Principles, laws and categories of dialectics. Three laws of dialectics and their examples

As a doctrine of the laws of development, it is a coherent system of logically consistent knowledge, the basis of which is a number of principles, laws, categories that characterize the development and interconnections of objects, processes, and phenomena.

Dialectical ideas about the world have been formed over thousands of years. In European philosophy, Heraclitus is usually called the first dialectician. During the development of classical philosophy, the dialectical system received its most complete form in creativity, and then acquired a materialistic character in Marxism. However, knowledge about the patterns and principles of development of various kinds of objects and systems continues to multiply and deepen to this day.

The core of dialectics constitute a number of fundamental principles, the three so-called fundamental laws of dialectics and a system of important dialectical categories.

Laws of dialectics differ from the laws of other sciences (physics, mathematics, etc.) in their generality, universality, because they: firstly, cover all spheres of the surrounding reality and, secondly, reveal the deep foundations of movement and development - their source, the mechanism for the transition from the old to the new, the connection of the old and the new. stand out three basic laws dialectics:

The law of unity and struggle of opposites

It lies in the fact that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being one in nature, are in conflict and contradict each other (example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer, youth and old age). etc.). The unity and struggle of opposite principles is the internal source of movement and development of everything that exists. Each phenomenon is internally bifurcated, contains mutually exclusive, opposite tendencies: for example, a positively charged nucleus of an atom and negatively charged electrons, assimilation and dissimilation in the body, reactions of combination and decomposition in chemistry, the interests of struggling classes in society, etc. To become a source of development, opposites must be sides a single process, i.e. not only mutually exclude, but also mutually presuppose, complement each other. The source of all movement and development is the interaction of opposites “rooted” in the very essence of being: for example, the interaction of the nucleus with oppositely charged electrons is the cause of the movement, rotation of electrons around the nucleus, and without the movement of electrons, the atom itself cannot be a stable system. The law of unity and interaction of opposites is not only the law of being, but also the law of knowledge. Cognition is an active interaction between the object and the subject on the basis of practice. The cognitive process itself is a unity of opposites: sensory and logical, abstract and concrete, theory and practice. Methodological role the law of unity and interaction of opposites lies in the fact that it aims at the search, selection and fixation of these opposites, finding the form of their interpenetration. The bifurcation of the unified and the subsequent mental analysis of its elements is one of the essential aspects of the dialectic of knowledge.

It is also possible to identify different types of struggle of opposites within the whole phenomenon:

• fight for the benefit of both sides(for example, constant competition, where each side “catches up” with the other and moves to a higher qualitative stage of development);
• wrestling where one side regularly gains the upper hand over the other, but the defeated side remains and is an "irritant" for the conquering one, due to which the conquering side moves to a higher stage of development;
• antagonistic struggle where one side can only survive at the expense of the complete annihilation of the other.

In addition to the struggle, other types of interaction are possible:

• assistance(when both sides provide mutual assistance to each other without a fight);
• solidarity, alliance(the parties do not provide each other with direct assistance, but have common interests and act in the same direction);
• neutrality(the parties have different interests, do not promote each other, but do not fight among themselves);
• mutualism- full interrelation (to carry out any business, the parties must act only together and cannot act autonomously from each other);

The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes

The essence of this law is that the change in the quality (specificity, nature) of a given thing, i.e., the transition from the old quality to the new, takes place when the accumulation of quantitative changes reaches a certain limit. The content of the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes is revealed in the system of interrelated categories " quality», « quantity», « measure», « jump". Under certain quantitative changes are bound to change quality. At the same time, the quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a point when a change in quality leads to a change measures(that is, the coordinate system in which the change in quality used to occur under the influence of quantitative changes) - to a radical transformation of the essence of the object. Such moments are called nodes”, and the transition to a different state is understood in philosophy as“ jump". Category " jump» reflects the complex process of transition from the old quality to the new, when quantitative changes go beyond the boundaries of the measure. Jumps are diverse in form and nature of flow, in speed and scale of qualitative changes. If, for example, you heat water sequentially by one degree Celsius, that is, change the quantitative parameters - the temperature, then the water will change its quality - it will become hot (due to the violation of the usual structural bonds, the atoms will begin to move several times faster). When the temperature reaches 100 degrees, a fundamental change in the quality of water will occur - it will turn into steam, that is, the former "coordinate system" of the heating process will collapse - water and the previous system of connections. A temperature of 100 degrees in this case will be a node, and the transition of water into steam (the transition of one measure of quality to another) will be a jump. The same can be said about the cooling of water and its transformation at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius into ice. In nature not always possible to determine nodal moment. The transition of quantity into a fundamentally new quality can occur: abruptly, instantly, or imperceptibly, evolutionarily. Examples of the first case have been discussed above. As for the second option (an imperceptible, evolutionary fundamental change in quality - measure), the ancient Greek aporias "Heap" and "Bald" were a good illustration of this process: "At the addition of what grain will the aggregate of grains turn into a heap?"; “If a hair falls out of the head, then from what moment, with the loss of which particular hair, can a person be considered bald?” That is, the edge of a specific change in quality may be elusive;

Law of negation of negation

It lies in the fact that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from the new into the old and is denied by more and more new. According to this law, development is a process that consists of certain cycles. The category "denial" reflects a certain stage of development that distinguishes the transformation of an object into something else, in a certain way connected with the object being denied. Denial is a meaningful process and means not just the destruction of the old phenomenon, but also the emergence of a new one, which is in a certain connection with the denied. The inclusion of some “positive” elements of a negated quality in a revised form into the composition of a new thing is called “removal”. Removal is characterized by three interrelated aspects: overcoming, preserving and rising to a new, higher level. The denial of old forms by new ones is the cause and mechanism of progressive development. However, the question of the direction of development is debatable in philosophy.

