In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was endowed with an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of knowing reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civic service to society, he believed in the effective power of the artistic word, in the possibility of using it to elevate the human soul, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.
From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for one or another idea of the transformation of the country, one way or another for the development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian critical thought. The printed speeches of the best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high rank of criticism as a special kind of literature.
Slavophiles and Westernizers
In the 1840s, two social movements arose - Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky , A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogaryov, N. A. Nekrasov). Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions - its right path. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Rus', considering the absence of a rich ancient history an advantage of Russia: a guarantee of the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.
During these years, among the Westerners, a radical movement was born, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people who are passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others.
Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social structure. The way out, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radical part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible way of social transformation.
The Slavophile program of reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development of the country, independent of the West, with a history no less rich than that of Europe. “Inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deepest layers of national life, the Slavophiles considered a special, far from Western, integral type of thinking to be an indisputable merit of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes modern scholar Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophils accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West directs concern for human life to the improvement of external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls primarily for the moral perfection of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from a spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of man and disappointment in spiritual values.
The divergence in views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in those different assessments that were given by representatives of both philosophical currents to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the founder of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the artistic worldview of the author of Dead Souls - epic fullness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol's fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.
"Natural School"
In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of an older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called the "natural school". The main object of the image in their work was the "unprivileged" estates (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give the word "humiliated and insulted", to reflect their way of life and customs, but also to show the whole vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata of Russian society are described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy (the best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dal, I.I. Panaev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. S. Turgenev, G. I. Uspensky, F. M. Reshetnikov and others).
Revolutionary Democrats
By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time, the ideologist of Westernism V. G. Belinsky and the Slavophiles A.S. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (rapid development of cities, industry, improvement of the education system), new forces come to literature - raznochintsy, people from different social strata (clergy, merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, bureaucracy and the impoverished nobility), who received education and broke away from the former its environment. In criticism and literature, the revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this trend put acute socio-political issues at the center of creativity.
The journals Sovremennik, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Russkoe Slovo became the main platform for the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism. The philosophical foundations of a critical approach to works of art were laid in the master's thesis by N.G. Chernyshevsky Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality. The revolutionary democrats considered literature from the point of view of political and social significance, they treated the literary text as a reproduction of life, and on the basis of the analysis of the artistic image they passed a harsh sentence on reality. This method of analysis is a young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called "real criticism."
"Aesthetic Criticism" and "Organic Criticism"
Didacticism in the perception of artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the inherent value of art, its independence from social problems and utilitarian tasks.
"Organic criticism" sought to overcome the limitations of "pure art", which solves exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (the subordination of creativity to political ideas, public interests). According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art is born, not “made”, it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the soul of the artist, his “thought of the heart”, all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.
Soilers and nihilists
These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called "pochvennichestvo". Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, history. Thinkers urged to understand Russian life, to comprehend the ideal embedded in the people's consciousness in order to derive the principles of the country's organic development. On the pages of the magazines "Vremya" and then "Epoch", the "pochvenniki" criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary-minded opponents, and the viability of philosophy and art was determined by the connection with folk life, Russian culture and history.
Soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in contemporary reality in nihilism (from Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young raznochintsy in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of "benefit" and "pleasure".
The complex of spiritual, moral and socio-social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. The protagonist of Turgenev's novel, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically received by D.I. Pisarev, the leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic journal Russkoye Slovo and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of a new phenomenon, many thinkers saw a serious danger for Russia. In the literature of that time, a special genre of the “anti-nihilistic novel” was developing (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). An irreconcilable position in relation to the nihilist revolutionaries was occupied by the conservative journal Russky Vestnik, published by M.N. Katkov.
Development of the novel genre
In general, the literary process of the second half of the 19th century was marked by the development of the genre of the novel in all its diversity: the epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), the political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), the social a novel (“Lord Golovlyovs” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), a psychological novel (“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became the central epic genre of the era, the most relevant to the most important task that the time set before the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.
Poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century
After the golden age, having lost its dominant role as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and pave the way for new ups and downs and discoveries. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but bright period of prosperity. The lyrics of "pure art" (A.A. Fet, Ya.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) are gaining recognition and fame.
Attention to folk life, history, folklore, characteristic of literature in general, was also reflected in poetry. The main, key moments of Russian history received poetic reflection in the work of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. May. Folk legends, epics, songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. Another wing of Russian poetry of the 1950s and 1960s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, and V.S. Kurochkin) was called "civilian" and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The undisputed authority for the poets of this trend was N.A. Nekrasov.
In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.
