biological behavior. It cannot be crossed with any other wheat. The wild einkorn is distributed in one variant in the Balkans, and in another - from Asia Minor to Palestine and Iran. In the wild, it occurs together with emmer, but rarely in large quantities, often in the layers of the early Bronze Age of Troy, in Western Asia Minor.

The oldest finds are in Hama, in the fourth millennium layer, and in Jarmo, where she accompanies the emmer.

Wild barley grows from Central Asia to Morocco, and therefore it could be cultivated anywhere in this strip; but since there is not a single ancient culture based on barley alone, the conclusion is inevitable that behind wheat man took the first step towards its cultivation.

Aaronzon, who discovered the wild emmer, calls it a “plant of rocky soils”, which “avoids wide plains and steppes”, but grows “in the cracks of rocks, in places where the earth above the stone appears only in the form of a thin layer, in the driest, completely burnt places without any protection and constantly in the society of Hordeum spontaneum ".

Wild wheat grows in mid-latitudes, usually 750-900 m above sea level, preferably on dry and sunny slopes; barley - approximately at an altitude of 800 m. And only in these environmental conditions they could be cultivated.

Turning to zoology to get an answer to the question of the probable area of ​​domestication of goats, sheep, cattle and pigs, we will find ourselves in some difficulty, since many questions are not resolved here, the wild ancestors of the named animals are not always reliably known and, accordingly, the area of ​​domestication is problematic.

The closest living relative of the domestic goat or most goats is the bezoar goat Capra hircus aegagrus. But it is characterized by saber-shaped curved horns, while in domestic goats they are usually twisted. Therefore, some experts believe that the now extinct Capra prisca Adametz goat with twisted horns was the ancestor of domestic goats. Other scholars doubt its existence. In any case, the bezoar goat is found in Crete and the Cyclades and from Asia Minor to Pakistan throughout the Middle East. The goat was domesticated very early: the bones of a domestic goat were already found in Jarmo.

The wild ancestor of the domestic sheep, Ovis ammon Linne, lives in Europe only in Sardinia and Corsica; further, the area of ​​​​its distribution begins in Cyprus and Asia Minor and extends to Central Asia. Only finds of Pleistocene bones of wild sheep are known to Europe. The sheep was domesticated probably as early as the goat. But evidence of this is still very scarce, and the oldest finds have been made in Amuk.

Recently there has been much debate about the origin of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) from a long-horned or short-horned ancestor (Bos primigenius, Bos brachyceros) and the possibility that the short-horned animals were cows and the long-horned animals were bulls. It is likely that researchers are right who, like Amschler, consider Bos brachyceros to be a variety or race of one species - Bos primigenius. Evidence of the domestication of this species belongs to a relatively late period - Khalafsky.

The types of domestic pig seem to have been based on various subspecies of the wild pig of North Africa and Europe. Already from an archaeological point of view, the origin of the European domestic pig from Sur scrofa vittattus, a Southeast Asian subspecies, is assumed by some scientists to be extremely improbable. The earliest evidence of pig domestication comes from Amuk A.

So, the ancestors of the two most ancient domesticated food animals - wild sheep and goats - live mainly in Western Asia, an important fact that clearly follows from what has been said above, and the ancestors of cattle and pigs live in Western Asia.

The Near East center includes the whole area of ​​hilly flanks, mountain valleys and plains between the mountains, which surround the great irrigation system of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. All the primary settled agricultural and pastoral settlements are gathered within the natural zone of wheat and barley growth and the habitat of sheep, goats, pigs and cattle, in rather high valleys, in the foothills and between the mountains. And development had to be limited to this area until the necessary mutations and hybridizations took place so that the cultivated plants could be removed from their natural environment. According to Braidwood, the high plateaus of Anatolia and Iran were not included in the original focus of development.

These are the main provisions of the "hilly foothills theory", which now seems to be the most probable. But there is another theory called "oasis". It goes back to the early work of the famous climatologist Brooks, who postulated that new post-glacial spreads of Atlantic winds supposedly led to the drying up of North African and West Asian regions. Cultural-historical conclusions from this theory are made by archaeologists - especially Child and historians - Toynbee. According to them, humans and animals retreated to oases and river valleys, and this close coexistence was followed by domestication and cultivation. But with the growth of archaeological knowledge, the river valleys were excluded from this.

The zoologist professor Charles Reid, criticizing the oasis theory, points out that it would be biologically incorrect to expect that the trend of animals suitable for domestication was to move down to oases and river valleys with the onset of an arid climate; any such retreat would be upward, into hilly countries with ample rainfall. Further, he points out that proponents of the oasis theory or the "crowded" theory do not take into account post-pluvial temperature and precipitation fluctuations in Africa and Southwest Asia, which had profound ecological consequences. There is no evidence of domestication during the driest time, and only when the period of higher humidity began (7000-4500 BC) did domestication begin.

Considering archaeological materials related to the first social division of labor in the ancient center of the emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding, we are convinced that they can be divided into two stages: the stage of nascent agriculture and the domestication of animals, and the stage of primary settled agricultural and pastoral settlements.

The second stage, already representing the results of the first social division of labor in the ancient center, is quite well known from the materials of the settlements that lie at the base of the tell of Western Asia; the first stage is much less known. The reason is that, at the very beginning of the new stage of food production, the tools of the new economy did not develop into stable and technologically characteristic forms. The culture of the farmers is difficult to know until they have created standardized tools that do not disappear with time for cultivating the soil, reaping or harvesting. Establishing the existence of pastoralism is very difficult in dry soils where bones rot, and within natural habitats of animals suitable for domestication. There are almost no criteria for recognizing domestication from animal bones. It is a different matter if the animal is not characteristic of the biotype in which it was found, like goats and sheep for the lowlands of the Southern Caspian, where they appear clearly already in a domesticated form.

To the stage of nascent agriculture and domestication can be attributed those complexes that include objects that indirectly indicate the nascent production of poverty - both man-made and natural. The former include sickles or sickle blades, grain graters, pestles, hand mills, etc., the latter - the remains of cereals, bones, if they (by definition of specialists) can belong to domesticated animals.

The stage of primary agricultural and pastoral settlements includes materials extracted from the bases of tells - residential hills. Naturally, when an archaeologist reaches the lower horizons, his excavation narrows to the size of a well. Hence the well-known limitations of our knowledge of these monuments. The establishment of permanent settlements and the appearance of ceramics are the main criteria for the beginning of this stage.

This stage includes such settlements as Hassuna and Matarra in Northern Mesopotamia (Neolithic and Proto-Chalcolithic), Mersin, Amuk A-V in Syria and Cilicia, Ceramic Neolithic Jericho A, Sialk I in Iran. These are clearly agricultural settlements with sickles, grain grinders, grain reserves, hoes (in Khaseun), cattle-breeding (bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs), with houses made of raw brick or trampled clay. All these settlements are distinguished by traces of the same cultivated plants and domesticated animals, by common architectural customs and building techniques, by a common method of making ceramics, its ornamentation, by a common type of flint and polished stone tools. Therefore, some archaeologists speak of an area of ​​common, shared tradition. These commonalities, however, do not signify a common beginning in one auspicious place; they prove only the existence of mutual connections and the rapid spread of certain achievements in the same natural and economic conditions.

Other scholars, such as Child and Kenyon, speak of a large number of small beginnings of the general economy, some of which seem to fail and perish. But even these scientists emphasize the impossibility of linking these separate branches and deriving them from one common trunk of development. The stage of primary settled agricultural and pastoral settlements in the ancient center of origin of the producing economy refers, according to radiocarbon dates, to the 6th-5th millennium BC. e.

In Palestine, materials from the Natufian and Takhunian cultures belong to the stage of nascent agriculture and pastoralism. Research by K. Kenyon in 1952-1957. in Tell es Sultan (Jericho) showed that at least part of the Natufians and Takhunians was the creator of a high culture, lived in vast settlements (up to 10 acres - 40 thousand square meters), surrounded by powerful walls with towers, in well houses built from raw bricks. The following layers are installed.

Phase B - Pre-Pottery Neolithic - is characterized by well built houses with large rectangular rooms, rectilinear and vertical walls and wide doors. The walls are built of brick, shaped like flattened cigars, topped with a vertical zigzag pattern of thumbnail prints. The walls and floors are covered with a thin plaster coating, cream or pinkish in color, polished to a shine. Houses are of considerable size; they have small courtyards.

According to the flint inventory, this is the classical Neolithic of Palestine (tahunian culture). This stage has up to 26 building horizons in Jericho. The finds related to phase B are extremely interesting. 10 skulls with a face "restored" in plaster. The faces are painted, the eyes are made of shells. The find is a clear evidence of the cult of ancestors. Phase B is dated (according to Xi) 5850±160 BC. e. and 6250 BC. e.

The earlier phase A - also the pre-ceramic Neolithic - is characterized by rounded houses made of typical "plano-convex" bricks. The floors of dwellings were made below the level of the surrounding soil. The wall that protected the settlement (height - 6 m) was opened and in front of it there was a moat carved into the rock 8 m wide and 2.5 m deep. 9 m). Inside the tower was a staircase of 22 superbly finished stone steps. The wall dates back to 6770 ±210 BC. e.

Proto-Neolithic layers lay below, forming the main core of the tell, consisting of countless successively changing floors with light mounds - the remains of huts.

At the northern end of the tell, Mesolithic layers were found, according to the material corresponding to the first stage of the Natufian culture. Their dates: F-69- -9850 ±240 BC. e., F-72-9800 ±240 BC e.

Numerous finds of cereals have not yet been identified, but it has already been found out that among the bone remains there are bones of potentially domesticated animals - pigs, sheep, goats and bulls. Professor F. Zeuner found evidence of goat domestication. There were pets a cat and a dog.

For Europe, the great antiquity of the agricultural culture, in comparison with the culture of the ceramic Neolithic, was first noticed by V. Miloichich. This was first evidenced by the finds of wheat pollen in Württemberg (Federsee), the Czech Republic (Lake Kommernskoe), Austria (Lake Millstatt in Carinthia), Switzerland (Lake Burgesh), etc., dating back to the middle of the Atlantic period and even to the time of the boreal maximum.

Only in 1956, the hypothesis of a pre-ceramic agricultural Neolithic was confirmed thanks to the excavations of V. Miloichich in Thessaly, during which layers with finds of grains of cereals and bones of domestic animals were found in the deep layers of the tell near Larissa with the remains of permanent and durable buildings, with houses type of semi-dugouts and ground dwellings. Since then, a number of pre-ceramic Neolithic settlements have been found in Southeastern Europe, primarily by Theoharis in Thessaly, at Sesklo and Bercu in Romania, and some scientists doubt the Neolithic dating of the latter.