The following main points of view stand out:

• development is only a progressive process, a transition from lower forms to higher ones, that is, upward development;
• development can be both ascending and descending;
• development is chaotic, has no direction.

Practice shows that of the three points of view, the second one is closest to the true one: development can be both upward and downward, although the general trend is still upward. For example, the human body develops, grows stronger (ascending development), but then, developing further, it already weakens, becomes decrepit (descending development). The historical process goes in an ascending direction of development, but with recessions - the heyday of the Roman Empire was replaced by its fall, but then a new development of Europe in an ascending direction followed (Renaissance, Modern times, etc.). Thus, the development rather goes not in a linear way (in a straight line), but in a spiral, and each turn of the spiral repeats everything that happened before, but at a new, higher level.

Principles of dialectics

The main principles of dialectics are:

• universal connection principle, which means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness, interdependence of all its components, objects, phenomena, processes. Communications can be: external and internal; direct and indirect; genetic and functional; spatial and temporal; random and regular. The most common type of communication is external and internal. Example: internal connections of the human body as a biological system, external connections of a person as elements of a social system.
• principle of development, which is the fundamental basis of dialectics. Development is presented not as a purely quantitative change, but as self-development of matter, and the cause of development lies in the interaction of internal opposites inherent in any thing, object, phenomenon. Development as a movement from the old to the new includes both progress (movement from the lower to the higher, more perfect) and elements of regress;
• principle of consistency, which means that numerous connections in the surrounding world do not exist chaotically, but in an orderly manner. These links form an integral system in which they are arranged in a hierarchical order. Thanks to this, the surrounding world has an internal expediency;
• principle of causality, i.e. the presence of such connections, where one gives rise to another. Objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world are conditioned by something, that is, they have either an external or internal cause. The cause, in turn, gives rise to the effect, and the connections as a whole are called causal;
• historicism principle, which implies two aspects of the surrounding world: eternity, indestructibility of history, the world; its existence and development in time, which lasts forever.

Only in the system of their interconnections can categories, principles and laws of dialectics approximately adequately reflect the most general and essential aspects of a multifaceted reality in its endless development.

The main categories of dialectics

The system of principles and laws of dialectics also includes categories.

It is also believed that the categories of dialectics have the status of laws. Often they are called paired categories, since the existence of one of them (from a pair) implies the existence of the other. More precisely, they denote in reality something “mutually positing”.

As an example, such categories as essence and phenomenon are usually cited: content and form; cause and effect: possibility and reality; necessity and chance, and some others.

• essence - a category that reflects the universal forms of the objective world, its knowledge and practical activities of people; the inner content of the object, expressed in the unity of all the diverse and contradictory forms of its existence. Comprehension of the essence of the subject is the task of science;
• phenomenon - this or that discovery (expression) of an object, external direct data of the form of its existence;
• content - the defining side of the whole, the unity of all the constituent elements of the object, its properties, internal processes, connections, contradictions and trends;
• form - way of existence and expression of content;
• cause- (from lat. causa) a phenomenon whose action causes another phenomenon;
• consequence - a phenomenon that occurred as a result of the action of another phenomenon, cause;
• opportunity - an objective tendency of the formation of an object (process, phenomenon), expressed in the presence of conditions for its occurrence;
• reality- an objectively existing object (process, phenomenon) as a result of the realization of some possibility, in a broad sense - the totality of all realized possibilities;
• necessity- a category that reflects predominantly internal, stable, recurring universal relations of reality;
• accident - a category that reflects external, insignificant. single, unstable connections.

However, far from all philosophical schools and trends give a high status not only to categories, but also to dialectics itself. There is also a lot of controversy about what development is. So, there may be an opinion that development is a process that characterizes only the improvement of a system (object), only changes “in ascending order”. In other words, development in this case comes down to progress. Sometimes development is presented as a chaotic process with no clear direction. In this case, development is identical to movement.

Therefore, the point of view was given, on the one hand, the most common, on the other, the traditional one. Finally, it seems to be more balanced and more accurately takes into account the reality of development processes.

It is necessary to dwell separately on modern views on development as on self-organization.

Basic principles of dialectics

Principle(from lat. principium - beginning, basis) in this case means the main starting position of the doctrine, the philosophical worldview approach.

In different versions of the presentation of dialectics as a theory, a different number of principles of dialectics are called (for example, the principle of systemicity, the principle of historicism, and some others). Two of them are considered the main ones by almost all scientists, thinkers who recognize dialectics, use the dialectical approach in understanding and describing the world; these are the principles of universal connection and universal development.

The principle of universal communication indicates that being is the integrity of one way or another interconnected objects of varying complexity, quality, level, etc.

Moreover, each of these objects is a collection of interconnected parts. The totality and nature of connections (relationships) in integrity determine a certain configuration - structure. Elements combined into a structure and thus forming integrity, in turn, have their own internal connections, etc.

So connections (or relationships) can be either external(between objects, between integrity), and internal(between the component parts of integrity). They may also be direct, in this case, objects (systems) or elements of systems are directly interconnected. But relationships can be mediated when objects do not have direct relations with each other, but are connected with the help of a third object, which is directly related to each of them.

