In Mongolia, other ornaments full of symbolic meaning also became widespread. These include ornaments from ochers - signs of lightning - a symbol of invincible power, protection from evil; an ornament of three circles, the so-called three jewels, symbolized the unity of the soul, body and word; badam tsetseg - a blooming white lotus - personified the purity of the soul and thoughts of a person.

The arts and crafts of Mongolia, in the process of historical development, along with unique original features, absorbed a number of elements of the cultures of previous eras of neighboring peoples. Many works of arts and crafts are associated with ancient cults and beliefs of the Mongols. For example, objects for shamanistic rituals were decorated with images of the sun, moon, and stars. The sun was depicted as a circle with rays extending from it, girded on the outside by another circle, symbolizing the moon.

Ongons - idols were also monuments of ancient cults. They were considered as receptacles for the souls of the dead, patronizing or harming the living members of one kind or another. Ongons were given various guises: human, animal, bird. Sometimes they were made in the form of trees, the moon, stars, and so on. Subsequently, symbolic images of patron spirits entered folk ornaments. Written sources contain interesting information about the ongons worshiped by the Mongols in antiquity. For example, Plano Carpini writes: "... they (the Mongols. - N. Ts.) have some kind of idols made of felt, made in the image of a human, and they put them on both sides of the door of the headquarters ... recognize them as guardians herds, giving them an abundance of milk and offspring of livestock ... And when they want to make these idols, then all the elderly housewives who are in those rates gather together, reverently make them, and when they do, they kill the sheep, eat it and burn it the fire of her bones."

Among the ongons with human masks, women and men were distinguished. The women's were made of copper, and the men's were made of iron. Human types were depicted in front, flat-bodied, frozen, without the slightest attempt to convey movement. Sometimes on one plate they drew unrelated, isolated figures, each of which had its own special meaning. Symbols were widely used in them. Light colors symbolized peace, goodness, while dark colors symbolized evil, vice. There were also idols - patrons of the branches of labor. For example, blacksmith's tools were depicted in the lower part of the ongon of blacksmiths.

The secrets and features of the performance of the objects of the shamanic ritual and ongons were passed down from generation to generation almost unchanged.

With the advent and wide spread of Lamaism in Mongolia, a huge number of works of decorative and applied art were required to decorate monasteries and temples.

At large monasteries, workshops began to be created in which artisans of various professions worked. According to official reports dating back to 1926, at the beginning of our century, more than 1200 folk craftsmen worked in Mongolia, including 255 jewelers, 297 blacksmiths, 590 carvers, 85 skilled seamstresses. There is an interesting document in the State Archives of the Mongolian People's Republic, which reports that 245 skilled masters of decorative and applied arts worked at the headquarters of only one of the sovereign princes of the country: chasers for silver, brass and copper, foundry workers, cabinetmakers, weavers and embroiderers.

In the decorative and applied art of the Mongols, there were no firmly established canons-models, as in the fine arts. Therefore, each master had a relatively greater freedom of creativity and could show his artistic individuality. For example, all the main elements of the yurt, starting with the top ring of the yurt, wall-frame, roof poles, felt covering, door, inner curtain, felt mats for the floor were the work of folk craftsmen. Ancient fairy tales and epics often contain glorifications of the beauty of the yurt. For example, the yurt of the hero Ezen is described as follows:

"On the south side of the yurt, a peacock and a pheasant are carved above the door; on the threshold - a flying kite and a scoter; a little higher, further to the center - carved figures of the garudi bird; on the lattice wall of the yurt - fighting male rams; on the uni poles - intoxicated with flight birds; on the upper ring-tono - the majestic figure of Garudy; seagulls are visible on its circle. There are only four birch posts; a lion and a tiger are carved on them, grabbing in a fierce struggle. "

In the work of the 17th century - the biography of Zaya Pandit of Oirat Namkhayjamtso (1599-1662) - a very detailed description of the yurt is given: "The yurt of one of the princes had a silver tone with an iron hoop, polished uni - poles painted in different colors, khans - folding lattice walls , folding doors with silvered iron paneling, an outer cover of Kazakh red and green cloth, bordered with multi-colored silk fabrics.

The manufacture of yurt structures, their decoration is connected with the traditions of artistic woodworking.

From ancient times, the Mongols made many household items from wood: carts, chests, cabinets, dishes, saddles, musical instruments and chess - horol, which were in every yurt, toys, woodcut boards for printing books and icons, sculptures and much more.

For these purposes, only dry wood was used. Therefore, special attention was paid to its proper drying. There were different types of wood - electrically conductive, which served as a material for carving, and sound-transmitting, from which musical instruments were made. Experienced carpenters and carvers usually determined the quality and purpose of wood while still in the forest. Then the bark was removed from the tree chosen by the master to let it dry for a long time, after which the tree was cut down. Then the core was taken out, and the trunk was lowered into water for some time to cleanse the resin. Small pieces of wood were boiled in water. Many methods of drying wood have been known.

Ritual figurines - ongons (amulets). Copper. 16th century Private collection

Troughs, mortars for crushing brick tea were made from a single piece of hard wood by gouging. Agitators for koumiss, ladles, bowls, troughs for meat, distillation vessels were also hollowed out from solid wood, and in this case, mainly birch and aspen wood was used, which does not absorb odor and is distinguished by its density. In summer, the trunk of a growing tree was chopped off from one side and left half-bare like that. In autumn, the tree would dry out, arching to the side where there was still living wood and sap. Thus, a curved shape was obtained, which was necessary for the manufacture, for example, of the upper ring of the yurt - tono. Birch, cedar, buckthorn, dogwood, saxaul, tamarisk, juniper roots, ash and some other types of wood were used for artistic carving. From imported sandalwood and mahogany were used. Wood was used to make musical instruments, mostly strings. For example, the harp-yatga was of six different types: one-string, two-, three-, five-, seven- and nine-stringed. The deck of the yatgi was carved from wood, which transmits sound well, and the bottom part from a whole piece of tunga wood. The deck was decorated with floral ornaments. In the epic poem "Dzhangar" a very poetic description of the yatga and its sound is given:

If the ruler starts

ninety one string

Gusleysort out silver,

If the khansha starts to play,

- It will seem: in the reeds

A swan round dance is flying,

The swan round dance sings,

Singing in the ears

Ducks flying along the lakes

Ducks ringing along the lakes

In twelve wondrous ways

Different, overflow frets.

Of course, the manufacture of musical instruments required high professional skill and experience. Subsequently, due to the wide spread of Buddhism, a significant part of the ancient musical instruments was used for religious purposes, while another part was forgotten.

Snuffbox. Metal carving. 19th century Private collection

The most popular instruments among the people were various bowed instruments: khuurs and morin-khuurs, the neck of which is decorated with a sculpted horse head. Folk craftsmen made and decorated morin-khuurs with great love and imagination. Each instrument has its own unique voice.

Mongolian craftsmen carved wooden boards for printing books and icons, molds for preparing the national dish - biscuits-boov.

First, the carvers created a sketch of the future thing and the ornament corresponding to it, then this sketch was transferred to the workpiece and started carving, gradually choosing parts of the background. Mongolian craftsmen created carved panels from wood, entire sculptural compositions. For example, on the reliefs made by the master from Urga Shirchin, grazing horses, camels, mountains visible in the distance are skillfully carved - everything that was loved and surrounded from the first to the last day of the Mongol cattle breeder.

Numerous chess figures were cut out of wood, and sometimes whole scenes of wrestling, horse riding, and archery.