The first social division of labor, the transition to agriculture and animal husbandry, i.e., to a productive economy, led to an unprecedented growth of productive forces and, as a consequence of this, to a significant increase in the population.

The size of a community of gatherers is limited by the available supply of food, the amount of game, fish, edible roots and fruits on its territory. And no matter how hard a person tries, he cannot increase prey: any improvement in technology, an increase in the intensity of hunting and gathering leads to a progressive extermination of game, to a decrease in its quantity. Under the new economy, enormous opportunities arose for increasing the amount of food; you just need to sow more and cultivate the land more in order to get a larger supply of food.

The appropriating economy is characterized by very low population density (for example, the natives of North America have a normal population density of 0.05 to 0.1 per square mile). A manufacturing economy increases population density. On the islands of the Pacific Ocean in Neolithic societies, the population density reached 30 people or more per 1 sq. km. mile, although here the amount of land is limited.

Population growth was reflected not so much in the expansion of settlements as in an increase in their number. After all, in the absence of means of transporting products, the settlements had to be located near the fields, half of which, moreover, lay under fallow. Therefore, the population in one place was limited to a certain number (300-400 people), and its excess forced the creation of a new settlement.

The development of alluvial valleys begins very early, which a person could populate only by mastering agriculture. “Agriculture was not an “invention” of the people living next to one of the great rivers - the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Indus. No one would descend into the drying marshy country of Southern Mesopotamia to practice farming while he was not at the hall, what it is like. Only after that he could learn the possibilities of the delta. The movement of early farmers down into the clayey lowlands of the Tigris and Euphrates, into southern Mesopotamia, is dated to the end of the Hassun phase or early Khalaf. At the end of the Khalaf period, Lower Mesopotamia was already inhabited by the bearers of the Eridu culture, but they were not the first population there. Numerous finds of microliths (earlier known and made recently) indicate the existence of an earlier culture here, probably collectors.

The advancement of cultivated plants down into alluvial valleys with completely different natural conditions (soil, rainfall, etc.), with the need for artificial irrigation, had a huge impact on these plants, shook their heredity and served as an impetus for a number of mutations. It is likely that this abrupt change in ecology gave rise to varieties, among which were stable and more adapted to new conditions. G. Helbeck believes that in this way a six-row barley arose from a two-row cultivated barley, which he discovered in Jarmo.

More recently, evidence has been obtained of another way of settlement - along the southern coast of Anatolia, where the most ancient painted ceramics and more ancient unpainted ceramics of the Neolithic type from Mersina were discovered during exploration. Excavations in Hadjilar by J. Mellaart make it possible to connect the ancient culture of painted ceramics of the Sesklo type in Greece with the Persian painted ceramics.

The third way of settlement is much less known - through Cyrenaica along the northern coast of Africa to Tangier. But, apparently, this is evidenced by the results of excavations of the Haua Fteah cave in Cyrenaica and the cave in Tangier.

“Farmers who grew traditional cereals and herded traditional animals crossed the Egyptian valley to populate the fertile valleys and plains of North Africa,” writes the famous anthropologist K. Kuhn, who took part in the excavations of a cave in Tangier in 1947. This, of course, is not all possible ways of settlement are exhausted, but in the above-named, the process manifested itself, perhaps, most clearly and clearly.

The resettlement itself is far from being a simple migration. This is a complex process that has only recently begun to be more or less defined in the eyes of archaeologists, thanks to new discoveries that have filled significant gaps in knowledge.

From the very beginning, this process is influenced, on the one hand, by separating factors (peripherization and localization), and on the other, by unifying factors (common tradition and diffusion). But the former immediately gain an advantage, and as a result, the disintegration of the settling culture into local groups; the later the step, the more such groups arise. Initially, these groups do not have sharp boundaries, the features of one gradually increase, the features of the other gradually decrease. But the further they diverge, the more they become isolated, the sharper the boundaries become. New, almost independent, independent centers are being formed.

Thus, very early, the Mediterranean becomes the center of Impresso ceramics, a secondary center genetically linked, most likely, with the Syrian-Cilician Neolithic. Indeed, in the culture of Stentinello, Molfetta, the Ibero-Mauritanian Neolithic, in the caves of Catalonia and Valencia, in Otsaki-Magula in Greece, in the Red and Green caves in Montenegro and Herzegovina, characteristic ceramics of this type were found.

The Balkan Peninsula becomes the center of the most ancient culture of painted ceramics: Sesklo in Greece, Starchevo in Serbia, Kremikovtsy and Karanovo I in Bulgaria, Glavaneshty in Romania - these are the names of individual local cultures included in this center, which is probably genetically related to Amuk B - Mersin. In the materials of this circle of cultures we find emmer and einkorn. The existence of this center is the 5th millennium BC. e.

Undoubtedly, the Keresh culture is genetically related to the two centers mentioned above, and the Sesklo-Starchevo-Keresh center became the genetic ancestor of the Linear-band Pottery culture. With this culture, a new, productive economy spread over the vast expanses of Central Europe - from the Rhine in the west to the Upper Dnieper in the east. The time of its existence according to Xi is the second half of the 5th millennium and the turn of the 5th and 4th millennia BC. e.

Only later (during the time of the second Danubian culture) did the Lendel culture or its offshoots in Bohemia and Moravia (Moravian painted and unpainted ceramics) give rise to the formation of the first northern agricultural and pastoral culture - the culture of funnel-shaped goblets, bringing a new form of economy to the shores of the Baltic Sea, emmer , einkorn, dwarf soft wheat, naked barley, that is, the most ancient cereals cultivated in the most ancient center of the emergence of agriculture, which have come so far from their original homeland and have changed their ecology so much that the plants of the foothills of the Middle East have become plants of the plains of Northern Europe. This happened at the beginning of the Subboreal period or around the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. by Xi.

The spread of new, progressive methods of the economy is not necessarily associated with resettlement; it could also be carried out through influence from farmers, pastoralists and through borrowing from collectors. This is how it always spread when tribes at different stages of development lived side by side.

A classic and clear example is the adoption by the population that left the Ertebelle culture of cereals and domestic animals. S. Becker, a well-known Danish archaeologist, notes that the Ertebelle culture, retaining the character of a hunting culture for several centuries, acquires polished tools, cultivated cereals, domestic animals and ceramics.

The first social division of labor made regular exchange possible. Firstly, the agricultural and pastoral tribes produced means of subsistence qualitatively different from those of the gathering tribes, and, secondly, they could produce more of these means than they needed to sustain life. This surplus was still small, but already its existence was of great importance.

The earliest commodity in the Middle East was obsidian. He was already met in Jarmo. According to the technological properties of obsidian, it can be established that it was distributed from several centers.

Each group of simple producers was economically independent of any neighbors and theoretically could exist in complete isolation. However, total isolation was never realistic. The exchange was carried out both between neighboring tribes and in stages. At the Neolithic settlement near Lake Fayum, there are shells from the Red and Mediterranean seas. In Neolithic Europe, excellent evidence of exchange is the shell bracelets of Spondylus Gaederopus in Southeast and Central Europe, distributed mainly along the great Danube route. Treasure finds make us think that there was an exchange of ready-made jewelry.

Tribes - carriers of the culture of funnel-shaped cups developed amber deposits. Treasures containing up to 13,000 amber beads have been found in different places.

Even G. Kossina pointed to a wide area of ​​distribution of tools from striped Galician flint. Tools made from flint mined in Southern Denmark are common as far as Northern Sweden.

Polish scientists have mapped the distribution of flint from Krzemenok Opatowski.

Engels' work showed that the first social division of labor created the conditions necessary for the second major social division of labor, for the separation of handicrafts from agriculture. Each member of society now began to produce more products than was necessary to maintain its existence. This surplus made it possible for specialists to stand out, who could engage exclusively in their craft and not participate in the joint procurement of food by other members of society. “With the division of production into two large main branches, agriculture and handicraft, production arises directly for exchange - commodity production, and with it trade not only within the tribe and on its borders, but also overseas,” wrote Engels.

Only then, after the second social division, at the highest level of barbarism, does the city arise as a qualitatively different category. A city is not defined by the size of the place it occupies, nor by the number of its population, nor by its fortifications. Many Neolithic and medieval villages in Europe and Asia had walls, but this did not make them cities. The city is characterized by a completely different population than in the countryside. The main element in it is not farmers, fishermen and hunters, but professional rulers, officials, clergy, artisans and merchants who do not get their own food, but live on food obtained for them by tillers and pastoralists, mainly outside the city. “There is no attested example of a community of savages being civilized, adopting urban life, or inventing writing. Wherever cities were built, villages of preliterate peasants existed before. Thus civilization, wherever and whenever it arose, followed barbarism. These words were written by Child in 1950 in the article "Urban Revolution". 3-4 years after that, fortified settlements were opened, declared a city, and their culture - a civilization, and these cities and their civilization turned out to be supposedly created by savages.

Meanwhile, from all that has been said above, it is clear that we, together with K. Kenyon and M. Wheeler, cannot consider the settlements of prehistoric Jericho A and B as a city and even a nascent city, and the culture of their inhabitants as a civilization. Such statements lead to the denial of the laws of social development. It is not for nothing that such prominent archaeologists as Braidwood, Child and Woolley spoke out so sharply against them. "Civilization emerged as a particular enhancement of cultural activity, made possible by efficient food production."

The city as such begins to take shape in the Ubeid culture and appears vividly in the proto-literary period ca. 3400 BC e. At this time, the potter's wheel was already in use. Vehicles appeared (on wheels), special crafts abounded. Here we are already at the turn of civilization and we see such signs of it as the potter's wheel, the preparation of vegetable oil and wine, the developed processing of metals, turning into artistic craft; wagons and war chariots, writing, the beginnings of architecture as an art, and a city with battlements and towers are already known here, that is, all those signs that Engels considers characteristic of this period.