Relationships are mechanical(when material objects are in direct contact), physical(for example, between material bodies bound by gravitational forces), chemical(inside the molecule of the substance), biological(metabolism), social(relations between large and small social groups, individuals).

According to the principle of universal connection, all components of the surrounding world can influence each other to a certain extent. This should be borne in mind in the implementation of a wide variety of activities: roughly speaking, from ball games to legal proceedings. For example, the study of a particular subject (process, phenomenon), depending on the specific goals of the researcher, on the nature of the connections of the subject under study, requires taking into account possible mutual influences on this subject of related objects and processes.

The principle of universal development asserts the impossibility of absolute rest in nature. Everything in the world once arises, improves, becomes more complicated, reaches its most mature state. In the most general terms, during this period (moment), this object functions most effectively both in its own interests and from the point of view of the surrounding reality. Then begins the period of extinction, decrease in the functionality of the object, its degradation, ending, as a rule, with the disappearance of this object, its death, decay. In the "place" of disintegrated objects, new objects may arise, often significantly and qualitatively and quantitatively different from the former.

Everything develops (appears, disappears): stars and planetary systems, mountain and water systems, living organisms and entire populations, individuals and complex social communities. Dying or destroyed objects serve as a kind of "building material" or a source of energy for newly emerged and continuing to function.

Thus, everything is in constant motion, in development.

Basic laws of dialectics

Principles, which themselves reflect certain important laws, are closely related to basic laws of dialectics.

Many philosophers consider these laws to be the most general, universal in nature. This means that the basic laws of dialectics reflect in the most general terms any of the types of development that exist in nature and at the same time describe the general that is characteristic of any development process. They reflect the source, mechanism and direction of any development.

It is the first and most important among them. He points to the source of development.

Everything that exists consists of two opposite components that are in unity and at the same time in struggle with each other. As a result of the opposition associated with the manifestation of a certain activity (the release of energy, the implementation of actions, the improvement of the "techniques" and "tools" of the struggle), the development of a specific subject (object) occurs.

Each object (system, process) is identical to itself, but something arises inside it, which, on the one hand, is an organic part of this object, and on the other hand, something else, new. As a result, a contradiction arises, which leads to development. This is what happens to the fruit of a plant and the seeds within the fruit, or to a society in which a new social class emerges. The same is true for ideal systems. Thus, within the framework of a scientific theory, a new idea may arise, which will later become stronger, receive a solid logical and empirical justification, become a new theory and reject the old one. As a result of the repeated repetition of such contradictions and acts of struggle, plants, animals, and society gradually evolve. Revolutionary transformations can also take place in society, accompanied by political, ideological struggle and armed clashes.

In different cases, contradictions are resolved in different ways. Both contradictory sides may remain, one of them may disappear. But each time the source of development is a contradiction.

Answers the question of what is the mechanism of development. With the appearance within the developing system of a contradictory principle, quantitative changes arise in it. First, as a rule, there is growth, strengthening of the newly emerged essence. The grain inside the fruit grows, the new social class becomes more numerous, its needs grow, the relations between already existing and newly emerged social groups change; A new scientific hypothesis is getting more and more confirmation. Secondly, the tension caused by the contradiction that has arisen is growing.

Then, at a certain stage, a newer component “wins” the previous system, becomes dominant, which leads to spasmodic qualitative changes: the system is seeds that have matured and healed with their own lives, a society changed by new classes and new social relations and norms, a new theory finally accepted by the scientific community, upside down the idea of ​​the world - becomes qualitatively different.

The categories “quantity”, “quality”, and also “measure” are of great importance in applying the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Quality- a category that expresses the essence of the object, its necessary internal certainty; a set of internal characteristics that make this object exactly what it is, distinguishing it from objects with other essential characteristics and making it similar to objects with a similar essence.

Measure - unity of quantity and quality; the norm within which quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative transformations of the object. When the measure is exceeded, quantitative changes become greater than the allowable limit due to the norm, a qualitative change occurs. At the same time, the measure also changes: a new norm arises, within which new qualitative changes will not lead to qualitative transformations of the object.

Indicates the direction of development. Arising new denies old. Seeds negate the overripe and defunct fruit. The new social class denies the old social relations and the old social system, the old system of social norms. The new theory denies the old scientific views, an outdated system of knowledge that does not reflect reality.

However, this new as a result of the development process itself becomes old against the backdrop of more new and is negated by this newer one.

Thus, development is directed from the old to the new and from the new to the newer.