The poetry of the 1880s is characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and, on the other hand, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, with their deep and subtle psychological analysis of human character.
Dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century
The second half of the 19th century was the era of the formation of original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchant and peasant life, folk language, interest in national history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - such is the general nature of the works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A. N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin.
The variety of artistic forms and styles of drama in the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.
1. According to which of the 4 control schemes is the control scheme of the CNC machine implemented?
2. What precedes the development of a program algorithm and the software production of chess pieces?
3. What do the following operators mean: %GENER(k)%, %CUTTER(d), %FROM(p,z), %THICK(t)?
4. Why are the procedures for processing the base of the figure and pre-treatment of the surfaces of the figure needed?
5. Explain the text of the program for processing the base of the figure, pre-processing the surface and finishing the surface of the figure?
1. The main trends in the development of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century. 2
2. Love lyrics by N. A. Nekrasov (“Panaevsky cycle”) 5
3. Socio-psychological roots and moral essence of Oblomovism (based on the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"). 8
4. The theme of the Russian woman in the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov. eleven
5. The significance of the chapter "Oblomov's Dream" in the implementation of the ideological plan of the novel "Oblomov" by I. A. Goncharov. 12
7. Test Oblomov love as a decisive test of his viability. Oblomov and Olga Ilyinskaya. Oblomov and Agafya Pshenitsyna. 14
8. Raskolnikov's theory in F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment". 15
9. The meaning of opposing Stolz to Oblomov. The ideological and artistic vulnerability of Stolz (based on the novel Oblomov by I. A. Goncharov) 17
10. The theme of punishment in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". 19
11. Goncharov's realism and Gogol's realism. Oblomov and Manilov in the novels Oblomov and Dead Souls. 26
12. Petersburg in the image of F. M. Dostoevsky (based on the novel "Crime and Punishment") 30
13. The complexity of the attitude of I. A. Goncharov to Oblomov. Disputes about the novel "Oblomov" in the criticism of the 1860s. 32
14. The role of Sonya Marmeladova in F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment". 33
15. Creative history of the play "Thunderstorm" by A. N. Ostrovsky. Theme, idea, main conflict. 35
16. Human and inhuman in the rebellion of the protagonist of the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". 38
17. Stages of life and work of A. N. Ostrovsky. 41
18. Depiction of the life of the humiliated and offended in F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment". 46
19. A. N. Ostrovsky - the creator of the original Russian drama and the Russian national theater. 48
20. The originality of Dostoevsky's artistic manner "crime and punishment". 49
21. Genre and compositional originality of the play by A. N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm". 52
22. Problems and poetics of the novel by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city". 54
23. Life and customs of the "dark kingdom" in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm". 58
24. The relevance of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin's work today. 60
25. Roman I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" as a novel of ideological disputes. 62
26. Social satire in "Tales" by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. 64
27. Bazarov and Bazarovshchina. Love for Odintsova as a refutation of Bazar's nihilism. 66
28. The character and tragic fate of the Russian people in the work of N.S. Leskov (based on the novel The Enchanted Wanderer. 67
29. Bazarov, his views and the spiritual world in the novel by I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". 69
30. "People's Thought" and ways of its disclosure in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". 70
31. Disputes of critics about the novel by I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". 73
31. Disputes about the novel by I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" in Russian criticism. 74
32. The history of the great life of L.N. Tolstoy. 76
35. The richness of feelings in the love lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev, its artistic originality. 80
36. Dialectics of characters in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", Andrei Bolkonsky. 84
38. The theme of nature in the poetry of A.A. Feta. 85
41. The originality of the creative position of A. A. Fet (Fet is a poet of “pure art”) 87
46. Favorite heroine L.N. Tolstoy. 89
48. Dialectics of characters in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", Pierre Bezukhov. 91
49. The theme of the motherland and the people in the poetry of N.A. Nekrasov. 92
The main trends in the development of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century
By the middle of the 19th century, the process of developing the basic principles of depicting reality ended in Russian literature, and realism was established. and 19th century literature. becomes a real driving force in the entire Russian artistic culture. The Russian culture of this period was later called
"golden age" of art. Pushkin was declared the founder of Russian realism (this is a generally established fact). Realism becomes, to a certain extent, a method of artistic cognition of reality.