Sculptures were made from wood to decorate Buddhist temples. But their colorful coloring sometimes reduced the aesthetic and artistic significance of these sculptures.

The museums of the Mongolian People's Republic keep many wonderful works of wood carvers. Among them are the works of the Dzabkhan carver Suren - "Yaman-taka" and "Jamsaran", the works of the master Shirchin - "Red Genius" and "Sandem".

Masters from the possessions of Duregch-van gained good fame with their works: Lumbum-agramba, Gaadan, Orkhondoy, Sambu, Lamjav and others.

Carvers also worked in other materials - bone, stone, amber. For example, for the costumes of the Urga tsam, sets of adornments were made from camel bone, which was cleaned of fat by boiling in water, after which it became snow-white.

There was in the past another remarkable type of national art, which I would like to mention. This is the creation by special craftsmen of dzulch - sculptures and various kinds of voluminous jewelry from goat fat, which was carefully knocked down until the veins disappeared, and then crumpled and compacted in cold water. Colored paints were added to it. The mass obtained in this way remained unchanged even in extreme heat. Altar decorations for Buddhist temples were made from it - flowers, animal figurines, offerings to deities.

Another unique type of Mongolian arts and crafts was the zumber - the creation of a relief image from a special plastic composition. This composition was obtained from crushed porcelain or marble mixed with sugar and glue. Thick, like sour cream, the composition was dyed in different colors and squeezed out onto primed cardboard or wood through special sticks with holes. In this way, reminiscent of fine carving, complex compositions were created. After hardening, the extruded mass became very strong. The background of such reliefs was usually painted red or blue, and the convex relief image was gilded. A ritual table, now kept in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Ulaanbaatar, was made in this technique.

Boiler and stand - tagan. Metal, carving, chasing. 19th century

Clothes, hats, shoes, household items made of soft materials were necessarily decorated with artistic stitching, embroidery or appliqué. These types of arts and crafts were widespread among all nomadic peoples, as was the creation of carpets and rugs.

One example of the viability of ancient traditions and techniques is the widespread use of shirdig carpets in Mongolia. One of the earliest examples of such a carpet was discovered during excavations of the Noin-Ula burial mounds, but to this day, similar carpets can be found in the yurts of the Kazakhs, Kirghiz and Mongols. These are floor mats, floorings and coverings for yurts.

The technique of their manufacture is as follows: from the felt, dyed in red, brown-black and green colors, ornamental details are cut out, sewn or superimposed on the main felt background and rolled. This peculiar application technique has been preserved from ancient times to the present day.

The art of appliqué is a truly national type of folk art. Application materials are different. For example, among the Western Mongols, a mosaic application on the skin was common, which in ancient times was widely known among the population of Central Asia.

In addition to appliqués, various types of artistic sewing are very characteristic of Mongolia.

Such sewing was used to decorate clothes, shoes, hats, religious and household items. Skillful craftswomen created whole embroidered icon paintings that were not inferior to picturesque ones.

Each type of seam had its own special purpose and name. For example, zuu orookh (wrapping thread around a needle) is a typically Mongolian sewing style. They embroidered ornamental motifs, beloved by the Mongols, on small-sized items: tobacco pouches, cases for cups and snuff boxes, on ribbons of headdresses. The shaglaas stitch was used for stitching the tops of hats and felt stockings;

Paddle. Wood, copper. End of the 19th century MII

In the northern regions of Arakhangay, in the eastern part of the former Tsetsenkhan aimag, near the Chono-gol river, there lived craftsmen who knew the secrets of especially durable sewing tuuchmal shirmel, with which they sewed the soles of gutal boots and the clothes of wrestlers. Hemp threads and animal sinews twisted together were used as threads for this seam.

Saddle. Leather, metal. End of the 19th century

It is difficult not only to describe, but even to mention all the peculiar types of decorative and applied art that have existed among the Mongolian people since time immemorial. In conclusion, I will dwell on some of them. To this day, the traditions of making various items from animal skins, and primarily vessels and flasks, have been preserved. They are very light, durable and indispensable in the conditions of nomadic life. Leather flasks are made in the following way: blanks of future flasks are cut out of wet leather and sewn together, wet horse manure is stuffed through the neck of the flask, then an ornament is applied to the surface of the vessel, along the contour of which a hot iron is drawn, obtaining a convex strong pattern. Then the flask is kept over the fire for several days, the manure laid in it dries up and can be removed.

Quiver for arrows. Leather, metal. 17th century GCM

Durable belts, belts, details of horse attire, gutals, various bags, chain mail, shields were made of leather, decorating all this with embroidery and appliqué.

Flask. Leather. 18th century Private collection

Another interesting type of decorative and applied art of the Mongols is namkh - weaving complex patterns from colored threads on a wooden cross. With its help, threads of five colors - blue, white, red, yellow, black - created various weaving ornaments of a geometric and zoomorphic nature.

stirrups. Iron, casting. 20th century GCM.

Since the Bronze Age, casting traditions have not been interrupted, and by the end of the last century, artistic casting from bronze, brass and copper was widespread in all corners of the Mongolian land. The Mongols highly honored the blacksmith craft that arose in ancient times, its traditions were inherited from generation to generation. G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, in his notes at the beginning of this century, emphasized the leading place of blacksmithing among the numerous types of craft and the universal respect that it enjoyed among the people. For example, when entering

a dignitary to a smithy, a blacksmith busy with his work could not get up and greet him first, since it was believed that blacksmithing was higher than dignitary and therefore enjoyed great respect.

Grumm-Grzhimailo described the method of casting chess pieces he saw in Western Mongolia. First, the model was cut out of wood and covered with clay, then it was fired and a mold was obtained, in which it was then cast.

Ritual items. Steel, casting. 19th century GCM

There is another interesting piece of evidence. The legend says that many centuries ago a tribe called the Mongols was defeated in a war with the Turks. Two survived - a man and a woman - Nukuz and Kiyan, who, in search of food and shelter, penetrated into an inaccessible mountainous area surrounded by rocks and forests - Ergune-Kun (Step Range). Their descendants after many years became crowded in that area, and in search of a way out of it, they discovered an iron mountain that blocked the exit. The whole tribe began to prepare firewood and coal, then they were piled at the foot of the mountain and lit. In addition, they slaughtered seventy horses and bulls, made a huge fur from their skins, with the help of which they melted an iron mountain, forming a passage in it. Through it, the Mongols emerged from the gorge into the steppe.

Rashid-ad-din reports that the relatives of Genghis Khan had a custom on the last night of the old year to inflate bellows and, melting a little iron red-hot, forge with a hammer on an anvil. This legend arose, perhaps, from the semantic interpretation of the name Temujin Genghis - the blacksmith Genghis. In this combination, the definition of Temujin was associated with the ancient folk idea of ​​the power of the blacksmith, who is subject to iron.

Smoking pipe set. Metal, carving. 19th century Private collection

Blacksmith craft developed in Mongolia in the 19th century everywhere. Blacksmiths were jewelers and locksmiths, they made locks, stirrups, rims for wheels and carts, bushings, tagans, tongs for the hearth, knives and other items.

Since ancient times, the manufacture of plaques, which were polished to a mirror shine, has been common. Patterns were minted on iron plates and plaques, the drawing was engraved with thin lines and silver filigree was made. They were decorated with chain mail, quivers, and cross-seats. Throughout Khalkha, the khoshun of the Dalai-choinkhor-van Sayn-noyon-khan aimag was famous for its metal products.