Dialectics(Greek dialextice - to conduct a conversation, dispute) - the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine.
Distinguish objective dialectic studying the development of the real world (nature and society) and subjective dialectics- regularities of dialectical thinking (dialectics of concepts).
In the history of philosophy, there have been three main forms of dialectics:
A) antique , which was naive and spontaneous, because it relied on everyday experience and individual observations (Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Elea);
b ) German classical , which was developed by Kant, Fichte, Schelling and especially profoundly by Hegel, on an idealistic basis;
V ) materialistic , the foundations of which were laid by K. Marx and F. Engels.
Basic principles of dialectics:
- the general interconnection of all phenomena;
- universality of movement and development;
- the source of development - the formation and resolution of contradictions;
- development as negation;
- the contradictory unity of the general and the singular. Essence and phenomena, form and content, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, etc.
The main categories of dialectics- matter, consciousness, development, quality, quantity, negation, contradiction, necessity and chance, cause and effect.
The basic laws that describe the development of the world and the process of cognition are the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation.
The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative reveals the general mechanism of development: how it occurs. The main categories of laws are quality, quantity, measure, leap. The essence of the law is as follows. The gradual accumulation of quantitative changes (the degree and rate of development of objects, the number of its elements, spatial dimensions, temperature, etc.) at a certain point in time leads to the achievement of a measure (the boundaries within which this quality remains itself, for example, for water - 0- 100), a qualitative leap occurs (transition from one qualitative state to another, for example, water, reaching a temperature of 0 degrees, turns into ice), as a result, a new quality arises.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the source of development (contradiction). Everything that exists consists of opposites (good and evil, light and darkness, heredity and variability in living nature, order and chaos, etc.) Opposites are such sides, moments, objects that at the same time
a) are inextricably linked (there is no good without evil, no light without darkness);
b) are mutually exclusive;
c) their struggle - contradictory interaction gives impetus to development (order is born from chaos, good grows stronger in overcoming evil, etc.). The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula: the division of the one into opposites, their struggle, the transformation of the struggle into an insoluble (antagonistic) conflict - a contradiction, the victory of one of their opposites (which in turn also represents a new unity of opposites). Development appears as a process of emergence, growth, aggravation and resolution of diverse contradictions, among which the internal contradictions of a given subject or process play a decisive role. It is they who act as a decisive source, the driving force of their development.
Law of negation of negation expresses the direction of development and its form. Its essence is that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns into the old and is denied by more and more new ones, and so on. For example, a change in socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process), the evolution of the genus (children "deny" their parents, but they themselves become parents and they are already "denied" by their own children, who in turn become parents, etc. ). Therefore double negation is negation of negation.
The most important category of the law is "denial" - the refusal by the developing system of the old quality. However, denial is not just its destruction, the system must preserve its own unity and continuity. Therefore, in dialectics, negation is understood as the rejection of the previous stage of development (of the old quality) with the preservation of the most essential and best moments at the new stage. This is the only way to ensure the continuity of the system. No matter how fundamentally the historical types of economy, politics and morality change over time, their main achievements do not become a thing of the past, but are preserved in the further development of the system, albeit in a significantly changed form.
The law of negation of negation expresses the progressive, successive nature of development and has the form of a spiral, the repetition at the highest stage of some properties of the lower one, "a return supposedly to the old", but already at a higher stage of development.

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For centuries, people have tried to explain life processes and reduce the understanding of life to certain patterns. In philosophy, these attempts resulted in the formation of the laws of dialectics, which are distinguished by universality, constancy and universality.

What are the laws of dialectics?

In the understanding of philosophers, law is a stable connection and characteristic of the relationship between phenomena and processes. The laws of dialectics have the following main features:

1. Objectivity. Dialectical laws do not depend on the desires and actions of man.
2. Materiality. Laws mark the very essence of an object or phenomenon.
3. Repeatability. The law indicates only those phenomena and connections that are repeated systematically.
4. Universality. The laws of dialectics in philosophy indicate regular connections that are characteristic of all cases of a particular type.
5. Versatility. Laws describe different spheres of the surrounding reality: society, nature, thinking.

Who discovered the laws of dialectics?

The first developments in the field of dialectics date back to the time of the existence of ancient states: China, India and Greece. Ancient dialectics was not structured and precise, but it contained the beginnings of a modern understanding of the laws of the existence of the universe. Zeno of Elea, Plato, Heraclitus and Aristotle belong to the first attempts to form the laws of dialectics.

The main contribution to the formation of dialectical thought was made by German philosophers. An important component of the works of German authors, including Hegel's three laws of dialectics and Kant's theory of knowledge, are Christian doctrines. The philosophy of that time was based on the medieval understanding of the world and considered the surrounding reality as an object of knowledge and activity.

3 laws of dialectics

The development of each person and the whole society is subject to certain patterns, which are reflected in dialectical laws, universal and without restrictions. They can be used in relation to any society, phenomenon, historical moment, type of activity. The three laws of dialectics reflect the parameters of development and show how further movement in the chosen direction will take place.

There are such dialectical laws:

1. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. Development can be based on opposite principles, the struggle of which leads to the production of energy and is an incentive for movement.
2. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones. Changes in quantity can lead to the emergence of new qualitative characteristics.
3. The law of negation of negation. The law explains why development is spiraling and not horizontal.

The law of unity and struggle of opposites

The first dialectical law states that everything in the world moves due to two opposite principles, which are in antagonistic relations with each other. These principles, though opposing, are of the same nature. For example: day and night, cold and heat, darkness and light. The unity and struggle of opposites is an important component of moving forward. Thanks to it, the world around receives energy for existence and activity.

The struggle of antagonistic forces can be different. Sometimes it is beneficial to both parties and then it takes the form of cooperation. In this case, one side may constantly be the loser. In another case, the opposing forces can fight until the complete destruction of one of them. There are other types of interaction of opposites, but the result is always the same: the production of energy for the development of the surrounding world.

The law of dialectics - quantity turns into quality

The second law of dialectics puts qualitative and quantitative characteristics at the forefront. He says that all changes occur at a certain stage of accumulation of quantitative characteristics. Inconspicuous quantitative accumulations result in sharp qualitative changes that lead to a new level of development. Qualitative and quantitative changes can be repeated several times, but at a certain moment they go beyond the boundaries of existing phenomena or processes and lead to changes in the coordinate system itself.