In the 1940s, a direction arose, designated as the “natural school”. Gogol's work to a greater extent determined the content and direction of the "natural school". Gogol was a great innovator, discovering that even an insignificant event, such as the acquisition of an overcoat by a petty official, can become a significant event for comprehending the most important issues of human existence. No wonder one of the writers said the famous phrase: "We
everyone came out of Gogol's "Overcoat". The "Natural School" became the initial stage in the development of realism in Russian literature. The new direction offered topics that had not previously been recognized as important. Life, customs, characters, events from the life of the lower classes became the object of study of "naturalists". The leading genre was the "physiological essay", which was built on the exact "photography" of the life of various classes. To one degree or another, Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Panaev, Druzhinin, and others joined the "natural school". ". Since 1847, the former Pushkin's magazine Sovremennik became the "mouthpiece" of the new trend.
The main feature of realism as a creative method is increased attention to the social side of reality. The task of truthfully showing and investigating life in realism involves many methods of depicting reality, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse both in form and content. The main thing in this method, according to realist theorists, is typing. L. N. Tolstoy accurately said this: “The task of the artist ... is to extract the typical from reality ... to collect ideas, facts, contradictions into a dynamic image. A person, say, during his working day says one phrase characteristic of his essence, he will say another in a week, and a third in a year. You make him speak in a concentrated setting. It is fiction, but one in which life is more real than life itself.”
The images of a realistic work reflect the general laws of being, and not living people. Any image is woven from typical features, manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. The image cannot be correlated with a living person, it is richer than a concrete person - hence the objectivity of realism.
“An artist should not be a judge of his characters and what they are talking about, but only an impartial witness ... My only job is to be talented, that is, to be able to distinguish between important readings from unimportant ones, to be able to illuminate the figures and speak them in language”, - A.P. Chekhov wrote to Suvorin. "An objective view of the world is rare, the artist is always subjective." Everyone has his own principle of selecting the facts of reality, which necessarily reveals the subjective view of the artist. Every artist has his own measure.
Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. was called critical realism, because its main task was to criticize reality, and the main issue that received wide coverage was the question of the relationship between man and society. To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for the fact that a person is unhappy? What can be done to change people and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular. The main question that worried all thinking intelligentsia was the question: “Which path will Russia take?” He divided everyone into two camps: Slavophiles and Westerners. The differences between them were in the definition of the main direction in which Russia should go:
1) according to the Western, focusing on the life experience of the civilized West, or
2) in Slavic, referring primarily to the national characteristics of the Slavs.
There were also differences of a religious nature between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers. The Slavophils proposed to measure everything earthly with the heavenly, the temporal with the eternal. Only when looking from there (from the point of view of Divine reality) can one appreciate everything that is found here (on Earth). Westerners, on the other hand, believed that earthly happiness depends on an enlightened mind. But they were united in one thing: they hated serfdom and fought for the liberation of the peasants from it.
Slavophiles: Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Konst. Aksakov, Samarin. The foundations of the Slavophile doctrine were laid by Aleksey Stepanovich Khomyakov and Ivan Vasilievich Kireevsky, later they were called the senior Slaanophiles. The first to throw a bomb into the public consciousness was Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev, who wrote the “Philosophical Letter”, the historical role of Russia was defined as educational for distant descendants: “Alone in the world, we gave nothing to the world, took nothing from the world ... » Khomyakov and Kireevsky gave a worthy answer to Chaadaev, proving the uniqueness of the experience of the Russian people. Kireevsky believed that Orthodoxy is a genuine Christian religion in an undistorted form, unlike Catholicism and Protestantism, it forms relations between people on a disinterested basis. The younger Slavophiles even more categorically declared the chosenness of the Russian people, "carrying Christ in their soul, for whom the thread that connects the earthly with the heavenly has not broken ...". They idealized the peasant community, since, admittedly, they did not know the people.
Westerners: Chaadaev, Belinsky, Herzen, Stankevich. They believed that it was the Western European path that should lead Russia to equality before the law, the establishment of freedoms, including freedom of speech - in other words, to the victory of liberalism (liberalis - free). 1840-50s passed under the sign of the struggle between Westerners and Slavophiles. The struggle was carried on everywhere: in magazines, in literary salons, at public lectures. The arguments were heated, the struggle was fierce: friends became enemies.
In 1860-80s. 19th century two camps were more sharply defined: Democrats and Liberals. Democrats called for revolutionary reforms, while liberals called for gradual, economic ones. At the center of the struggle between the two camps is the abolition of serfdom.
Democrats: Herzen, Nekrasov, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky, Pisarev and others. Liberals: Turgenev, Goncharov, Druzhinin, Fet, Tyutchev, Leskov, Dostoevsky, Pisemsky and others.
Heated controversy flared up on the pages of magazines of both directions. The journals of that time were the arena of social and political struggle.