Ritual knife - phurbu. 19th century Arkhangai Museum of Local Lore

The metal carving technique consisted in the fact that the ornament was first engraved on the surface, and then the metal of the background was removed with a chisel. It turned out metal carved lace. Worthy of admiration is the artistic metal carving of the Mongolian masters; their products can compete with the finest carvings on ivory and sandalwood of Indian artists. In the author's collection there is a steel flint, decorated on a curved edge with a two-layer relief ornament; background gaps are filled with engraving. In some places, gold inlay is applied.

Belt sets, together with a flint and flint, striking with the fineness of the carving, are stored in the State Hermitage of the USSR, the State Central Museum of Ulaanbaatar, the Museum of Local Lore of the Khubsugul aimag of the MPR and other collections.

The device for a smoking pipe from the author's collection, according to the nature of the carving, also belongs to a craftsman from Sain-Noyon-Khan aimag. In addition to flint, various cases, smoking pipes and accessories to them, snuff boxes for snuff were also cut out of iron. An iron snuffbox with such a thread is in the collection of the Hungarian engineer Jozsef Gelet (Budapest, Hungary). Its body is decorated with a filigree floral ornament made in the technique of metal carving with additional engraving.

Kettles - dombo. Copper, silver, chasing. 19th century MII

An example of the high craftsmanship of the Torevts of the past is an iron case for a cup, which is in the author's collection. By the hand of the master, it is turned into openwork lace, consisting of the smallest elements of floral ornament. The author's collection contains an iron carved case for a cup with a flat hinged lid, made by an unknown artist from the Khoshun Dalai-choynhor-van. It has a diameter of 16.5 cm and a height of 6 cm. Twelve dragons are depicted against the background of a bizarre floral ornament on the lid, body and bottom of the cup. The case is gilded on the outside. An equally fine ornament adorns a carved brush case that looks like a hollow tube. There is a gilded silver notch on the surface. Frequent cuts between the ornaments give the impression of transparent lace.

Sacrificial bucket. 19th century silver MII

In the State Central Museum in Ulaanbaatar there is a saddle made by an unknown master, the bows and tires of which also have chased dragon decorations. Obviously, the items mentioned were a single set and belonged to one person, but were subsequently scattered. By the way, it should be remembered that masters of the East Tibetan province of Derga, famous for its metal products, worked in a similar technique. Our researchers need to find out in the future where this peculiar technique of metal carving first appeared.

Kettle. Iron. 17th century GCM

Previously, craftsmen most often resorted to inlay on copper and iron, later the use of silver and gold became more frequent. Techniques also became more complicated: chasing, carving, casting, filigree began to be used more and more. If the masters of the 18th - early 19th centuries produced a shallow engraving of ornaments, then later, having appreciated the possibilities of this technique, they began to engrave deeply.

Erentey, Censer. Silver, chasing. End of the 19th century MII

The names of many masters are forgotten. However, it is known that at the end of the last century, a great master, connoisseur and patron of art, the old noyon Gonchigdzhav, lived and worked. A group of skilled artisans worked under him. Masters Irentei, Dondog, Chavgants, Tse-vegdzhamba, Genden, Tumenbaldzhir, Duldariy and a number of others were senior among them.

Belt set. Iron, silver. 19th century MII

In the collection of the People's Artist of the MPR U. Yadamsuren there is a silver vessel - zavyaa, made, according to legend, by one of the named masters - Dondog, who in 1905 was about 70 years old.

Judging by the similarity of the artistic decoration of the silver incense burner from the Museum of Fine Arts in Ulaanbaatar with the vessel from the collection of U. Yadamsuren, they apparently belonged to a set of cult objects for sacrifice, made by the same master. On their legs, arms and walls, the heads of dragons and fantastic monsters - makar - are carved with great art.

Scabbard pendant. Silver, chasing. 19th century GCM

There is a legend that the statue of the deity Yamantaka, which was previously in the White Temple of the Bogdo Gegen, was made by the same master Dondog. Those who have seen this statue have marveled at the extraordinarily high craftsmanship of its fine artistic finishing and mirror polishing. This sculpture, 40 cm high, depicted a many-headed, many-armed Yamantaka, a fearsome deity. Perhaps, such sculptures are mentioned in folk tales, they are "... lighter than silver, shining like ice and studded with numerous gems ...".

There is a legend that when the statue was first shown to one of those present, it seemed that the head of Yamantaka was more elongated than it should have been. Then, touched to the quick, the master immediately cut off the head of the statue in front of those present and replaced it with another one - more round, slightly flattened, which came to the taste of the Urgins. Indeed, Dr. B. Rinchin and others who happened to see this sculpture recalled that a severed, elongated head, made with great skill, was exhibited nearby.

Jewelry art was widely known throughout Mongolia, but masters from Dari-ganga, Urga, central khoshuns and the khoshun Dalai-choynhor-van enjoyed special fame.

Khalkha married women wore very complex headdresses, covered with many decorations, mainly made from the finest gold and silver threads. This method was as follows: a piece of silver or gold was melted and passed through a special panel with holes of small diameter. Flowing out of these holes, the metal solidified, turning into a thin wire. The finished thread was wound on a corrugated bobbin and, gently tapping with a wooden mallet, thus giving a rough surface to the metal thread. When the thread was ready, a piece of the desired length was cut off and the pattern was laid out, fastening it in certain places. After that, a fragment of the ornament or a whole decorative motif was soldered onto the decorated surface.

Jewelry box for printing. Silver, gilding, chasing. Early 20th century GCM

The Khalkha women's cap, in addition to filigree, was also decorated with corals and precious stones. Jewelry for the hairstyles of the Darigang and Uzumchi women was not made so precious and was not decorated in such a laborious way. Basically, they were covered with engraving and coral inserts.

Seal. Silver, casting. Early 20th century GCM

A special type of artistic processing of metal was the manufacture of seals. Most often they were made of silver. The massive, square-shaped body of the seal had an elegant handle. Sometimes it was made in the form of a figure of a tiger or a dragon, personifying strength and the fulfillment of all desires.

Print text. Silver. Early 20th century GCM

Among the jewelers of the last century, gold and silver craftsmen, the masters from Urga Luvsantseren enjoyed the greatest fame; known for his filigree work on copper Shagdarsuren; Bayanuldziy from Ubsunur aimag; Arslankhabdar, Ugdiy and his son Gundzen from Bayan-Delger; Dzaphan masters Donon, Bagh and his son Yadamjav; Khentei masters Tojil, Galsan; jewelers from Dariganga - Shar-Darkhan, Duinhor, Genden, Jamba and others.

Since the Bronze Age, casting traditions have not been interrupted, and by the end of the last century, artistic casting from bronze, brass, copper and alloys was very widespread in all corners of the Mongolian land. Ritual musical instruments and other objects of worship were cast. In this case, a metal alloy tsad, or tsas, was used, which included copper, zinc, silver and good quality lead. Particular attention was paid to the sound of the instruments. For example, for casting a bell, an earthen mold was first made, which was covered on the outside with a special composition of purified goat fat and bamboo soot. The thickness of the walls of the future bell was determined by the thickness of the wax layer. An ornament was applied to the surface of the wax. The wax layer was then covered with a layer of clay mixed with paper, leaving only a small hole for the wax to escape. Then the molds were fired, the wax came out, a cavity remained, where a liquid metal alloy was introduced through the hole. After the metal hardened, the clay mold was broken. Bells, censers, and incense burners were cast in this way.