Law of negation of negation

The law of negation of negation in philosophy is based on time frames. Everything in the world exists only as long as it is new. Outdated things, objects and phenomena are replaced by new ones, which leads to development and movement forward. Over time, new trends also become obsolete and are replaced by more modern ones. This ensures continuous progress and improvement. In this case, development is ensured by continuity and is of a spiral nature.

4 law of dialectics

The basic laws of dialectics are universal and are designed to explain the ways of development of nature and socio-economic formation. Three dialectical laws were formulated by philosophers in the Middle Ages and helped to understand the nature of movement and development. Some philosophers and sociologists of our time believe that the existing principles and laws of dialectics do not fully reflect the picture of development. Although new laws are put forward, most philosophers believe that the fourth rule is not a law of dialectics, as it intersects with the existing three laws.

The 4th law of dialectics includes the following laws:

1. The law of the relationship of quantitative, benign and malignant changes.
2. The law of transformation of quality into its opposite.
3. The law of divine likeness.

Laws of dialectics - examples

Dialectical laws are universal and can be applied to various spheres. Let us give examples of three dialectical laws from different spheres of life and nature:

1. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. A striking example is sports competitions in which teams try to achieve high results, but at the same time they are competitors.
2. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones. A large number of examples confirming this law can be found in the economic and political sphere. Small changes in the political structure of the country can eventually lead to a change in the social order.
3. The law of negation of negation. Generational change is an accurate and understandable example of this law. Each subsequent generation strives to be more progressive, and this process never stops.

The basic laws of dialectics are what once upon a time changed people's views on the problem of development. There are three of them, but they can explain a lot.

Basic substantiated by Immanuel Kant - a great thinker who made a significant contribution to philosophy. Let's talk about everything in order.

Basic laws and categories of dialectics

What is a theory that talks about how the development of everything that exists. Also, this term is used to refer to the method created on the basis of this theory.

This direction of philosophy reflects the development of spirit, matter, knowledge, consciousness and other things through:

• categories;
• principles;
• basic laws of dialectics.

The main problem in this case is the question of the essence of development. In general, it is customary to understand it as a change in ideal, as well as material objects. This does not mean an ordinary mechanical change, but nothing more than self-development, which allows the object to move to a new level, to the highest degree of organization. Development is the highest form of movement, while movement is its basis.

The main laws are as follows:

1. Struggle, as well as the unity of opposites. Its essence lies in the fact that everything is based on two opposite principles. These principles are in constant conflict with each other. However, their nature remains the same. Examples include day and night, heat and cold.

Their struggle becomes an internal source of energy, movement and development.

It is important to note that the struggle can take place in different ways. The point is that it can be beneficial to both sides at once, one of the parties always wins, and the second acts only as an irritant, the struggle can go on until the complete destruction of any side. Neutrality, solidarity, assistance, mutualism are also possible.

2. The transition of quantitative qualitative. The whole point here is that quality is a certain stable system of some characteristics that are identical to being. Quantity refers to the exhaustive parameters of phenomena or objects. It also introduces such a concept as a measure, that is, the unity of quality and quantity. This law is based on the fact that when the quantity changes, the quality will certainly change. These changes are not eternal - sooner or later it will be possible to observe a change in the measure. In other words, changes will occur in the coordinate system itself. The point of change is a node.

An example of such changes can be given as follows: the gradual heating of water leads to an increase in its temperature. One hundred degrees Celsius is a knot. After reaching this mark, the water will begin to evaporate. It has been established that changes under this law occur abruptly or completely imperceptibly. An example of the latter is evolutionary development.

3. Negation of negation. The bottom line is that the new exists only until it becomes old and is replaced by something newer, which will exist until it itself turns into the old. As an example, we can name the change of historical formations, the change of tastes and trends in culture, the evolution of the clan.

This law is based on the fact that development goes in a spiral, not in a line, that is, the same thing is repeated, but at different levels. It is important to understand that development can be both downward and upward.

These are all the basic laws of dialectics. Its categories are as follows:

• content and form;
• universal, singular, particular;
• reality and possibility;
• phenomenon and essence;
• chance and necessity;
• consequence and cause.

DIALECTICS (Greek - the art of conversation) - the theory and method of cognition of reality, the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. The term "dialectic" in the history of philosophy is used in various meanings. Socrates considered dialectics as the art of discovering the truth through the clash of opposing opinions, a way of conducting a learned conversation, leading to true definitions of concepts. Plato called dialectics as a logical method, with the help of which, on the basis of the analysis and synthesis of concepts, the true being is known - ideas, the movement of thought from lower to higher concepts. The Sophists gave the term "dialectics" a bad connotation, calling it the art of presenting the false and doubtful as true, the Megarians called dialectics the art of argument. Dialectics in the philosophy of Aristotle is a method of proof when one proceeds from provisions received from others, and the reliability of which is unknown. Aristotle distinguished 3 types of inferences: apodictic, suitable for scientific proof, dialectical, used in a dispute, and eristic. In dialectical proof, one starts from probable propositions and arrives at probable conclusions. Truth can be discovered by means of dialectical reasoning only by chance. The eristic inference is lower than the dialectical one, for it arrives at conclusions which have only an apparent probability.