1. V. I. Levin. Writings, 4th ed. v. 29 p. 436.
2. V. I. Lenin. There.
3. F. Engels. The origin of the family, private property and the state. 1952, p. 20.
4. There.
5. "Paideuma", VII, 2, November, 1959, p. 84.
6. F. Engels. Decree. cit., p. 26.
7. K. M. Kenyon. Jericho and its setting in Near Eastern history. "Antiquity", No. 120, 1956; her own. Earliest Jericho. "Antiquity", No. 129, 1959; her own. Some observations on the beginnings of settlement in the-Near East. JRAJ, v. 89, part 1, 4959; ee. Digging of Jericho. London, 1957 and preliminary excavation reports annually from 1952 to 1957 in the Palestine Exploration Quarterly.
8. R.a. L. braidwood. Jarmo. A village of early farmers in Iraq. "Antiquity", No. 96, 1950; R. J. Bhaidwood. From cave to village in Prehistoric Iraq. BASOR, No. 124, 1951; his own. The Iraq-Jarmo project of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Season 1954-1955, Summer", X, N 2, 1954; his own. Near Eastern prehistory. Science, v. 127, N 3312, 1958. Already at the time of printing the work, the final report on the excavations was published: R. J. Bgaidwood. A. Vg. howe. Prehistoric investigations in Iraqi Kurdistan. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. N 31, Chicago, 1960.
9. H. I. Vavilov. The problem of the origin of world agriculture in the light of modern research. M.-L., 1932. Below, when describing the "centers" of agriculture and cattle breeding, we stick to the historical-geographical regions, without defining them by the modern political-administrative division.
10. N. I. VAVILOV Decree. cit., p. 9.
11. For the secondary character of the Abyssinian center, see E. Schiemann. Entstehung der Kulturpflanzen. "Ergebnisse der Biologie", XIX, Berlin, 1943, pp. 521-522.
12. N. Pohlhausen. Jager, Hirten und Bauern in der aralo-kaspischen Mittelsteinzeit, 35 BRGK, 1954, Berlin, 1956, p.
13. J. Parcival. The wheat plant. London, 1921.
14. H. Helbaek. Archeology and agricultural botany. Ninth Annual Report of the Institute of Archeology, London, 1953, pp. 44-58; his own. Domestication of food plants in the Old World. Science, v. 130, No. 3378, 1959, pp. 359-372; his own. How farming began in the Old World. "Archaeology", v. 12, No. 3, 1959; e g o f e. Die Palaoeth- nobotanik des Nahen Ostens und Europas. Opuscula Ethnologica Memoriae Ludovici Biro sacra. Budapest, 1959, pp. 265-289.
15. H. Helbaek. Ecological effect of irrigation in Ancient Mesopotamia. "Iraq", XXII, "Ur in Retrospect", 1960, pp. 187-195.
16. Provisionally published in AS, VIII, 1958; IX, i1959; X, 1960; XI, 1961.
17. C. Coon. The story of man. Nem York, 1954, p. 146.
18. Wed E. F. Neustupny. Zur Entstehung der Kultur mit Kannelierter Keramik. "Slovenska Archeologia", VI1-2, 1959, p. 260.
19. Vrshnik - culture Starčevo III (?), settlement near Shtip: according to the Heidelberg laboratory -4915 ± 150 BC e. Gornja Tuzla, Tuzla Okrug - Starčevo culture III: Gro-2059-4449±75 years BC. e. (N. Quitta. Zur Frage der alteren Bandkeramik in Mitteleuropa. PZ, XXXVII, 1960). The dating of the Linear Pottery culture is proved by a number of dates, including - Westerregeln, Stasfurt district: Gro-223-4250 ± 200 BC. e., and the date of the transition from Vinci A to Vinci B, corresponding to the transition from the Keresh culture to the early Vinci culture, in which the first imported, linear-ribbon sherds appear, is 4010 ± 85 years BC. e. Wed N. T. Waterboik. The 1959 Carbon-14 Symposium at Groningen. "Antiquity", XXXIV, No. 133, I960, p. 15 "fol.
20. R. J. Bhaidwood. Jericho and its setting…, pp. 73-80.
21. V. G. Childe. Civilization, cities and towns. Antiquity, No. 12-1, 1957, pp. 34-38.
22. L. Woolley. The first towns? "Antiquity", JVTa 120, 1956, pp. 224, 225.
23. R. J. Braidwood. Near Eastern prehistory, p. 1419.
24. F. Engels. Decree. cit., p. 25.

In Europe, developed agriculture arose in the Neolithic period. But the transition to the age of metal, although it happened early for some tribes (3rd millennium BC), has not yet led to fundamental changes in socio-economic relations here either.

Tribes of the Caucasus during the Eneolithic.

The largest center of copper production was located on the border of Asia and Europe - in the Caucasus. This center was of particular importance because the Caucasus was directly connected with the advanced countries of the then world - with the slave-owning states of Asia Minor.

The materials of the most ancient agricultural settlements of the Shengavit type (Armenian SSR) obtained in the Transcaucasus allow us to speak about the presence there at the beginning of the 3rd millennium of an agricultural culture, to a certain extent associated with the centers of the ancient East. Settlements of the Shengavit type are also found in the North Caucasus (the Kayakent burial ground and settlements near Derbent).

The cultural upsurge and connections with the ancient eastern centers through the Transcaucasus are especially vividly revealed in the North Caucasus by the artifacts discovered there at the beginning of the 20th century. wonderful burial mounds near Maykop and the village of Novosvobodnaya. The parallels established by these excavations with the culture of the ancient city of Mesopotamia - Lagash (silver vases and their ornamentation), the great similarity of the sculpture of bulls and lions, as well as rosettes and copper axes with the monuments of another ancient city of Mesopotamia - Ura (the period of the so-called I dynasty), the shape of pins from Novosvobodnaya, similar to those found in the city of Kish in Mesopotamia, and, finally, beads, completely similar to those found in Kish and in the most ancient layers of the ancient Indian city of Mohenjo-Daro, testify that the Maykop barrow and the barrow near the village of Novosvobodnaya date back to about the middle of the 3rd millennium BC . e.

By this time, major changes in production and culture were taking place in the North Caucasus. This is especially clearly seen when comparing materials from the Nalchik settlement and burial ground with materials from the Dolinskoye settlement near Nalchik and from large Kuban kurgans.

The Nalchik burial ground and settlement date back to the very beginning of the Eneolithic in the North Caucasus. Only one copper object was found there. The earthenware is very rough. Cattle breeding was still slightly developed. There is no information about agriculture. All tools are made of stone, have a very archaic, Neolithic appearance and are typical for hunting and fishing life. The decorations also retain their former, Neolithic character. At the same time, some finds, perhaps, already speak of some connections with Transcaucasia and Mesopotamia. In the Nalchik burial ground, a crescent-shaped plate-pendant was found, completely similar to the Sumerian ones, made of agate. With the Sumerians (for example, from the city of Lagash), a stone drilled mace is also similar.

No traces of huts were found in the Nalchik settlement. Obviously, light huts served as shelter for its inhabitants.

A completely different picture is presented by the settlement in Dolinskoye. Its inhabitants lived in solid huts with wicker walls plastered with clay. Among a large number of stone tools, many serrated plates were found that served as blades for sickles. Hoes and grain graters were also found, testifying to the development of hoe agriculture. The grain pits near the huts also speak of agriculture. At the same time, cattle breeding also developed. The great development of pottery is evidenced by dishes that have become more diverse; along with all kinds of small vessels, large pots were made, completely similar to those found in the Maykop barrow.

But the manufacture of copper tools reached a particularly high development at that time. In Maykop and Novosvobodnensky mounds, a large number of copper tools were found - axes, hoes, adzes, knives, daggers, pitchforks, petiole spears - such forms that are characteristic of Mesopotamia and the culture of the island of Crete of the XXVI-XXIII centuries. BC e.

The general rise of culture to a large extent determined the establishment of ties with the ancient Eastern centers, which in turn contributed to the further development of the culture of the North Caucasus. These connections, in addition to the similarities in the forms of copper tools and the analogies noted above in the decorations and shapes of silver vessels, are also manifested in the visual arts: in the drawings engraved on Maikop silver vases, in the sculptural figures of bulls, in the bas-relief images of lions and rosettes that adorn the costume and the magnificent funeral canopy. . The very richness of the grave goods and the huge size of the North Caucasian large mounds, which stand out against the general background of modest ordinary burials, especially emphasize the depth of the changes that took place then in the Caucasus in the social system of local tribes - the ancient unity of the clan was violated, social inequality appeared, tribal nobility began to stand out . The North Caucasus at this time, in the middle of the III millennium BC. e., in terms of development, of course, far ahead of other areas of mainland Europe.

Excavations in Georgia, in the mounds of Armenia and Azerbaijan (for example, in Nagorno-Karabakh) reveal the history of ancient, apparently still matriarchal, communities whose economy was based on agriculture and cattle breeding, which arose in the Transcaucasus in the Neolithic period and received in the III millennium BC. e. further development. At the same time, the sites of the Copper Age in Transcaucasia are very similar to the sites of the same time in the territory of Western Asia. The monuments of Transcaucasia, however, are distinguished by a certain originality, indicating the independence of the development of the tribes that inhabited this region. There is no doubt that the population of Transcaucasia, to an even greater extent than the tribes of the North Caucasus, used the achievements of the culture of the peoples of Mesopotamia. Transcaucasia served as the main center for the extraction of obsidian, from which, in the first half of the 3rd millennium, tools were especially readily made in various areas of Mesopotamia and in Elam. The population of Transcaucasia served as a transmitter of southern products to the north. Apparently, it is only by chance that no Eneolithic monuments have been discovered in Transcaucasia, as remarkable as the Maykop barrow of the North Caucasus.

Development of agriculture in the regions of the Lower Danube and Transnistria.

Another Eneolithic center arose in Central and Southern Europe. In the fertile areas of the Lower Danube and the Dniester region, at the end of the 4th and in the first half of the 3rd millennium, the tribes living here, along with hunting and domestic cattle breeding, also engaged in primitive agriculture.

The primeval hoe - a massive stick with a bone, horn or stone tip tied to it - served here as the only tool for cultivating the soil. If we take into account the density of the grass cover of the Central European steppes and the Dniester region, then one can easily imagine what a huge amount of work the first farmers had to spend on cultivating the soil.

These farmers no longer lived in the camps of hunters and fishermen scattered along the dunes on the banks of rivers and lakes with their temporary dwellings - dugouts, but in durable winter huts that made up large settlements. In many areas of this part of Europe, the population remained in the same place for centuries, cultivating the surrounding areas. On the Lower Danube, in the northern as well as in the middle part of Bulgaria, in Hungary, in the northeastern part of Yugoslavia, in Romania and Moldova, these settlements left powerful strata, reaching several meters in thickness and forming "residential hills", not much different from those warmer - the hills of Western Asia, which store the remains of ancient settlements of the early Copper Age. The most striking examples of these settlements are the "residential hills" of the so-called Lower Danubian culture in Bulgaria, the settlement of Vinca in Yugoslavia, the settlement of Turdosh in southern Hungary. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, the production of copper products reaches a very high level here. The so-called "copper age" of Hungary is represented at this time by tools that are not inferior to Chinese and Asia Minor.