The cast bell was reheated and, like the process of quenching iron, it was instantly immersed in cold water. After careful polishing, they were heated again and cooled already in cold air, taking them to the river bank. Thus began the complex painstaking work of tuning the bells, the sound of which largely depended on the experience and skill of the master. There was a strict sequence and pattern between heating, cooling, hardening and the future sound of the bell. Each master owned his own secret of casting and tuning. To this day, amateurs and connoisseurs can recognize the authors of this or that bell by the decor and sound. So, all six hundred bells, cast by the famous master from Urga Dagva-dorj at the beginning of the 20th century, differed from each other both in external decoration and in sound. I bury a cast and correctly tuned bell - denshig produces a surprisingly clear and melodic sound that can be heard for several minutes. This property was especially characteristic of bells made in Barga aimag, which were highly valued throughout Mongolia for their purity of sound, refinement of form and decor.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, many skillful metalworkers worked in Urgs - Khortyn Shovkh, Junai-agramba, Choyjamtso, Luv-sandorj, Tsend, Luvsan and others.

When casting complex works of large size, the so-called distillation casting method was used, the technique of which, according to legend, was developed by Dzana-badzar himself. In the last century, an instruction was drawn up, it reported the basic rules for the technology of this casting. They consisted of the following: they made a clay form of the future product, fired it, after cooling they buried it in the ground or in a pit with dry sand, from which a distillation pipe with a boiler above it and two pipes for removing air and gases came out; bronze was melted in a cauldron. Through the distillation pipe, it flowed into the clay mold and filled it. The famous master of distillation casting was Gaadan from the khoshun of Duregch-van. He made molds from a mixture of clay and ash. They could be used for castings several times, while the usual form was destroyed after the first casting.

The ornament is the decorative basis of all types of folk art. A true artist was the one who successfully combined artistic vision and the skill of skillful hands.

Everything surrounding a person, starting with the sun, moon, fire, water, plants, animals, was reproduced in the ornament. Just as music, reflecting life, inspires a person, in the same way, ornament, which has a peculiar language for reproducing life, is the key to understanding the spiritual culture of past generations.

The Mongolian ornament has gone through almost a thousand years of development. The deification of the sun and moon, the emergence of solar cults caused the appearance of an ornament in the form of one or more circles with divergent rays, resembling a wheel.

Since ancient times, the horn-shaped pattern (ever ugaldz) has spread among the Mongolian people, as if repeating the mighty curves of the horns of wild sheep. In the future, this ornament changed, became more complicated. It is customary to frame the edges of an object with this ornament or place it in the center in the most visible place. Rectangular ornaments - uldziy, khatan suikh - form new ornaments in combination with ever ugaldz.

Intertwining curls of patterns, turning into shoots and leaves of fabulous plants, fill the surfaces of objects.

It is impossible to list all the ornaments found in Mongolian art. But most often you can find the following: alkhan khee - a pattern resembling an ancient Greek meander; hae - an equilateral cross, with curved edges - a symbol of the sun; uldziy - braid - a symbol of infinity; khaany buguivch - the so-called khan's bracelet and khatan suikh - the princess's earrings. Among zoomorphic ornaments, the following are most often found: ram horns, butterfly, dragon.

Just as over the centuries the folklore and literature of the Mongols were enriched by borrowings from ancient Indian, Arabic, Chinese and Tibetan literature, in the same way many ornamental and plot motifs of the art of these countries organically entered the art and culture of the Mongolian people.

The ornament was not considered an independent type of creativity, but entirely served to design and decorate works of arts and crafts. In addition to the visual emotional impact, it had a deep symbolic meaning. So, for example, uldziy on the door of the Mongolian yurts, the front side of the chests and vessels was perceived as a good wish, meaning the continuation of the happiness inherited from the ancestors. The pattern of four barley grains - sureg tamga personified abundance, prosperity. It could be understood as a wish to have as many children and as many cattle as there are grains in the world.

In Mongolia, other ornaments full of symbolic meaning also became widespread. These include ornaments made of ochirs - signs of lightning - a symbol of invincible power, protection from evil; an ornament of three circles, the so-called three jewels, symbolized the unity of the soul, body and word; badam tsetseg - a blooming white lotus - personified the purity of the soul and thoughts of a person. The artist, decorating this or that thing with an ornament, took into account who it would belong to: a woman or a man. Men's household items, starting with flint and weapons, were decorated with zoomorphic ornaments or figures of animals, which meant strength and intelligence, which, according to popular belief, protected their owner.

If a very definite symbolic content was invested in this or that ornament, then the location of the ornament on the object was strictly regulated. For example, the pattern on the shaft and the top of the felt stockings was not the same as the pattern on the cap.

Chess figures. Tree. 19th - early 20th centuries Private collection

In ancient times, the color system of the Mongolian ornament was determined by the color of mineral dyes. It was mostly blue, red and black paint. Subsequently, more diverse and bright colors began to be used. This increased the emotional impact of the ornament on the viewer.

In conclusion, we point out once again that the ornament is the soul of folk art, without it it is difficult to imagine the existence of all large and small areas of artistic craft.

Modern products of arts and crafts in Mongolia...

Reference

About the author: Nyam-Osoryn Tsultem (1923-2001) - People's Artist of the MPR, art critic, chairman of the Union of Mongolian Artists (1955-1990). Tsultem was born in 1923 in the Ara-Khangai aimag of the MPR. In 1930 he was sent to study icon painting in one of the Ulaanbaatar monasteries. Since 1940, he worked at the State Theater as an assistant artist, studying in the evenings in the studio of Belsky and Bushnev. In 1944, he was appointed as the first artist at Mongokino, where work was underway on the film The Knights of the Steppe (Mong. Tsogt Taizh). In 1945-1951 he studied at the Moscow Institute. Surikov in the workshop of S. V. Gerasimov. He was elected a deputy of the State Great Khural, was a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, a laureate of the State Prize of the Mongolian People's Republic, since 1974 - People's Artist of the Mongolian People's Republic. From 1955 to 1990 he headed the Union of Mongolian Artists. By 1984, Tsultem had created more than 400 works. The main genre in which Zultem worked was landscape: "Isle in the steppe" (1955); "Road" (1974), "Autumn" (1972) and others. In addition to landscape painting, Tsultem was engaged in portraiture (portraits of M. Manibadar, U. Yadamsuren, Dashdeleg, Tsogzolma, Ts. Tsegmid, Ichinkhorlo; "Court Girl" (1968), "Yu. Tsedenbal among cattle breeders" (1975)). In addition to artistic creativity, Tsultem created several art history monograph albums (“The Art of Mongolia from Ancient Times to the Present Day” (Moscow, 1982), “Architecture of Mongolia”, “Sculpture of Mongolia”, “Zanabazar”, Modern Mongolian Art "and" Applied decorative art of Mongolia"). The sons of Tsultem Monkhzhin and Enkhzhin followed in the footsteps of their father, also becoming artists.

section in Art. "Buddhist Art" in the Encyclopedia "Spiritual Culture of China" (vol. 6).

In the art of Chinese Buddhism, refinement is combined with ornamentality, flying rhythms with sculptural plasticity. Iconographic forms, Indian in style or origin, came to China mainly through Central Asia, while Iranian and Indo-Gandharian elements of decor and iconography also came through the kingdoms and caravan routes of North India.