In the Middle Ages, in philosophy, the term "dialectic" was used in a variety of meanings. John Scott called dialectics a special doctrine of being, Abelard - the art of distinguishing between truth and falsehood. The term "Dialectic" was used in the sense of "logic", and sometimes dialectic meant the art of discussion.

In Kant's philosophy, dialectics is the logic of appearance, which does not lead to truth. When general logic turns from a canon into an organon for the creation of statements that claim to be objective, it becomes dialectic.

According to Hegel, dialectics is a peculiar and the only correct method of cognition, opposite to metaphysics. Metaphysical or dogmatic philosophy is based on the rational knowledge of phenomena, when individual properties of an object are fixed independently of each other. Dogmatic philosophy clings to one-sided definitions of the understanding and excludes definitions that are opposite to them. Dogmatism always allows one of two opposite definitions, for example, that the world is either finite or infinite.

The dialectical method, in contrast to the metaphysical one, is based on rational knowledge, considers the subject in the unity of its opposite definitions. Dialectics is a method of cognition through which the unity of contradictions is comprehended from a higher point of view. Hegel's idealistic conception of dialectics is the doctrine of the self-movement of concepts; the method of dialectics reveals the true content of the subject and, consequently, shows the incompleteness of the one-sided definitions of the understanding.

The laws of dialectics discovered by Hegel and mystified by him were re-inferred by K. Marx and F. Engels from social and natural reality. It was proved that “... in nature, through the chaos of countless changes, the same dialectical laws of motion make their way, which also in history dominate the apparent randomness of events ...”

In Marxist philosophy, the term "dialectics" is used in the meaning of the theory and method of cognition of the phenomena of reality by comprehending the self-movement of an object on the basis of internal contradictions. Marxist dialectics proceeds from the recognition of the constant formation and development of the phenomena of the material world. Development is not just a movement, which means any change, but such a movement, the end result of which is the ascent from the simple to the complex, from the lower to the higher. This ascent is difficult. To reveal the objective laws of collision, the development of various forms and types of matter is the task of the dialectician as a science. The very idea of ​​the development of everything that exists has a history of its development, as evidenced by the path traveled by philosophy. Moreover, the main thing in the history of the formation of this idea is the idea of ​​the contradictions of everything that exists, the struggle of opposites, as a source of development.

The principles of dialectics are concretized in its laws. Traditionally, law is defined as "a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relation between phenomena."

All the variety of laws in force in the world can be classified on various grounds. According to the degree of generality, the following laws are distinguished:

Specific or private, operating in limited areas, for example, the law of natural selection;

General, inherent in a number of spheres of life, for example, the law of conservation of energy;

Universal, universal, acting in all spheres of life. These are the laws of dialectics, called by Marxism "basic", "main".

The universality of the laws of dialectics lies not in their applicability to anything and everything, but in the fact that they determine the tendencies of self-reproduction of the world. Their universality is expressed not in their omnipresence, but in the objective inevitability of the regular interaction of world phenomena.

Another feature of the laws of dialectics is their probabilistic, statistical nature. And one more feature of the laws of dialectics is that their formulations are of a qualitative nature and do not contain any quantitative constants.

In any process of development, the laws of dialectics appear in organic unity, but at the same time, each of them reveals a certain side in development.

The laws of dialectics are a special kind of judgments. There are a whole lot of laws, there are some that are not known. Let's consider the three fundamental laws of dialectics.

The most general laws of dialectics are: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the unity and struggle of opposites, the negation of negation.

In their origin, historical development and correlation, internal interconnection, the categories and laws of subjective dialectics are a logical expression of the objective dialectics of the world and its knowledge in the dynamics of their development.

These laws express the universal forms, ways and driving force of the development of the material world and its knowledge and are the universal method of dialectical thinking. These laws of dialectics concretize its main categories in their historical formation and correlation. The discovery and scientific substantiation of the basic laws of dialectics enriched the understanding of the content and connection of previously known categories, the development of which is subject to these universal laws. The laws of dialectics are a logical expression of what is essential in development.

The driving force of development is expressed by the law of unity and struggle of opposites. The essence of this law lies in the fact that objects and phenomena of the objective world in the process of their development, arising from the interaction and contradiction between various objects and phenomena and various sides within objects and phenomena, pass from a state of imperceptible, insignificant difference between the components of this phenomenon sides, tendencies towards significant differences in the moments of the whole and towards opposites, which come into conflict with each other, the struggle that constitutes the internal source of the development of this phenomenon. Every object contains something else of itself. The internal inconsistency of any object lies in the fact that in a single object at the same time there is both interpenetration and mutual exclusion of opposites. Development is possible only thanks to contradiction, i.e., the emergence of active interaction, collision, struggle of opposites. The fighting opposites are in unity with each other in the sense that they are inherent in one object, phenomenon. The contradiction, expressed in the struggle of opposites within the framework of this unity, is the source of development.

Being reflected in the system of theoretical knowledge, this law is included as the main core or core in the dialectical method of scientific knowledge. In its proper sense, dialectics is the study of contradiction in the very essence of objects. Dialectics thus makes it possible to see the stimuli for the development of the world within the world itself.

You should know that contradictions may or may not be resolved, and depending on this, the role of contradiction in development will be significantly different. Contradiction is often a brake on movement and impels us to move back and forth. So, for example, aerodynamic braking of an artificial Earth satellite with a low orbit, caused by the drag force of the upper layers of the atmosphere, slows down the speed and gradually extinguishes the kinetic energy of the flying satellite. As a result, under the influence of the Earth's gravity, sooner or later it will fall on its surface and cease to exist. The movement stops as a result of the emergence and resolution of a contradiction between the forces of inertia of the orbiting satellite and the forces of resistance of the medium.