Tripolye culture.

The culture of this type has been studied in particular detail in the so-called Trypillia settlements of Ukraine, Northern Romania and Moldova (they are named Tripoli settlements after the place of the first finds made by the Ukrainian archaeologist V.V. Khvoyko near the village of Bolshoye Trypillia, Kiev region.).

In Northern Romania, near the villages of Izvoar and Cucuteni, and in Ukraine along the Dniester, near the villages of Darabani, Nezvishki, near Polivanov Yar and in a number of other places, the remains of Trypillia settlements were burned. The study of these settlements showed that the population lived here for a long time. The first houses were built at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, but in a number of settlements life continued until about the 17th century. BC e. During this huge period of time, the life of Trypillians changed. This is especially noticeable in relation to metallurgy; if in the oldest layers of Cucuteni there are only individual traces of the manufacture of copper products, then in the later layers there are already bronze tools and weapons similar to the bronze products of other centers of Central Europe. The wonderful Trypillia dishes were also changed, which were originally decorated with carved stripes and ribbons, and later richly painted with complex colorful patterns.

Tripoli tribes initially occupied a relatively limited territory in the Eastern and South-Eastern Precarpathians. Their oldest settlements did not extend east of the Southern Bug. However, the achieved level of development of the economy and culture allowed them in the second half of the III millennium BC. e. master the vast territories of the right-bank Ukraine, up to the Dnieper, move south to the Danube and build their settlements in the west - in Transylvania to the Olt River. In the north, the Teterev River serves as the boundary of the Trypillia settlements. In Poland, they are found in the Krakow region.

Tripoli settlements consisted of houses located in a circle. Sometimes there are several such circles. If we assume the simultaneous existence of all houses, then some settlements, for example, the settlement near the village of Vladimirovka in Ukraine, in the Uman region, consisted of almost two hundred houses located in six concentric circles. The center of Trypillia settlements in Ukraine was usually not built up; on a vast square there were only one or two large houses, apparently serving as a meeting place for the inhabitants of the village to discuss community affairs.

The Trypillya ground adobe house consisted of several rooms, some of which served as housing, and the rest were storerooms for supplies. In each room there was a black clay oven, designed for baking bread, there were large vessels for storing grain and a grain grater; in the back of the room, near the window, there was a clay altar with figurines of female deities placed on it. The structure of the house suggests that it was inhabited by several couples. The village itself was an association of kindred families, which included several generations, headed by the eldest in the family. The widely developed cult of the woman-mother suggests that the inhabitants of the Trypillia settlements have not yet passed that stage of development of the primitive communal system, which is characterized by the highest development of the maternal clan. Only in the XVIII-XVII centuries. BC e. among the Tripoli tribes, the importance of cattle breeding in their economy increases, the role of men increases and features appear, especially in the funeral rite, that make it possible to speak of the transition of these tribes to patriarchy.

Eneolithic in Western Europe.

The tribes of Southern and Central Europe differed little from the Trypillians in terms of their level of development. Many of these tribes are characterized by a significant amount of production of copper products. In the mountains of Central Europe, especially in Rudny, already in the III millennium BC. e. copper deposits began to be successfully developed, which later served as an ore base for Central Europe for a long time.

The agricultural tribes that lived north of the Middle Danube basin also lived in large settlements, in large houses with several stoves or hearths. Particularly characteristic in this respect are the so-called Lenschel and Jordanmühl settlements in Upper Austria, Czechoslovakia, northern Hungary, southern Germany, and southwestern Poland. In the alpine zone of northern Italy, Austria, Germany and Switzerland, the same picture of the economy and social structure can be reconstructed in pile settlements on lakes. The population of the regions of France, especially in the first half of the III millennium BC. e., differed by a relatively lower level of development of productive forces. The population that left the monuments of the so-called Seine-Oise-Marne culture, apparently, knew agriculture, which arose here as early as the very early Neolithic, but it was not the main branch of their economy. Hunting still played a significant role, people still lived in dugouts. The same should be said about the regions of Germany located between the Elbe and the Oder, only in the second half of the 3rd millennium did the role of agriculture and cattle breeding increase here.

In the second half of the 3rd millennium, material culture developed more noticeably in the regions along the upper and middle reaches of the Rhine. In this "part of Germany and France, along with open settlements, vast fortified shelters arise, in which, in case of danger, the inhabitants of the surrounding settlements took refuge. Such fortifications sometimes reach enormous sizes (for example, Mayen and Urmitskoye), although a permanently inhabited village on their territory in size Thus, the vast fortified area was designed only for the temporary stay of residents of the surrounding villages, and huge defensive structures (for their construction in Urmitsa, 60 thousand cubic meters of land were dug up and strong log towers were erected and palisades) were built by the entire population of the surrounding villages.These fortified shelters, apparently, were the centers of the unification of tribal villages and testify to the high level of development of tribal life.

A special culture developed in the northern regions of France and Germany. The most characteristic here is the region of Normandy and Brittany, where the so-called megalithic culture reached its greatest development during the Eneolithic period.

Agricultural in its essence, it is also characterized by the development of tribal associations, with which megalithic (i.e., built from huge stones) structures are associated. They were erected in memory of the prominent inhabitants of a clan or tribe (menhir), as a family tomb (dolmen) or in the form of a tribal sanctuary (cromlech) (Mengir is a single large stone placed. Dolmen is a crypt of large stone slabs. from menhirs placed in a circle.). The large number of these structures and the enormous weight of the stones of which they consisted, undoubtedly indicate that such structures could only be carried out by the forces of an entire tribe.

A great similarity with the life of the tribes of the megalithic culture was the life of the population of Northern Spain.

The Iberian Peninsula during the Eneolithic period was perhaps the most significant center of copper ore production in Western Europe. Here, especially between Almeria and Cartagena, there was a continuous chain of settlements of metallurgists.

In this area, in every excavated ancient hut, archaeologists find copper ore, fragments of clay crucibles for melting copper, copper ingots prepared for exchange; piles of slag and broken crucibles speak eloquently of the centuries-old and extensive development of copper production, designed by no means only for local needs. From here copper went to France (where only in the Marne mountains there were very small developments of their own), to Northern Europe and, apparently, to the Apennine Peninsula and to Greece. Finds in Spain of painted vessels and red pottery, very similar to both South Italian and Aegean, testify to the ancient connections between these regions of Europe. On the other hand, these connections clearly show the spread to many regions of Western and Central Europe, as well as to Northern Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean Sea, of peculiar so-called "bell-shaped" vessels, the initial center of manufacture of which was the southern and eastern regions of Spain.

Culture of pile postvoeks.

A vivid monument of life in the Eneolithic period of the agricultural and pastoral tribes of Europe are the famous pile settlements in Switzerland and in neighboring areas, now known in the amount of four hundred. The oldest piled buildings date back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. The rest existed at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, when the transition to the Bronze Age was already taking place in most of Europe.

A huge number of stone and bone tools, such as axes, chisels and adzes, were found in piled buildings, which were used for working wood. Many of them were fixed into wooden handles by means of special couplings or bushings made of horn. Thanks to the preservative effect of marsh soils and peat, many wooden tools and household items have been preserved - wooden utensils, tables, benches, parts of looms, boats, spindles, bows and other items. Plant grains, remnants of nets, fabrics and other materials that disappear without a trace under normal conditions have also been preserved. This allows us to restore with great completeness and accuracy the life and culture of the inhabitants of pile settlements, the basis of whose existence was mainly livestock breeding and agriculture.

Five types of domestic animals were known: bulls, pigs, goats, sheep and dogs. All of these animals were small breeds. The emergence of such breeds of animals is believed to be due to the difficult conditions in which they existed, and first of all, poor care and malnutrition.

The land was cultivated with hoes made of wood, stone, bone or deer antler. Hoes were used to loosen the ground in areas freed from forests near lakes. Bread was reaped with flint sickles. The grain was threshed with wooden mallets and ground into flour or groats on hand-held oval-shaped stone grinders. Traces of chaff mixed with grains of weeds have been preserved in the swampy soil near the pile dwellings. Even bread baked by the inhabitants of pile settlements, which had the shape of small round cakes, survived. The cakes were made from wheat, millet and barley. Peas, lentils, carrots, parsnips, poppies and flax were also sown. There were also fruit trees - apple trees, grapes were bred. The remains of special drilling machines with a bow, which were used to drill holes in the stone, have been preserved. Fire was made with the same bow drill. Flax was spun with the help of wooden spindles, on which clay spinners were put on, which served as handwheels. Fabrics were knitted from threads with wooden crochet hooks, they were also woven on a primitive loom. Clay vessels of various shapes were made.

With such a level of development of the economy, the existence of primitive natural exchange was also natural: there was a need for materials that were not available in the given area, and, obviously, there were some surpluses of livestock products. In the piled buildings of Western Switzerland, there are long bladed knives and polished axes made of a kind of yellowish flint, which was mined and processed in the Lower Loire, in France. From there, such products also dispersed to other regions of France, present-day Belgium and Holland. The population of Swiss pile buildings also received amber from the Baltic, Mediterranean corals and shells. However, the exchange was still very limited in scope and, of course, could not contribute to the decomposition of the primitive communal system.

Piled buildings clearly testify to the strength and strength of the primitive communal order. To cut down and sharpen hundreds and thousands of piles with stone axes, deliver them to the shore of the lake, and then drive them into the marshy soil, a huge amount of labor was required. There should have been a harmoniously organized and friendly team. In those distant times, only a tribal community, welded together by collective production and indissoluble blood ties, could be such a collective.

Each pile settlement and each village of the ancient farmers and pastoralists of the Stone Age was one cohesive whole. All members of this association built their nest among the lakes by common efforts, jointly defended it from enemy attacks. Together they plowed their fields, harvested their crops together, celebrated their communal holidays and celebrations together.

The division of labor within the community was obviously natural. Men were engaged in hunting, fishing, performed the most difficult physical work, especially clearing the soil for crops and cultivating arable land; they built houses and drove piles, made tools and wooden utensils from stone and bone. Women took care of the crops, reaped, threshed, ground grain on grain graters, baked bread, stored food for future use, and collected wild-growing edible herbs, fruits and berries. Probably, they also prepared clothes, made pottery.

The social affairs of the village, including the organization of labor, as in other similar societies, apparently, were led by a council of adult members of the community, and everyday life was under the control of elected elders and leaders.

It should be noted that the same piled structures were found in other areas of Europe - in Northern Italy, Southern Germany, Yugoslavia and Northern Europe - from Ireland to Sweden. There are their remains in the north of the USSR, in the Vologda region and in the Urals. Such, for example, is a pile settlement on the Modlon River (Vologda Oblast). It was located on a narrow promontory formed by the Modlona River and the Perechnaya River flowing into it. Excavations revealed two rows of houses, the foundations of which were piles driven into the ground.