In the history of the spread of the iconography of Buddha Shakyamuni, only two cases are known that fall out of the general scheme: the simultaneous erection in Vietnamese temples of the 11th-12th centuries. golden statues of Buddha and Brahma and the appearance of the “golden man/rishi” to Emperor Ming-di (r. 57-75 AD) in an omen dream that allegedly foreshadowed the spread of Buddhism in China (see Kashyapa). This auspicious dream, which can be interpreted as an emblematic version of the installation of a sculpture of the Buddha, in the Yong-ping period (58-75) of the Han era, “came true” when Ming-di was presented with a gift of the “Fourth Image of the Teacher”, as the statue is called in Chinese tradition from sandalwood, made during the life of the Buddha. When the image was delivered to Luoyang, the emperor ordered that copies be made of it and placed one in the Qingliang-tai tower, and the other in the Xianjie-ling tomb. Illustration for the Chinese hagiography of the Buddha "Acts of Shakyamuni, the body of the transformation of the tathagata / zhulai” depicts “King Udayana erecting a statue of the Buddha.”

Although the mass destruction of 841 caused great damage to early Buddhist art, the surviving samples are quite enough to, in the words of Guo Ruo-hsu (XI century), “be imbued with the severity and grandeur of Buddha and Brahma.” Early Buddhist art (4th-6th centuries) is represented primarily by the cave temples of the rocky monastic complexes of Yungansy (Monastery of Cloudy Heights) in the prov. Shanxi and Longmen-si (Dragon Gate Monastery) near the city of Luoyang (Prov. Henan). The bulk of the works in Yungang-si were created in 490-494, when the capital of the Northern Wei (386-534) was moved to Luoyang. A colossal statue of Buddha Amitabha (Chinese Amit-fo) from Cave No. 20, created in 460-493. made of sandstone, approx. 14 m, once had a multi-tiered facade, repeating ancient Chinese architectural structures, including a tiled roof on brackets. The archaizing angularity of the bodies and figures, combined with the colossal scale, is consistent with the somewhat ponderous linear decor, marked by a shallow incision. The iconographic program of the Yungang-si caves, with all the numerous forms and types of figures, is compositionally repeated and represents a typical Mahayana (da sheng) pictorial complex of sutras (jing) with countless buddhas ( pho) and bodhisattvas (pusa). Erected in 494, Longmen-si, the linear style and purely Chinese flaming rhythms and silhouettes are complemented by layered mandalas ( mantulo), this primordial form of Buddhist symbolism, and ceilings decorated with extraordinary pomp and variety.

A unique synthesis is demonstrated by Northern Wei, according to V. Goloubev's definition, "ornamental", bronze sculptures of the 6th century. with their calligraphic lines, arabesques of fine engraving, elegant surface plasticity, "playing" architectonics of the figures.

Tiered towers made a very special contribution to Buddhist architecture. that, usually called "pagodas" (the word supposedly comes from the Skt. dhatugarbha - "repository of the relic"). The pagoda as a whole resembles the Mahabodhi temple at Bodhgaya, although it is believed to be derived from the classical form of the Indian stupa, apparently through Central Asian mediation. Its architecture and, first of all, its appearance testify to the influence of the Gandhara stupas. However, the rectilinear, upright form and especially the overhanging tiled cornices go directly to the early wooden architecture of China. Pagodas in Yungang-si cave temples are decorated with niches with numerous sculptures. In the pagoda of Dayan-ta (Big Pagoda of the Wild Goose) of the 8th century. in Chang'an the tiers are separated by small pilasters. In general, by the Tang era, pagodas no longer resembled Indian prototypes. Buddhist architecture has become one of the most significant branches of Chinese classical art.

The well-known art historian D. Zekel defined the buildings characteristic of East Asia as "enclosed areas or courtyards" in which rooms of the same type were used for both religious and secular events. Most of the temples were dedicated to individual deities or their group and religious and mythological representations, such as heaven and hell.

Dunhuang is recognized as the greatest treasury of Mahayana Buddhist art. Jatak iconography ( ben yuan- “root causes”), sutras and tantras are presented in the Central Asian, Indian, Nepalese, Chinese-Nepalese, Chinese-Tibetan styles of different historical periods. Dunhuang's "jatak painting" is richly decorative, but if the illustrated scene is consistent with the canonical plot, then the growth of decorative connections turns the narrative into an ornamental whole, without losing its general meaning. The theme of the “radiant deity” descending from heaven (in the terminology of the early sutras), overshadowed by cloudy white, sky-lush fans from the “jatak painting” of Ajanta, in the “international style” of Dunhuang turns into a scene of the “flaming” flight of a heavenly maiden - apsaras with gold decorations , fluttering silk scarves in an orange-red stream falling from above, cut through by swirling flashes - clouds of the color of emerald and dark azure (cave No. 404, Northern Zhou era). The forms of the characters in the paintings of Dunhuang of the pre-Tang period correspond to the linear (“boneless”) figurativeness typical of China. The combination of "plastic" and "ornamental" styles in the space of the background and perspective testifies to the aesthetic heterogeneity of this art, while the visual homogeneity of the heritage of Ajanta and the Chinese tradition.

The iconography of the "Western Paradise" or "Western Sky" (Chinese Xitian), Buddha Amitabha in the painting of the cave temples of Dunhuang is enclosed in enchanting compositions with bright picturesqueness. The meditative nature of these images is expressed in the aesthetically artificial nature of the Gardens of Eden artifacts, which is associated with landscape descriptions of Taoist journeys to sacred islands and sky-high peaks (see Taoism, Penglai, Kunlun). Buddhism has a huge number of images of paradise lands in a variety of compositional forms and materials. This is based on the idea of ​​vishuddhi - "the complete removal of the obstacles of karma ( )" (Skt. karma-avarana) in the paradise of Buddha Amitabha.

A significant role belongs to the mighty “gate guards” carved from stone monoliths from cave temples of the 6th-7th centuries. They plastically go back to the iconographic type of Vajrapani (Chinese: Jin-gan-show) in the image of Hercules from Gandhara, finding associations in such distant historical and cultural contexts as the sculpture of the Italian High Renaissance of the first third of the 16th century. (for example, Michelangelo's slave statues). This, in particular, is demonstrated by the Big Buddha (VIII century) recently found near the city of Leshan (Prov. Sichuan) - its largest stone statue in China.