Thus, a contradiction can act both as an engine and a brake on movement (often at the same time), and this role depends on the specific content, scale and method of resolution. But the main result of resolving the contradictions of development should be advancement and, as a result, the birth of new contradictions that differ from the previous ones in even greater depth, strength and scale, i.e. creation of prerequisites for further movement and development.

From time immemorial, the attention of the mind has been attracted as inconsistency characterizing the dialectical essence of the interaction of the elements of being, worldview and methodology of cognition and action. The contradictory nature of being is best known when we know what contradiction is. A contradiction is a certain type of interaction between different and opposite sides, properties, tendencies within a particular system or between systems, a process of collision of opposing aspirations and forces. Absolutely identical things do not happen: they are different within themselves and among themselves. Dialectical opposites are called simultaneously mutually exclusive and mutually presupposing sides, tendencies of one or another integral, changing object (phenomenon, process). The formula "Unity and struggle" of opposites expresses the intense interaction of "polar" properties, presentations of movement, development. “A plant, an animal, every cell at every moment in its life is identical with itself and yet differs from itself due to the assimilation and excretion of substances, due to knowledge, the formation and death of cells, due to the ongoing process of circulation - in a word, thanks to the sum of continuous molecular changes which make up life and the general results of which appear firsthand, in the form of life phases: embryonic life, youth, puberty, the process of reproduction, old age, death. Using the law of unity and struggle of opposites of the universal and in general any object in particular, one can regard them as a combination of two hypothetical principles - male and female. A man and a woman by no means demonstrate the existence of purely opposites, on the contrary, a person from any point of view - anatomical, psychological, philosophical - is a mobile result of two principles. Even if we recall the myth of Mercury, the two Earths are intertwined in intractable patterns, and only when Apollo throws the golden rod do they form a harmonious figure around him. Any orientation, aspiration determines the masculine in a man, the feminine in a woman. Movement from left to right, up, from the center to the periphery is masculine. From right to left, down, from the periphery - feminine.

There are at least two conclusions from this:

1) any "left" already implies "right";

2) any "up" makes sense if the "down" is known.

All directions are legitimate (by law) when there is a center. Contradiction - expresses the internal source of any development, movement. The knowledge of internal (essential) and external (formal) contradictions distinguishes dialectics from metaphysics. "Dialectics is the study of contradiction in the very essence of objects" interacting opposites. "The unity of identity and difference - this is the dialectical form of contradiction" Opposites are characterized as interdependent and interacting sides of dialectical contradiction. Opposites, according to Hegel, "have against themselves" not just something else, but "their other". The dialectic of contradiction reflects the dual relationship within the whole:

1. Unity of opposites.

2. Their fight.

Types (kinds) of contradictions:

a) internal and external.

Internal contradictions are contradictions between the elements of the structure; and external are the contradictions of various systems, phenomena. Society and nature, organism and environment.

b) Main and non-main, main and non-main.

Example: Mutual transformations of a neutron, proton, electron, meson in the nucleus of an atom are a process of continuous emergence and resolution of contradictions, but this will not lead to a change in the atom - the polarity of the nucleus, the electron shells remain.

Development as a movement from simple to complex, from lower to higher, from the old qualitative state to a higher, new quality is both a continuous and discontinuous process. At the same time, quantitative changes in phenomena up to a certain limit have the character of a relatively continuous growth of an object of the same quality, which, changing quantitatively within the same measure, does not cease to be what it is. Only at a certain stage of development, under certain conditions, the object loses its former quality and becomes new. Development, therefore, is the unity of discontinuity and continuity, revolutionary, spasmodic and evolutionary change in phenomena.

The law of quantitative and qualitative changes has categories:

Quality is a set of properties that indicate what a thing is, what it is.

Quantity is a set of properties that characterize the size of a thing, its dimensions.

Quality is such a certainty of an object (phenomenon, process) that characterizes it as a given object that has a set of properties inherent in it and belongs to the class of objects of the same type with it.

Quantity is a characteristic according to the degree of development or intensity of their inherent properties, expressed in quantities and numbers. Each individual thing has an innumerable number of properties, unity

The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones shows how the emergence of the new is carried out. According to this law, the accumulation of quantitative changes in the state of any object leads to spasmodic qualitative changes. To understand the content of this law, it is necessary to master the categories "quality", "property", "quantity".

Quality expresses the internal certainty of objects, phenomena, their features, properties and structure, due to which objects are themselves and differ from each other. Qualitative certainty includes the properties of objects, phenomena in their totality. A property is a sign of revealing the quality of an object, characterizing its separate side. Each object has many qualities, the unity of which expresses their quality. Properties of things, objects, phenomena are objective.

Quality and property cannot be considered in isolation from quantity. Quantity is the certainty of an object in terms of its size and volume, the degree of development and intensity of its inherent properties.

Quantity and quality are organically linked, they cannot exist without each other. Quantity and quality are correlated in the concept of "measure". Measure is a kind of boundary within which an object remains itself. So, a measure of mercury in a liquid state is a temperature from minus 39 to 375 degrees (Celsius).