All houses in the plan approached a quadrangle. The walls were made of wattle, the roof was covered with birch bark. On the floor of the houses and between the houses, various articles made of bone, stone and wood were found. Amber jewelry of Eastern Baltic origin was also found.

In general, the ancient settlement on Modlon gives a picture of the same tightly knit community life as the other pile settlements of the late Stone Age described above.

Tribes of the South Russian steppe in the III millennium.

The steppe spaces between the Dnieper and Ural rivers in the first half of the 3rd millennium were inhabited by tribes who were engaged in hunting and fishing and left us BC. e. mounds in the steppe spaces along the Volga and Don, in the left-bank Ukraine, in the bend and in the lower reaches of the Dnieper. Burials in simple earth pits are found under these barrows. In the "pit" mounds of a later origin, bones of domestic animals were found, the remains of wagons - signs indicating the beginning of cattle breeding, as well as individual copper crafts.

In the coastal zone, the Neolithic way of life was still fully preserved. The life of its population was vividly reflected by the Mariupol burial ground, left on the very shore of the Sea of ​​Azov by a tribe that lived mainly by fishing and hunting, did not yet know metal and preserved in their rituals, in everyday life, in clothing the same features of the Neolithic period that we noted in the North Caucasus based on the materials of the Nalchik settlement and burial ground. Here the archaism of this way of life was even more profound; the tribes living in the coastal zone have not yet mastered even the production of pottery.

Only in the second half of the 3rd millennium - undoubtedly, in connection with the upsurge that has been outlined in the economy of the North Caucasus - the population of the Azov-Black Sea, Kuban and Caspian steppes begins to develop faster.

This new stage in the history of the tribes that lived in our South during the Eneolithic period is represented by the so-called catacomb mounds in the steppes between the Volga and the Dnieper (The name comes from the method of burial in these mounds: it was carried out in a kind of catacombs - chambers dug in one of the walls at the bottom of the entrance well of the burial.). At that time, tribes closely connected with the North Caucasus lived there. They accepted the achievements of the Caucasian tribes in copper metallurgy, agriculture and cattle breeding. These tribes, apparently, formed several associations, to a certain extent differing from each other in the details of their culture. At the same time, it can be noted that catacomb burials are found in the east at an older time than in the west.

Settlement of tribes to the west.

It seems that the tribes that left us the catacomb burials spread from east to west during the 23rd century. BC e. and the following centuries. In the west, they came into conflict with the Tripoli tribes, pushed them back from the Middle Dnieper and penetrated into Poland, where we also find burials in which ceramics are found, close to ceramics characteristic of the catacomb mounds and the North Caucasus.

The reason for such a wide settlement of the tribes that left the catacomb mounds must be sought in the nature of their economy. The process of development of cattle breeding began, the tribes became more mobile; agriculture played a lesser role in their lives. The needs of nomadic pastoralism caused resettlement over large areas. Because of the pastures there were military clashes. It should be noted that the domestication of animals and the guarding of herds were the work of men. Therefore, the cattle belonged to the man and was inherited not by the maternal family, but by the sons of the man. This gradually led to the concentration of property in individual families and eventually split the tribal community, which was now opposed by a large patriarchal family. It consisted of several generations of direct relatives on the paternal side, who were under the authority of the oldest. The growth of wealth and the emergence of property inequality entailed the emergence of slavery. This is marked by the frequent forced burial in the catacombs of slaves along with a man. Livestock was here the first form of wealth, which allowed the accumulation of significant surpluses.

The penetration of the tribes that left the catacomb mounds to the west was not limited to the territory of Poland. Catacomb burials can be traced as far as Slovenia. The so-called corded ornament on local utensils was most closely associated with the ornamentation of vessels from the catacomb burial mounds. This ornament was widespread at the end of the III millennium BC. e. on the territory of present-day Hungary, Austria (in Salzburg) and the northern part of Yugoslavia.

At the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. in Europe, especially in Northern and Middle Europe, cord ornamentation of dishes was widespread. In a number of areas, amphoras of North Caucasian forms appeared (for example, Saxo-Thuringian ceramics), and decorations typical of pit and catacomb burials, primarily wand-shaped pins, also spread.

Significant changes are taking place in the economy of the population of this zone. Cattle breeding is developing there and in many areas it is becoming the main branch of the economy. The economy and culture of more ancient tribal associations are changing in this direction. At the same time, similar changes are taking place in the territory that was recently occupied by the tribes that created the Trypillia culture.

All these facts indicate that at the end of the Eneolithic Europe was undergoing profound changes caused by the westward penetration of the population from the steppes of Eastern Europe, who brought with them a lot of new things in technology, agriculture, ceramic production and other areas of culture. This confirms the assumption of some linguists that the tribes who spoke the oldest Indo-European languages ​​are of Eastern origin, and this explains the presence of related languages ​​of the Indo-European family in the vast expanses from the Indus to Western Europe.

In Central Europe and on the Rhine, tribes that came from the east met and mingled with another, western group of tribes, apparently spreading from Spain (the so-called "tribes of the stakes of the circum-shaped cups"). This mixing could play a decisive role in the process of spreading further to the west of the Indo-European languages, which also subjugated the old languages ​​of Neolithic Europe and formed new languages ​​- the Celtic and other ancient Western European groups of the Indo-European family of languages.

A similar process took place at the beginning of the 2nd millennium in the forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe. The southern tribes associated with the Dnieper-Desna group of the Middle Dnieper tribes also penetrated here. Their progress is marked by early monuments of the so-called Fatyanovo culture, discovered first in the Bryansk and then in the Moscow region (The culture is named Fatyanovo after the place of finds near the village of Fatyanovo, near the city of Yaroslavl.). Later, they spread throughout the Volg-Oka interfluve, developing cattle breeding, high forms of metallurgy and ceramic craftsmanship, still unknown to the local Neolithic society. However, here their fate was different than in Western Europe. In the forest areas of the Volga-Oka interfluve, they could not successfully apply their southern forms of economy and were absorbed by the local Neolithic tribes. Only their most eastern part, which settled in the territory of modern Chuvashia and the Lower Kama region, continued to exist later.

Central Asia also belongs to the number of the most ancient centers of agriculture and cattle breeding. Here, in the south-west of the country, on a narrow strip of foothill plain, sandwiched between the rocky spurs of the Kopetdag and the boundless sea of ​​Karakum sands, in the VI millennium BC. e. there were tribes that left a culture called Jeitun culture by archaeologists. Now monuments of this type have also been found in Northeastern Iran, so we are obviously talking about a whole large tribal community of early farmers, similar to the Zagros group.
Like the inhabitants of the Zagros settlements, in the culture of the Dzheytun

tribes clearly combines the new and the old, the progressive and the archaic. Agriculture and animal husbandry have now become a solid foundation for a new type of economy. Imprints of grains of barley and wheat on clay, hundreds of flint inserts for sickles, the most important tool of ancient farmers, speak of this with all certainty.
The Jeytun settlements were located not on the plateaus and in mountain valleys, where the amount of precipitation provided a stable harvest, but in an arid zone, which forced the inhabitants to resort to some kind of artificial irrigation of the fields. Most likely, flood overflows of small rivers and streams flowing from the Kopetdag were used. Certain successes were also achieved in cattle breeding. Cattle were added to the main domestic animals - goats and sheep - at the late stage of the Jeytun culture.
New types of economic activity, especially agriculture with the initial forms of artificial irrigation, radically changed the whole face of life and life. Temporary camps located in caves or open-air camps gave way to strong, long-term settlements made of adobe buildings. True, these settlements were Il. 14 are small: the number of their inhabitants did not exceed, at most, 150-
200 people. However, the progress made in the construction of dwellings is very indicative. The houses excavated in the Jeytun settlement itself, and in other settlements of the Jeytun culture, are one-room buildings with an area of ​​20-25 square meters. m. Each of them had a massive adobe hearth, the floor was covered with lime plaster, painted red or black. Sometimes the walls of dwellings were also painted from the inside. Appears in a relatively small amount and so characteristic of the early agricultural cultures of earthenware, still rough, but already decorated with a simple painting. The admixture of finely chopped straw to the clay used to make dishes indicates the versatile use of the cereals grown by farmers.
However, the signs of relative prosperity in the conditions of the new type of economy should not hide from us the features of deep archaism, vestigial traditions, rooted in the depths of the Stone Age. Archaism is the great role of hunting goitered gazelles and wild asses, especially at the early stage of the development of the Jeytun culture, corresponding to the customs of the steppe hunters of the Mesolithic and Upper Paleolithic.
All tools were made by the Dzheitun tribes from stone and bone: we have a vivid example of the agricultural Neolithic, but the types of flint tools themselves and the technique of their manufacture are closely related to the achievements of the Mesolithic time. Finally, the continuing production of a large number of specialized tools made of bone and flint - all kinds of scrapers, piercers, etc., intended for processing skins, is very indicative, although weaving, one must assume, had already originated here [§§§§].
Researchers of the Jeytun monuments believe that the economic unit of society at that time could be a small family[*****]. In all-

1. Axonometry and reconstruction of a Neolithic dwelling at Jarmo,

1. millennium BC. e. (according to Braidwood)

1. Plan of an early agricultural settlement, Jeytun, 6th millennium BC. d.

In any case, small houses that form ancient settlements are designed specifically for it, and finds of tools indicate that in each house its inhabitants were engaged in processing skins, making flint tools, and woodworking. At the same time, such a type of economic activity as semi-irrigated agriculture encouraged the development of collective forms of labor, which led to the existence of agricultural communities, the remains of whose settlements are the monuments under study. Most likely, the inhabitants of these villages were connected by some kind of family ties. Sanctuaries, which were also used as places of general meetings, were peculiar symbols of the internal unity of communal groups. On Pessedzhik-depe, one of the ancient settlements of the Jeytun culture, such a sanctuary, discovered almost in the center of an ancient settlement, was close in its layout to ordinary residential buildings, but almost twice their size. In the sanctuary, the remains of multi-colored wall paintings depicting various geometric figures, ungulates and predators of a cat breed have been preserved. Along with the murals of Chatal-Hyugok, this is one of the oldest monuments of such art in the world. Terracotta female figurines found at the Dzheitun settlements also testify to the development of the cult of a female deity - the patroness of fertility. The coloring of the floors of residential buildings and a number of elements in earthenware and flint tools indicate the relationship of the Dzheytun culture with the farmers of the Zagros group. However, in general, the Dzheigun culture is very peculiar, which, presumably, is explained by its formation on the basis of the culture of the local Mesolithic population of Southwestern Central Asia and Northern Iran.
The Jeytun settlements represented, as it were, the northeastern flank of settled agricultural and pastoral tribes. In other regions of Central Asia, there are no such ancient monuments of a settled agricultural culture. There, in the VI-IV millennia BC. e. archaic cultures of hunters, fishermen and gatherers were widespread. True, in a number of places the domestication of small cattle also began here, at least from the 6th millennium BC. e. This is evidenced by the results of excavations at sites of the Hissar culture, which is distributed mainly in the mountainous regions of Western Tajikistan. But the domestication of animals that had begun

Most of all, it was here only an element of a new type of economy with the continuing dominance of the hunting-gathering economy. In any case, the Hissar culture retains a very archaic appearance for a long time. It, in particular, is characterized by a large number of pebble tools, despite the fact that ceramics and adobe structures are completely absent.