Iconography and art Chan(see Chan-xue, Chan school, Chan-zong) differs from other Mahayana schools in a number of ways, due to the idea of ​​transmitting truth “beyond words”. Anti-ritualism and iconoclasm Chan failed to destroy the ritualistic conventions of traditional Buddhism (cf.: "The sixth patriarch tearing the scroll" Liang Kai; see Hui-neng; "Dan-xia burns a wooden image of the Buddha" Into-lo). In general, Chan iconoclasm does not go beyond the "skillful means" of the Mahayana and, moreover, the outrageous behavior of Tantric yogis (see "Mi-tsung"). The image of the Buddha in interpretation Chan associated with the iconography of arhats (Chinese lohan), grouped by 16,500 characters, and aesthetically stands out among monochrome images written in ink (Liang Kai's scroll "Shakyamuni descending from the mountains" and "Shakyamuni" by Wu Taozi). In monochrome painting, the Indianized symbolic image of a “perfect being” (Buddha, bodhisattva) is “poetically transformed” into a portrait of a perfecting person - “one who does hard work” (an epithet of a bodhisattva in the Mahayana). Chan texts speak of "the illusory variability of the traits of the tathagata / so coming / zhulai”, i.e. 32 signs (Skt. Lakshana, Ch. xiang) and 80 secondary signs, denoting the “true form” as the “lack of manifestations” of the intuitively permeable emptiness of the “receptacle / treasury of the one who has come so” (Skt. tathagata-garbha, Chinese. zhulai zang). Therefore, “manifested” by means of ink tones on paper is the fruit of a spontaneously awakened consciousness (dun wu) in the understanding Chan(cf. pictorial plots "Patriarch and tiger" and "Bija [ zhong tzu] Brahmi script”).
The evolution of architecture and sculpture in the Yuan, Ming and Qing epochs (XIII - early XX centuries) knew the alternation of influences, borrowings, interconnections, creating an infinite number of sculptures, high reliefs, bas-reliefs and architectural structures repeating Tibetan patterns (see Lamaism). The Sino-Tibetan style in painting, sculpture and architecture of the late Middle Ages was influenced by peripheral, from the point of view of Chinese classics, religious and pictorial traditions - the Tangut state Xi Xia, Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism ( jin gan sheng), imperial art of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, and "palace style" of the Manchu Qing Dynasty. Historical styles could be mixed, with a tendency towards an “international style” (characteristic of Sino-Tibetan art by M. Lerner), such as the Chinese-Nepalese style of the Yuan era, the style of the Tibetan school of mensa (“new menri”). The heyday of the “international style” of tantric art falls on the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama Ngawan Lozan Gyatso (XVII century), when in the Gelugpa school that dominated Tibet (“model / law of virtue”, Chinese. huang chiao) gradually increased the influence of the Manchu court, which led to patronage on his part.

In the painting of Khara-Khoto (X-XIII centuries, Xi Xia), only the outlines of the Sino-Tibetan style are revealed. Indian color-plastic form in its genesis, tantric iconographic type of most pictorial images and themes, with the exception of such as the Western land of supreme bliss ( Ji le tu), the paired bodhisattvas Manjushri (Chinese: Wenshushili) and Samantabhadra (Chinese: Pu-hsien), the Tejaprabha Buddha and the deities of the planets, “guardians of the cardinal directions”, contain stable elements of the Tibetan style. In perspective, the sinetic artistic metamorphosis is found in the linear development of forms, the refinement of gradations and the lightening of color, the rarefaction of the plastic density of color planes and the ornamental decor. Although until the XVI-XVII centuries. Chinese and Tibetan components in painting developed in parallel, the figurative basis of the Tibetan iconographic style remained more resistant to displacement and transformation than the background - framing, staffing elements. Tibetan painting has always remained within the limits of Indian visual culture. The engraving, which provided illustrations for woodcut editions of Buddhist texts, stands somewhat apart. The Sinicized linear development of characters in the iconography of Tibetan Tantrism is closely related to the editions of the Buddhist canon (Da Zang Ching) and, in general, to the Buddhist art of the Yong-le period (1403-1423) of the Ming era.

The Chinese style in tantric painting on the themes of the Western Paradise creates a feeling of spaciousness, airiness; figures, distinguished by noticeable fullness, appear in complexly draped robes; the plastic uniformity of the figures and the background of the Indian style is replaced by a color-air environment. In the painting of tank icons (Tib. Thang-ka, Chinese. tank) the spatiality and panorama of Chinese landscape painting, rooted in the complex poetics of endless metamorphoses, has been replaced by compositional symmetry. For the thangka, first of all, the East Tibetan and "palace style" of the 18th century. supernatural movements of yogis, dakas and dakinis in the shining emptiness of space are characteristic. On the other hand, the late Sino-Tibetan style of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the depiction of landscapes on tanks, it appears to be a hybrid of Chinese elements that do not have identified archetypes in Tibetan culture.

The chromatic traditions of pompous style, court and hierocratic art, serving the orders of secular and spiritual aristocrats, made it possible to use precious colors of ultramarine and lapis lazuli to convey the play of the background space, achieving a truly heavenly color. It was in the Sino-Tibetan style that the sophistication in the transfer of color shades reached its climax. Particularly exquisite are pink, violet, lilac colors of varying degrees of lightness, saturation and density, and blue, developed in detail and subtly. Condensed with a unique brightness, the blue color is refracted both in light tones and in dark blue, densely saturated, close to shades of lapis lazuli.

Sino-Tibetan Vajrayana sculpture follows the iconography and canon of proportions of Tantric art.
The Sino-Tibetan style of Ming metal sculpture is distinguished by an almost rocaille grace of forms. The statues of beautiful copper casting are polished like a mirror, conveying the graceful structure of the body, the ascents and descents of the sliding lines are infinitely refined, the gilding is applied with jeweler's care. The artistic sophistication of Ming art reflects the magnificent whimsicality and fantasy of court life, the taste for religiosity of the emperors who patronized Tibetan Buddhism.

Early Chinese "palace style" (XVIII century), represented, among other things, by a complete canonized complex of tantric sculpture from the Baoxianlou Temple, commissioned by Emperor Qian-long (r. 1735-1796) in the iconography of the schools of new tantra, is oriented towards bronze and silver with partial gilding, red copper, acquiring a dark purple hue over time, chasing techniques and inlay with semi-precious stones. The unique sculptures of Baoxianlou are made in accordance with the iconography of the sutras and tantras, representing the characters of the sutras led by the Buddha and mantras led by the Buddha Guhya (samaja)-Akshobhyavajra, as well as deities of different classes of tantras: “semi-angry”, “wrathful”, “terrible” . In Qing sculpture, the manneristically refined finish of the forms of the Ming era was replaced by a more dense plastic structure, purity of contours, and relief engraving of decorative lines in the “calm” deities. However, the light and color-forming values ​​of the decorum remained unchanged: the gilding of the statues of “calm” deities wavy streams and flickers with reflected light, those of the “angry” ones flash and shine with iridescent bursts; cloisonne enamel, often used in the decoration of metal sculpture, starting from the Qian-long period (1736-1795), shimmers with many colors of patterns; carved polychrome wood casts in thick waxy blue, red lacquer, violet purple and ebony.

In the imperial palace in Beijing (Gugong) there was a special temple complex Zhongzhengdian (Palace of the Middle Correctness), the symbolic decorum of which was designed in the style of temples of the Gelugpa school, which was especially patronized by the Qing dynasty. Among his sculptural and pictorial images, the Tantric deities of long life - Amitayus (Chinese: Amito-fo, Wu-liang-shou) and Ushnishavijaya - prevailed, since the ritual function of the court temples and monasteries - the residences of the Peking hierocracy in the Qing period was the sacrament of prolonging the years of the reigning emperor. The only multi-story building of the Forbidden City (Zijin-cheng), which consisted of many one-story palaces, was Yuhua-ge (Flower Pavilion in the rain) - the main temple of the imperial residence. Qian-long erected it in 1750 on the model of the Tower of Initiation of Tholing Monastery, one of the oldest in Western Tibet. Each floor of the temple was dedicated to the deities of one or another tantric cycle, and its imperial character was emphasized by guarding gilded copper dragons at each of the four corners of the tiled roof.