2. Love lyrics by N. A. Nekrasov (“Panaevsky cycle”)
Nekrasov's love poems represent one of the remarkable achievements of Russian lyrics of the 19th century. The image of the life of the heart by Nekrasov the poet was based not so much on personal experience, not so much on the perception and transformation of the literary tradition, but was the result of reflection, a correct understanding of what many could have.
“Prose in Love”, with its constant quarrels and quarrels, with its mutual torment, with its infrequent joys, was destined to take a significant place in Nekrasov’s love lyrics, which is natural and natural, because one of the most characteristic features of his creative method was the desire to depict that part the truth of life, which is defined by the concept of “prose of life”, - one of the oldest non-beautiful experts V.E. Evgeniev-Maksimov summed up the results of many years of observations in his time.
All the inconsistency of feelings, the complexity and depth of the relationship between a man and a woman was expressed in Nekrasov’s “lyrical novel” dedicated to Avdotya Yakovlevna Panaeva, whose beauty, “her clever coquetry could not but make a strong impression on Nekrasov, and the nascent feeling soon turned into a hopeless passion” .
These poems, inspired by the relationship with Panaeva, form, as it were, a single lyrical diary, capturing all the shades of the feelings of the poet, or, better, the lyrical hero. The strength of these poems lies in the realistic concreteness of experience, in the desire to truthfully and accurately convey the complex process of mental life, starting from traditional sanctimonious morality. Hence - the intense drama of this stormy lyrical confession, the freshness and expressiveness of poetic speech, the free use of the rich possibilities of prosaic verse. It was prosaization that was essentially new - a complete displacement of the main setting of verse speech - the fundamental possibility of any foreign voices entering it.
Features of the "Panaevsky" cycle - immediacy, even harshness of expression of feelings, emphasized openness of confessions, a plea for forgiveness; and behind all this - a sense of the authenticity of a love drama, which is based on faith in the power of feelings, respect for the human dignity of a woman:
You are always good incomparably,
But when I'm sad and gloomy
Lives up so inspiring
Your cheerful, mocking mind;
You laugh so smartly and sweetly,
So you scold my stupid enemies
Then, bowing his head dejectedly,
So slyly you make me laugh;
You are so kind, buying up on caresses,
Your kiss is so full of fire
And your darling eyes
So they dove and stroke me, -
What is the real grief with you
I wisely and meekly bear,
And forward - into this dark sea -
Without the usual fear I look ...
N. A. Nekrasov in his “lyrical novel” gave a peculiar formula, which was readily accepted when talking about his lyrics - “prose of love”. But it would be wrong to consider the "prose of love" of Nekrasov's poems only as a sphere of quarrels and squabbles. Nekrasov entered here into an extraordinarily rich and complex area of conflicting human feelings and relationships, into an infinitely more psychologically complex and lofty area of comprehension of the human spirit.
The lyrical heroine of Nekrasov is written out more than the owner of a certain character: she is a person who knows excitement, anxiety, feels the need to approve what seems fair to her, who knows how to find a way out of sad circumstances herself.
But not only the collision of two completely different personal worlds makes the “inevitable” denouement of a rapidly developing “love affair”, the finale is destined and determined by the very complexity, inconsistency of human nature, combining good and evil, dark and light, love and hate.
Thus, the originality of Nekrasov's lyrics lies in the fact that lyrical isolation is, as it were, destroyed in it, lyrical egocentrism is overcome. And Nekrasov's love poems are open to the heroine, to her. She enters the poem with all the richness and complexity of her inner world.
Nekrasov's intimate lyrics reveal the inner, psychological complexity and inconsistency of the poet's feelings. First of all, it is a deep experience at the same time of the joy and suffering of love.
“The exceptional originality of Nekrasov's love poems is that no one else spoke so readily about prose in love as Nekrasov. He looked at the relationship between a man and a woman without poetizing them, and in love he saw little of the ideal, ”wrote I. N. Rozanov.
The "plot" of the "love story" has reached its finale, its tragic denouement. But the separation of two loving people did not resolve the complex ambivalent psychological situation in which the heroes were placed. “Fatal duel”, love-struggle, tense dialogue-argument are not completed; contradictions are insurmountable, as is the thirst for faith in love as the basis of the foundations of the universe:
We parted ways,
We parted before separation
And they thought: there will be no flour
In the last fatal "I'm sorry."
But I don't even have the strength to cry.
Write - I ask one ...
These letters will be nice to me
And holy as flowers from the grave -
From the grave of my heart!