EARLY DOMESTIC AGRICULTURAL AND CATSTORAL CIVILIZATIONS

Introduction

1 Formation of domestic civilizations of the Ancient World. neolithic revolution

2 The main features of the development of early domestic civilization centers of the Ancient World

3 Features of the protection of historical monuments of early domestic agricultural and pastoral civilizations

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The first, oldest socio-economic formation was the primitive communal system. It lasted from the time of the formation of man to the transition to a class society and, therefore, was the longest epoch in the history of mankind, due to the slow pace of development of society in its early stages. All stages of the primitive communal system are united by the collective nature of production and consumption, due to the fact that the productive forces were still very undeveloped. That is why the further development of the productive forces, the transition from a typically primitive consuming economy to a producing economy, the division of labor (primarily the separation of pastoral and agricultural peoples) complicated the entire system of social relations and ultimately led to a transition to other types of social development.

It is generally accepted that primitive society is divided into periods according to the main materials used to make tools: the Stone Age, the Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age) - transitional from stone tools to metal ones, the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age. This periodization, of course, does not mean that tools from wood and bone were not made in the Stone Age, and from stone in the Bronze Age. We are talking about the predominance of one or another material.

Table 1

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AGES		CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
I. Stone Age
1. Paleolithic		1500–100 thousand years ago
2. Mesolithic		12–8 thousand years BC
3. Neolithic*
II. Copper Age*
III. Bronze Age*
IV. Iron Age*		from 1 thousand BC to the present day
* In Europe and Asia

1 Formation of domestic civilizations of the Ancient World. neolithic revolution

The settlement of primitive man on the territory of the Russian Federation took place in the era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), characterized by the predominant use of stone for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Wood, bone and other materials were also used. The main occupations of small human groups were hunting and gathering. Traces of the habitation of an ancient man who came from the Transcaucasus were found in the North Caucasus and in the Kuban region. Sites of the Mousterian Paleolithic culture (100-35 thousand years ago) were discovered by archaeologists in the middle Volga region and other regions. Burial discoveries, according to scientists, testify to the development of religious beliefs. In the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-35 - 10 thousand years ago), people of the modern type (Cro-Magnons) lived in certain areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (the Urals, Pechora, the West Siberian Lowland, Transbaikalia, the valley of the middle Lena). They own numerous archaeological sites (Avdeevskaya camp, Sungir, Kostenki, Malta, Buret, etc.). Collectives of blood relatives on the maternal or paternal lines (clan) lived in the conditions of the last (Valdai) glaciation. Adapting to the harsh natural conditions, they improved the technique of processing stone, bone, etc., mastered the construction of dwellings; introduced specialization in hunting and other crafts. During this period, hunting for large mammals prevailed: mammoths, cave bears, etc. The comprehension of the surrounding world was reflected in sculptures and cave paintings (Kapova Cave).

During the period of the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), people adapted to the changing natural conditions associated with the retreat of the glacier and the formation of the modern relief, climate, flora and fauna. Small groups of hunters and fishermen moved into the areas freed from glaciation. With the invention of the bow and arrows in hunting, the prey of medium and small mammals, waterfowl acquired a large place; large areas of inland water bodies contributed to the development of fisheries. Researchers attribute the emergence of group burial grounds to this period (Oleneostrovsky burial ground, etc.).

At the last stage of the Stone Age (Neolithic), the formation of branches of the productive economy began: agriculture and cattle breeding. In the manufacture of stone tools, grinding and polishing, as well as sawing and drilling, were used. Pottery, spinning and weaving arose. For transportation, boats, skis, sledges were used. By the end of the Neolithic, individual copper items appeared. In the course of the complication of tribal society, associations of individual clans appeared - tribes. At the same time, groups of tribes led the same type of economy, which is confirmed by excavations and studies of pit-comb and other archaeological cultures of the Neolithic (Lyalovskaya, Balakhna, etc.).

In the era of the Copper Age (Eneolithic), agriculture, cattle breeding and copper metallurgy developed initially in the southern regions of Eurasia. In the 4th-2nd millennium BC. e. settlements of settled farmers and pastoralists existed in the North Caucasus; Ukraine, Moldova (Trypillian culture); steppes of the South of Russia (pit culture), etc.

According to the latest archeological data, the oldest traces of human habitation on the territory of Russia date back to pre-Shellian times (3 - 2 million years ago) and were found in Siberia, the North Caucasus and the Kuban region. In particular, the Bogatyri and Rodniki sites on Taman are 1.5 million years old. Sites of the next stage, the Shellic (730-350 thousand years ago) were found in the Voronezh, Kaluga, Tula, Volgograd regions. Approximately 150 thousand years ago, the Acheulean cultures were replaced by the Mousterian ones. Sites of this type are widespread in the European part of Russia. During these cultures, the physical type of a person also developed - local species of Australopithecus, later - archanthropes, paleoanthropes (including their own types of "Neanderthals"), who were replaced by a modern neoanthrope.

In Russia, there is the oldest neoanthropic site in the world - Kostenki in the Voronezh region (50 thousand years ago). Settling, neoanthropes formed the first archaeological culture of neoanthropes - the Kostenkovo-Streltsy culture (50 - 30 thousand years ago, sites: Markina Gora, 44 - 34 thousand years BC, Voronezh region; Eliseevichi, 35 - 25 thousand years before AD, Bryansk region; Sungir, 28 - 20 thousand BC, Vladimir region, etc.). Its genetic heir is the Kostenkovo-Avdeevka culture, which existed until the Mesolithic era. This culture includes sites: Gagarino, 22 - 21 thousand BC. e., Lipetsk region; Zaraysk, 22 - 21 thousand BC e., Moscow region; Avdeevo, 22 - 21 thousand BC e., Kursk region; Yudinovo, 14 - 13 thousand BC e., Bryansk region, etc. Anthropological type of a person - Caucasians.

NEOLITIC REVOLUTION(neolitic revolution) - a revolutionary revolution in production that occurred in late primitive society, usually associated with the transition from an appropriating to a producing economy and created the prerequisites for the formation of an early class society.

The term "Neolithic Revolution" was introduced in 1949 by the English archaeologist Gordon Child, who was close in his conceptual preferences to Marxism and proposed the term by analogy with the Marxist concept of "industrial revolution". This revolution, according to Child, "transformed the human economy, gave man control over his own food supply", thus creating the conditions for the emergence of civilization. Since the concept of "industrial revolution" by the middle of the 20th century. already became generally accepted, the term "Neolithic revolution" quickly gained popularity. Other variants of the names of this historical event (for example, "revolution in food production", "agricultural revolution") did not receive the support of specialists.

Currently, the Neolithic Revolution is considered one of the three major revolutionary changes in the economy - along with the industrial and scientific and technological revolutions.

The study of archaeological materials (especially in America) and the way of life of the surviving backward peoples has shown, however, that a rigid connection between social stratification and the transition to a productive economy is by no means found everywhere. There are peoples who continued to engage in appropriating economy, but have already gone far from primitive equality. For example, the Indians of Alaska 18-19 centuries. They were mainly engaged in fishing and hunting, but by the time the Europeans arrived, they already had such institutions as chiefdoms, wars between tribes, and patriarchal slavery.

To explain this contradiction, one should pay attention to the most general signs of a producing economy, identified by the Soviet historian V.M. Bakhta:

settled way of life;

stock creation and storage;

interval in the sequence of works;

cyclical work;

expansion of the range of activities.

Of these five signs, only three are sufficient for the development of social stratification - the 1st, 2nd and 5th. The most important feature is (2): it is the accumulation of rare material goods (first of all, food) that gives rise to the division into rich and poor. Therefore, the Soviet historian V.A. Back in the 1980s, Bashilov proposed to understand by the Neolithic revolution transition from the production of a subsistence minimum to the stable production of a surplus product regardless of the particular forms of economy under which this transition occurs.

The logic of the concept of V.A. Bashilova is like that. Before the Neolithic Revolution, the production of excess food was random and unsustainable, because there were no technologies for the long-term preservation of scarce food. When methods are discovered for long-term storage of food reserves (smoking, salting, etc.), then a powerful incentive immediately arises not to immediately eat all the prey, as happened in early primitive society, but to accumulate it for a “rainy day”. Owners of a larger supply can guarantee a stable standard of living not only for themselves, but also for their loved ones. Therefore, they acquire a higher social status. The accumulation of wealth stimulates predatory raids on neighboring tribes in order to take away their accumulation. Thus, for the formation of social stratification, sufficient conditions may arise even if the appropriating economy is preserved.

The thesis about the stable production of a surplus product can be perceived as an indication of an increase in the level and quality of life during the Neolithic revolution: before it, people lived on the verge of starvation, and after that, as a result of the transition to more advanced technologies, life became more abundant. This understanding was widely held until the 1970s, when the American anthropologist Marshall Sahlins proved it wrong.

In his monograph Economics of the Stone Age(1973) M. Sahlins, summarizing ethnographic and historical information, formulated a paradoxical conclusion: the early farmers worked more, but had a lower standard of living than late primitive hunters and gatherers. The early agricultural peoples known in history worked, as a rule, for a much larger number of days than those who survived to the 20th century spent on getting food. primitive hunters and gatherers. The idea of ​​the hungry life of backward peoples also turned out to be very much exaggerated - among farmers, hunger strikes were more severe and regular. The fact is that under the appropriating economy, people took far from nature everything that it could give them. The reason for this is not the imaginary laziness of backward peoples, but the specificity of their way of life, which does not attach importance to the accumulation of material wealth (which, moreover, is often impossible to accumulate due to the lack of technologies for long-term food storage).