The largest Gelugpa monastery in Beijing is Yonghe-gun, built since 1694 and named after the central temple, which Emperor Yong-zheng (r. 1723-1735), being a prince ( qin-wang), called Yun-qin-wang-fu (Prince Yun's Residence). After becoming emperor, he renamed the temple Yonghegun (Yong's Palace of Harmony/Peace and Harmony). Ten years later, Yong-zheng's son Emperor Qian-long, in honor of his deceased father, rebuilt the palace into a temple, decorated with the best masters of China. From a huge sandalwood trunk brought from the south, a statue of the Buddha of the future Maitreya (Chinese: Mile) was carved. The iconographic program for sculptors and painters was drawn up in the Gelugpa tradition. Along with buddhas and bodhisattvas, special ritual halls were dedicated to idams (tantric patron deities) Vajrabhairava, Guhvyasamaja, and Chakrasamvara, especially revered in the Gelugpa. The original palatial nature of Yonghe Gong distinguishes it from the Buddhist structures of the Qing era. The specifics of its architectural design, for example, are balconies and hanging corridors connecting various temple halls and sanctuaries. Yonghe-gun, which was a complex of large and small temples, is a monument of Chinese classical architecture with its design and compositional features, with the symbolism of the imperial style, in contrast to the mortar-like pagodas of that time, reminiscent of decorative plastic monuments, in which sculptural forms predominate and repeatedly repetitive ornamental motifs. Thus, the walls of the pagoda of the Huang-si Temple (Yellow Monastery) are decorated with niches with statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The lapidarity of the architectural style of the early Buddhist pagodas was replaced in the Ming and Qing epochs by the complexity of forms, Indian reminiscences, and other "decorations", a vivid example of which is Uta-sy (Five Towers Monastery, 1473) in Beijing.

Grandiose palace and temple ensembles near the river are considered to be unique examples of the Sino-Tibetan style in the imperial architecture of the Qing era. Zhehe near the city of Chengde north of Beijing, built at the beginning of the 18th century. and reproducing the Potala Palace in Lhasa and the monastery of the Panchen Lamas Tashi-lhunpo. They are distinguished by the scale of the architectural solution, spatiality, laconic simplicity of massive external walls. The interiors are decorated in the traditional Chinese style with multi-tiered and intricately profiled carvings, bright polychrome painting of beams and brackets, red-lacquered columns covered with ornamental carvings. The mixture of Chinese and Tibetan architectural styles creates a harmonious unity in the layout of the eight outer temples, pagoda decoration, and roof construction. The walls are partly made of stone blocks, partly adobe. Palaces and temples in the valleys are located according to the Chinese axial principle, while some of the buildings are placed according to the Tibetan principle on the slopes of the mountains, forming multi-stage buildings resembling grandiose castles.

Literature:
Aphorisms of old China. M., 1988; Begin J., Morel D. Beyond the walls of the Forbidden City. M., 2003; Return of the Buddha. Monuments of culture from the museums of China. Exhibition catalogue. St. Petersburg, 2007; Golubev I.S. Yonghegun. Beijing, 1956; Notes on Buddhist countries // History and culture of Ancient India: Texts. M., 1990; The Chinese version of the Buddhist canonical "Sutra of Signs" ("Lakshana Sutra") // Vostok, 1998, No. 1; Tugusheva L.Yu. Uighur version of Xuanzang's biography. M., 1991; FisherR.E. Art of Buddhism. M., 2001; Tsendina A.D....And the country is called Tibet. M., 2002; Chou Yi-liang. Tantrism in China // Tantric Buddhism I. M., 2004; Wei Jin Nan-bei-chao diaosu (Sculpture of [epochs] Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties). // Zhongguo meishu quan chi (Complete Collection of Chinese Fine Art). Diaosu bian (Section of sculpture). Issue. 3. Beijing, 1988; Dunhuang bi-hua. T. 1. // there. Hui-hua bian (Section of painting and graphics). Issue. 14. Shanghai, 1988; Dunhuang caisu (Artistic modeling of Dunhuang). Beijing, 1978; Sichuan Bihua. // Zhongguo meishu quan chi (Complete Collection of Chinese Fine Art). Hui-hua bian (Section of painting and graphics). Issue. 13. Beijing, 1988; Sichuan shiku diaosu (Sichuan cave sculptures) // there. Diaosu bian (Section of sculpture). Issue. 12. Beijing, 1988; Wu-dai Song diaosu (Sculpture of the Five Dynasties [and Epochs] of the Song) // there. Diaosu bian (Section of sculpture). Issue. 5. Beijing, 1988; Yungang shiku diaoke (Yungshan Cave Statues) // there. Diaosu bian (Section of sculpture). Issue. 10. Beijing, 1988; Art Treasures of Dunhuang. Beijing-Hong Kong, 1983; Buddhist Art from Rehol. Taipei, 1999; Bussagli M. Central Asia Painting. Geneva; Cahill J. Chinese painting. Geneva, 1977; carter M. The Mystery of Udayana Buddha // Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1990. Vol. 50, fast. 3; Chandra L. Buddha in Chinese Woodcuts. New Delhi, 1973; Chu Fo Pu-sa Sheng Hsiang Tsang Pantheon // Two Lamaistic Pantheons. Cambr., Mass., 1937; Davidson Y.L. The Lotus Sutra in Chinese Art. L., 1955; Focillon H. L'art bouddhique. P., 1921; Gilded Dragons. Buried Treasures from China's Golden Ages. L., 1999; Hiuen Tsiang. Si Yu Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. L., 1906. Vol. I-II; Iwanowski A. Dsandan dsou yin domor, legende de la statue de buddha faite en lois de tchandana // Le Museon. 1883, t. 2, fast. 1; Karway H. Early Sino-Tibetan Art. Warminster, 1975; L’iconographie de la “Descente d’ Amida” // Etudes d’orientalisme. T.I.P., 1993; Lubac H., de. Amida. P., 1955; Pao-hsian Lou Pantheon // Two Lamaistic Pantheons. Cambr., Mass., 1937; Palaces of the Forbidden City. L., 1991; Rawson Ph. Introducing Oriental Art. L., 1973; Secrel D. Buddhistische Kunst Ostasien. Stuttgart, 1957; Secrel D. Shakyamunis Ruckkehr aus dem Bergen: Zur deutung des Gemaldes von Liang K'ai // Asiatiche Studien. Bern, 1965; Serinde, terre de Bouddha. P., 1996; Soper A.C. Literary Evidence for Early Buddhiet Art in China. Ascona, 1959; Soper A.C. T'ang Parinirvana Stele // Artibus Asiae, vol. XXII, pt. 1-2, 1959; The Art of East Asia. Vol. 1 Cologne, 1998; Weiner Sh.L. Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977.

Excavations carried out at Takshashila and other sites in northwestern India have unearthed jewelry made from precious stones skillfully set in gold in a technique similar to that still used by Indian jewelers. The casket from Bimaran (2nd century AD) and several other objects of gold and silver are distinguished by the elegance of engraving, as well as the crystal arks created in various Buddhist settlements. The cut gems of the northwestern settlements are generally of little artistic value and nearly all bear traces of Western influences.

Only a small number of ivory items have survived to this day. Records testify to the existence of corporations of ivory carvers. It was an honorary profession, favored by the ruling castes. The most interesting example of ivory sculpture is a small statuette of the goddess, discovered in Herculaneum and, no doubt, got there, like expensive fabrics and spices, through Egypt. Carved ivory plates of marvelous craftsmanship, originally decorating pieces of furniture or casket lids, have been discovered at Bergama, about eighty kilometers west of Kabul; they date from the 1st-2nd centuries. AD The themes depicted on these plates, originating in a region that was widely open to Western influences, are nonetheless typically Indian, so they were either simply imported or made by artists trained by Indian masters. Several techniques are skillfully used here: for example, ivory is alternately cut out, turned and divided into high relief and bas-relief, incised and acquires a play of light and shadow. The clarity of the lines, despite the elegance of the product, gives these figures a striking relief and puts them on a par with other masterpieces of Ancient India. In a later period (XV-XVII centuries), in the workshops of southern India and Ceylon, technically remarkable ivory products were also created, many of which were objects of everyday life: figurines, elements of architectural and furniture decor, cases, caskets , combs, etc. Already in antiquity, jewelry art reached a high degree of perfection.