Quantitative changes occur gradually, while qualitative transformations are made sharper, faster, in leaps and bounds. A leap is a universal form of transition from an old quality to a new one. It expresses a break in continuity, a break in gradualness and the beginning of a new quality.

The relationship of quantitative and qualitative changes is carried out in the form of revolution and evolution. An example of the first form is the changes taking place in the microcosm, the act of an atomic explosion, the process of transformation of some chemical elements into others. The second form can be illustrated by the example of the emergence of life on Earth, the transition from manufacture to large-scale machine industry. Thus, a revolution is a stage of fundamental qualitative changes in various areas of the world. The stage of slow, imperceptible quantitative accumulations, a change in properties, signs, and traits that are not essential for a given object is called evolution.

Qualitative transformations are possible only as a negation of the old state. The contradictory nature of a thing means that it contains its own negation. Dialectics considers negation as a condition and moment of connection between the new and the old, the denied and the negating. This connection is determined by the operation of the law of negation of negation. According to this law, any subsequent phase of the development of an object denies the previous one in such a way that it retains, preserves all the necessary positive aspects of the latter.

Any development is a process directed in a certain way. This aspect of development is expressed by the law of negation of negation. Each phenomenon relatively and by virtue of its finite nature passes into another phenomenon, which, under certain conditions, can become the opposite of the first and act as its negation. Negation is a necessary condition for development, since it is not only the negation of the old, but also the affirmation of the new. But the development process does not stop there. The newly emerged quality also passes into another quality. Negation is removed by the second negation, and the whole chain of development is a process of negation of negation. As a result of this growing negation of negation, the object moves from simple to complex, from lower to higher, with elements of repetition of the past, temporary retreat, etc. The law of negation of negation gives a generalized expression of development as a whole, revealing the internal connection, the progressive nature of development ; it expresses such a transition of phenomena from one quality. state to another, in which some features of the old quality are reproduced at a higher level in a new quality. In a word, this law also expresses the process of a fundamental change in the old quality, the recurring connection between the various stages of development, that is, the main trend of development and the continuity between the old and the new.

Development takes place in such a way that the highest stage of development appears as a synthesis of the entire preceding movement in its sublated form. Each moment of development, no matter how different it may be from the previous one, comes from it, is the result of its development, therefore it concludes, preserves it in itself in a transformed form. In essence, he is this first thing that has become different. From this follows an important requirement for scientific knowledge, which acts as a method: only that historical knowledge can be fruitful, which considers each moment of historical development as the result of the previous moment and in organic connection with it.

In materialist dialectics, negation is regarded as a necessary moment of development, a condition for a qualitative change in things. Negation means the transformation of one object into another with the simultaneous transition of the first to the position of a subordinate and transformed element in the composition of the second, which is called removal. Dialectical negation involves a triune process:

1) destruction (destruction, overcoming, elimination), the former;

2) cumulation (accumulation, summation) - (partial conservation,

obstructions, broadcasts);

3) constructions (formation, creation of a new one). The negation of negation presupposes cyclicity, relative repetition, and progression.

Examples of dialectical negation in the history of Russia:

1. The transition from the pagan faith to the Orthodox - the Baptism of Rus' - is a turn to the West by denying the East.

2. Tatar-Mongol yoke - the transition from the feudal West to the Asian East.

3. Peter's reforms - Russia's orientation from East to West.

4. The revolution of 1917 - the vector of time again goes from West to East.

5. Perestroika is underway - signs of the idealization of the West.

The negation of negation as a category of dialectics reflects the process of transition of the already obtained second opposite, now into its own opposite. In this case, there is not a complete denial of the previous state, but a transition to a new cycle of development with the reproduction as its essential moments of some properties and relations of the previous stage.

The real analogue of the negation of negation both in nature and in society are, in particular, spiral processes that combine cyclicality, relative repetition and progression. Each cycle acts as a turn in development, and the spiral as a chain of cycles.

A characteristic feature of the process of negation of negation is its irreversibility, i.e. a development which, as a general trend, cannot be a backward movement, from higher to lower forms, from complex to simple. This is explained by the fact that each new stage, synthesizing in itself all the richness of the previous ones, forms the basis for even higher forms of development.

The considered features of the negation of negation are clearly manifested in the development of cognition. So, when studying the nature of light, the idea was first put forward that it is a stream of light corpuscles, particles. Then the opposite wave theory arises. The physics of the 20th century was confronted with the fact that none of these views alone explains reality. Therefore, a new theory is put forward, which considers light in the unity of its corpuscular-wave properties.

Thus, the new in the world appears only with the help of negation and becomes the result of the negation of negation. The action of the law of negation of negation is not revealed at every moment, but only in an integral, relatively complete process of development.

Dialectical thinking as a real cognitive and creative process arose together with man and society. The measure of the dialectic of human thinking is determined by the level of development of social practice and, accordingly, the degree of knowledge of the dialectics of being, an adequate reflection of which is a necessary condition for a reasonable orientation of a person in the world and transforming him in the interests of people.

The three basic laws of dialectics give a complete picture of the entire process of the development of knowledge. The process of cognition begins with the disclosure of external connections and relations of the object under study, the clarification of its qualitative and quantitative certainty, the regular relationship between quality and quantity. The identification of such regular connections completes the first stage of research, which in scientific knowledge is carried out at the empirical level.

By virtue of the dialectical unity of external and internal knowledge of external connections is the first condition for the study of internal causal connection and the explanation of already established facts.

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