A paradoxical conclusion arises, which is called the “Sahlins paradox”: during the Neolithic revolution, the improvement of agricultural production leads to a deterioration in living standards. Is it then possible to consider the Neolithic revolution a progressive phenomenon if it lowers the standard of living? It turns out that it is possible if we consider the criteria for progress more broadly, without reducing them only to average per capita consumption.

What exactly was the progressivity of the Neolithic revolution can be explained by the model proposed by the American economists and historians Douglas North and Robert Thomas ( cm. rice.).

In the early primitive society, common property dominated: due to the small population, access to hunting grounds and fishing grounds was open to everyone without exception. This meant that there was a general right to use the resource before it was captured (whoever was the first to capture it) and an individual right to use the resource after the capture. As a result, each tribe, collecting prey from the next site where it migrated, was interested in the predatory consumption of shared resources "here and now", without concern for reproduction. When the resources of the territory were depleted, they left it and went to a new place.

Such a situation, when each user is concerned with maximizing personal immediate benefits without worrying about tomorrow, economists call the tragedy of common property. As long as natural resources were abundant, there were no problems. However, their depletion due to population growth led about 10 thousand years ago to the first ever revolution in production and in the social organization of society.

According to the Sahlins paradox, hunting and other types of appropriating economy provided much higher labor productivity than agriculture. Therefore, while the demographic burden on nature did not exceed a certain threshold value (in the figure, the qd value), primitive tribes did not engage in a productive economy, even if there were suitable conditions for this (say, plants suitable for cultivation). When, due to the depletion of natural resources, the productivity of hunters began to fall, then population growth required a transition from hunting to agriculture (in the graph - from an initially higher level of VMPh to a trajectory of a lower VMPa), or the extinction of hunters from starvation. In principle, a third way out is also possible - to stop the demographic pressure at the critical limit. However, primitive people rarely resorted to it due to a lack of understanding of environmental patterns.

In order to move from hunting to farming, fundamental changes in property relations are necessary. Farming is a fundamentally settled type of activity: for many years or constantly, farmers exploit the same piece of land, the harvest from which depends not only on the weather, but also on the actions of people. Fertile land is becoming a rare resource that needs protection. There is a need to protect cultivated lands from attempts to capture them by strangers and to resolve land conflicts between fellow tribesmen. As a result, it begins to take shape state as an institution whose main economic function is the protection of property rights.

D. North and R. Thomas proposed to consider the main content of the First Economic Revolution (as they called the Neolithic Revolution) the emergence of property rights that secure exclusive rights individual, family, clan or tribe to the ground. Overcoming the tragedy of common property made it possible to stop the fall of the marginal product of labor and stabilize it.

Table 2. INCREASE IN POPULATION DENSITY AND MASS DURING THE NEOLITIC REVOLUTION

The progress of the development of society in the course of the Neolithic revolution, therefore, is manifested not directly in the growth of the average per capita standard of living, but in an increase in the density and population (Table 3). The shift from hunting and gathering to farming has been estimated to increase population density hundreds of times over. Since this transition did not take place in all regions of the planet, the growth of the total population of the planet occurred more slowly - not hundreds, but only tens of times.

It should be taken into account that in different regions of the planet the Neolithic revolution took place asynchronously and with different regional specifics. There are three ancient primary foci:

Western Asia (the territory of modern Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Jordan), where by 7-6 thousand BC. an agricultural and cattle-breeding economy was formed (growing wheat, barley and peas, breeding goats) and the first cities of the planet appeared (Chatal-Guyuk, Jarmo, Jericho);

Mesoamerica (the territory of Mexico), where by the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. an agricultural economy based on the cultivation of maize developed; the territory of Peru, where by the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. the economy of settled agriculture (cultivation of maize) is being formed, while maintaining the great importance of fishing.

The Neolithic revolution in each of the primary centers proceeded for a long time, for 2–4 millennia. When the new manufacturing economy began to spread from these centers to the surrounding regions, the adoption of already accumulated production and social experience sharply reduced the transition time. In the modern world, backward peoples who did not survive the Neolithic revolution survived only in remote corners of the planet with special natural and climatic conditions.

2. The main features of the development of early domestic civilization centers of the Ancient World

In the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread over a large territory of Russia (except for the northern and northeastern regions), in connection with which the decomposition of primitive communal relations accelerated. At the same time, in the North - in the taiga and tundra, in harsh natural conditions, the archaic primitive way of life was preserved. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th-6th centuries. BC e. under the influence of iron and blacksmithing in Transcaucasia. The transition to the production of iron is traced on the material of the Koban, Srubnaya, Abashev and other cultures. The formation of the Iron Age in the Black Sea steppes coincided with the presence of the Cimmerians there, and then the Scythians. 2 economic structures were formed: cattle-breeding-nomadic in the steppes and sedentary-agricultural in the forest-steppes. The emergence of handicraft centers, which developed into urban ones, with a significant military potential, contributed to the emergence of a state among the Scythians. Scythian and Scythian-like cultures of the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. on the territory of Southeastern Europe constituted the western part of a large cultural and historical community, which was formed mainly among the nomadic pastoral tribes of Eurasia (the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical community).

In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. ancient cities arose on the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, which united in the 5th century. BC e. in the Bosporan state, which also included Sinds, Meots, and other tribes. Greek slave cities were centers of high ancient culture, they established close economic, political and cultural ties with the Scythians and other peoples. In the 4th c. BC e. began the movement from the Urals to the Volga region of the Sarmatian tribes. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians and in the 3rd c. BC e. settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus. In the steppe zone, by the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. became the dominant Sarmatian culture. The Scythian state, which existed from the 2nd century BC. BC e. mainly on the territory of the Crimea and along the banks of the lower Dnieper, was influenced by ancient cities and Sarmatian culture.

Iron-making production developed in the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Dnieper basin. The population of the Zarubintsy culture (2nd century BC-2nd century AD) in the upper and middle parts of the Northern Dnieper and Desenye regions is correlated by some scientists with the tribes of the Balts, by others with the Proto-Slavs. In the forest area of ​​Eastern Europe from the 8th c. BC e. by 6th-7th centuries n. e. there were cultures associated with different ethnic groups. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve, monuments of the Dyakovo culture were found, to the South and East from the middle reaches of the Oka and to the Volga (basins of the Tsna, Moksha, Sura rivers) the Gorodets culture spread. The carriers of these cultures were the Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of Meri, Vesi, Meshchers, Muroms and Mordovians. Representatives of the Ananyino culture (8th-3rd centuries BC) occupied the left bank of the Middle Volga and the Kama region. They are considered the ancestors of the Udmurts and Komi. From 8-5 centuries. BC e. iron was being developed in the Far East. Here the centers of ferrous metallurgy were formed.

In the process of the great migration of peoples to the Northern Black Sea region in the 3rd century. n. e. the Goths came, in 375 the Huns. Ancient cities ceased to exist. In the 2nd half of the 3rd c. in the steppe and forest-steppe from the left tributaries of the Dnieper to the Danube, the poly-ethnic Chernyakhov culture spread. Its carriers were Dacians, Getae, Sarmatian-Alans, late Scythians, Goths, Slavs. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. there was a decomposition of primitive communal relations among many agricultural and pastoral peoples living in Eastern Europe and Siberia. In 550-562, the union of nomadic tribes of the Avars moved from the Urals and the Volga region to the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 6th c. in Central Asia, a tribal union of the Turks created a state - the Turkic Khaganate, which played an important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking population of Eurasia. In the 60s. 6th c. The Turks defeated the state of the Hephthalites in Central Asia. At the turn of the 6th-7th centuries. East Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates arose. In 638-926, in the southern Primorye, there was a state of the Mohe tribe and another - Bohai, which successfully fought against the emperors of Tang China. In the 2nd half of the 6th c. Turkic-speaking Bulgarian Balanjar tribes moved from the Trans-Urals to the North Caucasus. In the 1st third of the 7th c. in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, the state formation Great Bulgaria arose. In the middle of the 7th c. nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Don steppes were included in the Khazar Khaganate. The Finno-Ugric tribes of the Middle Volga region and immigrants from Great Bulgaria created in the 10th century. state - Volga-Kama Bulgaria. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. there was a process of formation of the state among the Alans in the North Caucasus.

3 Features of the protection of historical monuments of early domestic agricultural and pastoral civilizations

Archaeological monuments of the Bronze Age have been discovered almost throughout Eurasia. By the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. include monuments of the Bronze Age in the Caucasus, in the Northern Black Sea region, etc. At the end of the 3rd -1st quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The technology of bronze smelting was mastered by the tribes of the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and the Altai-Sayan region. The primitive communal form of social organization was preserved for the most part. Scientists have established the existence in the Bronze Age of independent territorially isolated population groups with peculiar features of spiritual and material culture (cultural groups, archaeological cultures, cultural and historical communities). In the southern zone (Caucasus, Central Asia, partly South Siberia) agricultural and cattle-breeding complexes with developed handicraft production arose. In the steppe, forest-steppe, and partly in the forest zones, the cattle-breeding type of economy prevailed, with the auxiliary role of agriculture. In the forest (taiga) zone, cattle breeding was combined with hunting and fishing. There were long-term settlements where handicraft production developed. In the early Bronze Age, in the Transcaucasus and the North-Eastern Caucasus, there was a Kuro-Araks agricultural and pastoral culture. Relations were maintained with the civilizations of the Middle East. In the late Bronze Age, the Koban culture spread in the central regions of the Caucasus. On the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe lived cattle-breeding tribes of the pit cultural and historical community, which arose back in the Copper Age. At the end of the 3rd - the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Upper and Middle Volga regions and the interfluve of the Oka and Volga lived carriers of the Fatyanovo and Balanovo cultures. In the forest-steppe zone of the Don region, the Middle Volga region and the Southern Urals in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the tribes of the Abashev cultural and historical community lived, which are characterized by a high level of development of metallurgy, based on the Ural and Volga copper deposits. In the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. on the territory from the Urals to the Left Bank of the Dnieper, pastoral and agricultural tribes of the Srubnaya cultural and historical community were located. The Seima-Turbinsky cultural complex, which originated in the Sayano-Altai region, spread thousands of kilometers to the West. In Siberia, the Afanasiev culture in the upper reaches of the Yenisei and the Altai steppes belonged to the Eneolithic - the early stage of the Bronze Age, the Glazkov culture in the Baikal region and the Ymyyakhtakh culture in the basin of the middle Lena belonged to the early Bronze Age. The spread of metallurgy in Eastern Siberia is associated with the influence of the Okunev culture, presumably formed in the Minusinsk Basin and forced out to the East by the tribes of the Andronovo cultural and historical community. The Andronov tribes occupied in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the territory from the Urals to the Yenisei and from the taiga zone to the northern regions of Central Asia (Alekseevsky settlement, etc.). The Karasuk culture (13-8 centuries BC) was found in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Ob, in the Sayano-Altai region. In the south of the Far East in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. there were Sinegai, Lido, Evoron and other cultures. In the Bronze Age, the process of social division of labor intensified, the exchange between tribes increased. The craft has become an independent sphere of production. The heads of large patriarchal families possessed considerable wealth; property differentiation intensified, clashes between tribes became more frequent. In the Bronze Age, alliances of tribes arose, later described by ancient historians and geographers.