Painting in the style of Madhubani (which means "honey forest") originated in the small village of Maithili state in India.
Madhubani's paintings are typically characterized by bold colors, traditional geometric patterns, fantastical figures with large expressive eyes, and colorful nature. These paintings depict stories from mythology, and the favorite character is the Lord.
The origin and painting of Madhubani or Maithili cannot be traced. Mithila is said to be the kingdom of King Janaka, the father of Sita. The art that prevailed at the time of the Ramayana in Mithila may have evolved over the centuries into Maithili art. Centuries-old mural painting in Bihar has played a significant role in the development of this art form.

miniature painting

As the name suggests, miniature painting refers to works that are small in size but rich in detail and expression. Miniature painting in India presents a wide variety of categories, including an abundance of Mughal miniature paintings that depict scenes of court life and contemporary personalities, events and activities from Mughal times.
The main feature of miniature painting is intricate drawings with a thin brush and bright colors made from semi-precious stones, sea shells, gold and silver.
Indian miniatures developed during the period of the Mughal Empire (XVI-XIX centuries) followed the best traditions of Persian miniatures. Although miniature painting developed in the Mughal courts, the style was adopted by the Hindus (Rajputs) and later by the Sikhs. Mughal miniature flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. There are quite a few paintings that have survived to this day.

Gond painting is a form of tribal art that originated in central India. This art was inspired by the hills, streams and forests where the Gonds lived.
and social customs are depicted by the artists of Gond as a series of dots and dashes, from which forms are intricately folded.
Gond painting was done on walls, ceilings and floors in village houses in honor of customs and festivals. The Gonds also believe that their paintings bring good luck.
The paintings are a combination of earthy tones and vibrant hues that reflect the life in the canvas.
The way Gond painting is done can be traced back to the ancient art of tattooing, which is common among the Gonds.
The paintings reflected folklore and tribal stories sung by itinerant poets and singers. Reflecting history in art was a common practice in India.

The southern state is famous for its Tanjore painting. Being an art form that flourished in Tanjore of yesteryear, this style of painting is still popular and widely recognized today. The paintings are made with inserts of semi-precious stones, glass and gold. They look very pretty and add grandeur to the place they decorate.
The heroes of these paintings are mostly gods and with large round faces and decorated with patterns. This art form flourished from the 16th to the 18th century in Tanjore during the Dynasty, under the auspices of the princes, Nayak, Naidu, and was considered sacred.
The popularity of this art coincided with the time when majestic temples were built by various rulers and hence the subject matter revolved around the theme of the deity.
This style of painting takes its name from the method of manufacture: kalam means ‘handle’ and ‘kari’ means ‘work’. The artists used exquisite bamboo pens dipped in vegetable dyes.
The drawings consist of thin lines and intricate patterns.
This style of painting was developed at Kalahasti near and Masulipatnam near Hyderabad.

Art of Kalamkari

Kalamkari originated near temples and therefore has a mythological theme. Some Kalamkari paintings reflect traces of Persian influence in motifs and patterns. Kalamkari painting flourished during the reign of the Marathas and developed as a style called Karuppur. It was applied to fabrics made of gold brocade for royal families.

Anjali Nayyar, Indian Gazette

India is one of the oldest states with a vibrant and diverse culture. Three different religious movements - Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam - influenced the formation of a special architectural style inherent in it, as well as sculpture, painting, music and dance. In this regard, historical cultural monuments that can tell a lot about the life of the country in ancient times have been preserved to this day.

Architecture of India

The main religion of India is Hinduism, it is a multifaceted religious doctrine that has a diverse pantheon of gods. Hindu temples, or as they are also called mandirs, are an amazing sight, these are stone pillar-like structures covered with the finest stone carvings. The temple is usually dedicated to one of the incarnations of a god or one of the virgins, it is he who comes to worship. There are also temples dedicated to several gods at once. Hindu temples in India that have survived to this day are of great historical or archaeological importance, therefore they are under the protection of the Archaeological Authority of India. Most often, such temples were built of brick and wood, besides, they differ from each other in architectural style depending on the area where they are located. A huge part of the Hindu temples suffered during the Islamic domination.

Buddhist architecture includes Buddhist temples built in the rocks with numerous statues of Buddha in the form of a man. Each of these statues carries an encrypted message to people, so a lot can be said from various smallest details about what our ancestors wanted to convey to us. In Buddhist temples there are "stupas", which are round memorial structures. It is assumed that they once kept the remains of the deceased. The walls of Buddhist temples are decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, which have been preserved in excellent condition to our time, thanks to the use of special durable paints.

Since the time when India fell under the influence of Islamic conquerors, many beautiful mosques have been built on its territory. The most famous landmark in India is the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal mosque. She was a symbol of Shah Jahan's love for his wife Mumtaz, who died in childbirth. The Taj Mahal is made of white marble, decorated with the finest carvings and mounted on a huge pedestal, so it resembles a white air cloud. Other mosques located in India also have important cultural significance.

Sculpture of India

In addition to temples, a large number of statuettes representing gods have survived to this day. The main Hindu gods are Brahma (the creator, his incarnation is a sitting human figure with several heads and several arms, most often he sits on a lotus flower), Vishnu (the guardian, his incarnation is various avatars: most often he is depicted in blue with four arms, each holding a conch shell, a disk, a mace and a lotus, he can also be depicted sitting on a ring of snakes, or on the back of a bird.Other avatars inherent in Vishnu are Fish, Tortoise, Man-lion, Boar, Dwarf, Rama , Krishna and Buddha. At the feet of Vishnu there may be an image of his wife.) Shiva (the destroyer, he is sometimes depicted as an ascetic, whose body is rubbed with white ash, he himself sits in a meditation pose on a tiger skin in the Himalayas. Attached to his hair at the top of his head the crescent from which flows the sacred river Ganges, but sometimes he is Nataraj, the lord of dance, depicted in a graceful whirl, while he supports the universe with his endless dance. Shiva is often depicted with his wife Parvati and the bull Nandi on which he rides), Shakti (the female incarnation of the wives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, sometimes they are also called Shakta. Shiva-Shakti is a beautiful woman, she has many incarnations - Durga, Kali, Chandi or Chamundi Parvati-Shakta is most often depicted as a beautiful woman sitting in a meditation posture, in some cases she is depicted next to her husband Shiva and Ganesha's young son). There are many other gods in Hinduism, the most popular of them is Ganesha, he is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is usually depicted as a human figure with the head of an elephant. Picturesque images of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, as well as from statues and sculptures, are of great cultural significance.

Arts and Crafts of India

A large number of valuable art objects, which are the heritage of this amazing ancient civilization, are kept in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, picturesque images and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, textiles, unique lacquer products, bronze and metal products. and household items. A great contribution to the preservation of the treasures and architectural monuments of India was made by the Russian artist Roerich. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who at one time contributed to the conclusion of the International Pact for the Protection of Cultural Property.