In the vicinity of the mountainous Krasnodarya, the northwestern part of the Black Sea region, the Republic of Adygea, dolmens became widespread - megalithic ritual and burial structures. They are mainly located in the mountain-forest zone. Dolmens appeared in the Western Caucasus about 5,000 years ago in the Early Bronze Age. In recent years, there has been enough literature on these mysterious representatives of the dolmen culture, archeological monuments of world significance. The most famous mass dolmen settlements within the weekend routes are Novosvobodnenskoye (more than 400 pieces), Detuaksko-Dakhovskoye (about 120 pieces); in the area of ​​​​the town of Sober-Bash, some researchers counted about 40 dolmens. In dollars R. Abin found up to three dozen tombs, and not far from the village. Pshada lead excursions to 9 dolmens.

In this area, the Scythian culture (7th - 4th centuries BC) is represented by monuments that have received world recognition - the Voronezh, Elizabethan barrows, which provided reference samples of the ancient art of the animal style. These finds are stored in the Golden Storeroom of the State Hermitage, the State Museum of the East.

In the era of the early Iron Age (VIII - IV centuries BC) in the basin of the river. The Kuban and the Sea of ​​Azov formed a vibrant culture of the Meots - tribes of farmers and cattle breeders, fishermen and artisans. They left behind numerous fortified settlements - Elizavetinsky, Vasyurinsko-Voronezhsky, Starokorsunsky on the right bank of the Kuban, Tenginsky on the river. Labe, Steppe I - III in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, etc.

The richest stone tombs of the Sindo-Meotian nobility were found in the Elizavetinskiye, Semibratnye, and Karagodeuashi burial mounds.

The western part of the Krasnodar Territory is the only place in the Russian Federation where ancient monuments are located: the settlements of Phanagoria (the capital of the Asian Bosporus) and Germonassa (Taman), the city of Gorgippia (Anapa), Taman Tholos and the residence of Chrysaliska (village "For the Motherland" of Temryuksky district), the oldest ship anchorages near the capes of Tuzla and Panagia.

Conclusion

So, on the basis of the theoretical analysis carried out in the control work, the following conclusions were drawn.

The periodization of the history of the Ancient World is a complex and not yet fully resolved scientific problem. There are many approaches to the periodization of history. In this paper, the following scheme is considered:

I. The oldest stage, which lasted approximately 1.5 - 2 million years, covers the initial phases of anthropogenesis. The lowest stage of savagery, the time of the prehistory of the economy and material culture;

II. The stage covered a significant part of the Stone Age (Early Paleolithic) and lasted more than 1 million years. The primitive-appropriating stage corresponded to the middle stage of savagery;

III. The emergence of modern man and the early stages of his history (late Paleolithic, Mesolithic, in some areas of the earth the entire Neolithic). The time of a developed appropriating economy, a stage of the highest savagery;

IV. Accumulation of experience in the reproduction of life's blessings, the beginning of the domestication of plants and animals, while maintaining the appropriating type of economy as a whole (late Mesolithic - early Neolithic). The lowest stage of barbarism;

V. VIII-V millennium BC e. - the beginning of the era of the productive economy, corresponding to the middle and highest levels of barbarism;

VI. In the IV-III millennium BC. e. on the basis of the development of productive forces and production relations in irrigation agriculture, the first civilizations arise, which mark the final decomposition of the primitive and the formation of a class society.

VII. At the boundaries of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, the development of nomadism began, which was another major stage in the division of labor.

In the control work, the main agricultural and cattle-breeding centers of the Ancient World are considered.

In the Russian Federation, as in other countries, there is legislation regulating the protection of historical monuments, including the history of the Ancient World.

The western part of the Krasnodar Territory is the only place in the Russian Federation where ancient monuments are located

List of used literature

1. Masson V.M. The problem of the Neolithic revolution in the light of new archeological data. - Questions of history. 1970. No. 6

2. Bashilov V.A. The pace of the historical process in the most important centers of the "Neolithic revolution". - In the book: The Historical Fates of the American Indians. Problems of Indian studies. M., 1985

3. Sahlins M. Economics of the Stone Age. M., 1999

4. Korotaev A.V. Social evolution: factors, patterns, trends. M., 2003

5. Trouble A.M. Cultural-historical rhythms (tables). M., 1995.

6. History of Russia / Under the general. ed. V.V. Rybnikov. Saratov, 1997

7. Mikhailova N.V., Beda A.M., Zhurov A.N. Monuments of the past: Protection of historical heritage. M., 1997.

8. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the World Community of Civilizations: Textbook for Universities. M., 1994.

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Read also other articles in the section:
- Brief description about primitive society
- Primitive human herd
- Formation of the genus
- Primal Hunters

Agriculture of the ancient people

Approximately 13 thousand years ago, a climate similar to the modern one was established on the earth. The glacier retreated to the north. The tundra in Europe and Asia was replaced by dense forests and steppe. Many lakes have turned into peat bogs. Huge ice age animals have become extinct.

With the retreat of the glacier and the appearance of a richer and more diverse vegetation, the importance of plant foods in people's lives increases. In search of food, primitive people wandered through the forests and steppes, gathering the fruits of wild trees, berries, grains of wild cereals, pulling out tubers and bulbs of plants from the ground, and hunted. The search, collection and storage of plant food stocks were predominantly women's work.
Gradually, women learned not only to find useful wild plants, but also to cultivate some of them near the settlements. They loosened the soil, threw grains into it, and removed weeds. For tillage, a pointed digging stick and a hoe were usually used. The hoe was made of wood, stone, bone, deer antler. Early farming is called hoe farming. Hoe farming was predominantly the work of women. It provided the woman with honor and respect in the family. Women brought up children, along with men, they took care of the household. Sons always remained in the mother's clan, and kinship was transmitted from mother to son.
The clan in which the woman played the leading role in the economy is called the maternal clan, and the relations that developed between people during the existence of maternal clans are called matriarchy.
In addition to the hoe, other agricultural tools appeared. A sickle was used to cut the ears. It was made of wood with sharp flint teeth. The grain was knocked out with wooden mallets, rubbed with two flat stones - a grain grater.
To store grain and cook food from it, people needed utensils. Having stumbled upon clay soil soaked from rain, primitive people noticed that wet clay sticks and sticks, and then, drying in the sun, it becomes hard and does not let moisture through. Man learned to mold crude vessels from clay, burn them in the sun, and later on fire.

Agriculture ancient man arose in the valleys of the large southern rivers about seven thousand years ago. Here was loose soil, annually fertilized with silt, which settled on it during floods. The first agricultural tribes appeared here. In wooded areas, before tillage, it was necessary to clear the place from trees and shrubs. The soil of the wooded regions, which did not receive natural fertilizer, was rapidly depleted. The ancient farmers of the woodlands often had to change areas for crops, which required hard and hard work.
Along with cereals, the most ancient farmers cultivated vegetables. Cabbage, carrots, peas were bred by the ancient population of Europe, potatoes - by the indigenous population of America.
When farming became permanent from an occasional occupation, the agricultural tribes led a sedentary life. Each clan settled in a separate village closer to the water.

Sometimes huts were built over water: logs - piles - were driven into the bottom of a lake or river, other logs were laid on them - flooring, and huts were erected on the floor. The remains of such pile settlements have been found in various European countries. The oldest inhabitants of piled buildings used a polished axe, made pottery, and were engaged in agriculture.

Cattle breeding of ancient people

Settled life made it easier for a person to switch to cattle breeding. Hunters have long domesticated some animals. The dog was first domesticated. She accompanied a man on a hunt, guarded the parking lot. Managed to tame other animals - sw her, goats, bulls. Leaving the parking lot, the hunters killed the animals. From the time the tribes moved to settled life, people stopped killing the captured cubs of animals. They learned to use not only the meat of animals, but also their milk.

The domestication of animals gave man better food and clothing. People got wool and down. With helpspindlesthey spun threads from wool and fluff, then weaved woolen fabrics from them. Deer, bulls, and later horses began to be used to transport heavy loads.

Nomadic pastoral tribes appeared in the boundless steppes of Central Asia, Southeast Europe and North Africa. They raised cattle and bartered meat, wool and skins for bread from farmers who led a settled life. There is an exchange - trade. Special places appear, where at a certain time people gathered specifically for exchange.

Relations between pastoral nomads and settled farmers were often hostile. The nomads attacked the settled population and robbed it. Farmers stole cattle from nomads. Cattle breeding develops from hunting and therefore, like hunting, is the main occupation of a man. The cattle belongs to the man, as well as everything that can be obtained in exchange for cattle. The importance of women's labor among the tribes that have switched to pastoralism recedes into the background in comparison with the labor of men. Dominance in the clan and tribe passes to the man. The maternal lineage is replaced by the paternal lineage. Sons, who previously remained in the mother's clan, now enter the father's clan, become his relatives and can inherit his property.

The main features of the primitive communal system.

The history of human society, as established by the founders of Marxism-Leninism, goes through five stages, characterized by special relationships between people that arise in the course of production. These five steps are as follows: primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist.

The primitive communal system covered the longest period in the history of mankind. It has existed for hundreds of thousands of years. Primitive society did not know private property. In this era there was no inequality. In order to endure the harsh struggle for existence, people had to live and work together, to fairly share the jointly captured booty.

Labor was of decisive importance in the development of primitive society and man himself.Thanks to labor, the ancestors of man stood out from the animal world, and man acquired the appearance that is characteristic of him now. For hundreds of thousands of years, primitive people have made many valuable inventions and discoveries. People learned how to make fire, make tools and weapons from stone, bone, wood, sculpt and burn clay dishes.

Man has learned to cultivate the land and has grown the useful grains and vegetables that we use now; he tamed, and subsequently domesticated animals, which provided him with food and clothing, and facilitated movement.

The primitive communal system was possible when people possessed primitive tools that did not allow them to have surpluses and forced them to share everything equally.

The primitive communal system is collective labor, joint ownership of land, hunting and fishing grounds, the fruits of labor, this is the equality of members of society, the absence of oppression of man by man.