“Lyrical novel” by N. A. Nekrasov unusually deeply reflected the growing sense of the crisis of modern life, profound changes in the sphere of self-awareness of the individual, the reaction of a thinking person to the accelerated process of democratization of Russian society. And love in Nekrasov's “Panaev's” cycle appears in a different capacity, it can no longer serve as a moral “norm.” The lyrical hero of the “Panaev's” cycle could never completely free himself from this egocentric feeling, the desire for self-affirmation in the sphere of love. It was not given to him to achieve that freedom of spirit, that selflessness in love.
In the “love novel” by N.A. Nekrasov, the intentions of severe and ruthless self-disclosure, a deep consciousness of his guilt before his beloved woman, who organically carried in herself, kept, defended, defended the metaphysical, creative, true essence of love, are noticeably growing. The lyrical hero is imbued with the consciousness of the absolute value of love and beauty, the feminine feat of self-denial.
Druzhinkina N. G.
Literature in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Introduction.
"Second half of the 19th century. - a time of great upsurge of Russian culture. It is closely connected with the shifts in the economic and political life of the country. The collapse of serfdom and the implementation of the peasant reform of 1861. testified that Russia had taken a step towards transformation from a feudal-feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy…. The general economic appearance of the country is changing .... The complex processes that took place in the socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century determined the peculiarities of the socio-political life of the post-reform period ... (1; 325-326). In the second half of the XIX century. raznochintsy are forcing out the advanced nobles in the revolutionary movement. The post-reform years accounted for the raznochinsk period of the Russian revolutionary movement, which was replaced in the mid-1990s by a mass labor movement led by social democracy.
In the second half of the XIX century. the proportion of writers, scientists, artists, musicians - natives of the Raznochinsk intelligentsia is decisively increasing ... ". (1;328). An example is the activities of N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) and N.A. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861), whose contribution “to the development of literature and art is enormous. N.G. Chernyshevsky (in his dissertation “The Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality”, in “Essays on the Gogol Period of Russian Literature”, and in other works) closely connected the problems of aesthetics with the tasks of transforming reality…. Chernyshevsky put forward the thesis in his dissertation: "The beautiful is life"; “beautiful is that being in which we see life as it should be according to our concepts.” Chernyshevsky saw the value of art in the reproduction of "interesting for a person phenomena of real life." In addition to reproducing life, he attached another meaning to art - its explanation. Another meaning of art is “a sentence on the phenomena depicted”. (1;374). The aesthetic program of N.G. Chernyshevsky was also shared by N.A. Dobrolyubov, who understood literature as an “expression of society”.
The life of the era of the 60s called for the search for new forms of artistic representation, dialectically combining refined analysis with a dynamic, constantly “reconfiguring” synthesis. A new hero enters literature - changeable and fluid, but remaining faithful to himself, to the deep foundations of his "I", his unique individuality, despite all the changes. This is a hero who seeks to remove the fatal contradiction between word and deed. Active and purposeful, he recreates himself and the world around him in the process of creative interaction with the environment. The new hero appears before readers in a variety of guises, in a living variety of human characters, associated with the features of the writer's artistic individuality, with his social convictions. Tolstoy's "new man", for example, is somewhat polemical in relation to Chernyshevsky's "new people", and Chernyshevsky's heroes are polemical in relation to Turgenev's Bazarov. In their opposition to each other, the Social Struggle makes itself known, its main watershed between the ideals of revolutionary democracy, on the one hand, and various forms of liberal-democratic and liberal-aristocratic ideology, on the other, is determined. But at the same time, all the heroes of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Goncharov, Nekrasov and Chernyshevsky, Pisemsky and Pomyalovsky remain children of their time, and this time leaves its indelible mark on them, makes them related to each other "(2; 12-13).
The heyday of the realistic novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy).
middle and second half of the 19th century. were the heyday of critical realism in literature, associated with its origins directly from the Gogol school, which also continued the realistic traditions of Pushkin. A penetrating and truthful reflection of reality in its most important typical features, a bold criticism of negative phenomena, a passionate thought about the fate of the motherland, a deep attention to a person, to his inner life in connection with the conditions of his personal and social existence, characterized the literature of critical realism, in which the denunciation of existing evil went hand in hand with the search for and affirmation of positive moral and social ideals. The development and deepening of the artistic method of critical realism was facilitated by the shifts in literary and social life that took place during the period of the fall of serfdom. Then the new circle of readers, who belonged to the democratic environment, became wider and wider” (1; 373-374).
“The connection with public interests, characteristic of Russian literature, with the development of the liberation movement in the work of I.S. Turgenev found a rich and strong refraction. The maturity of Turgenev as a writer coincides with the heyday of the Russian classical realistic novel - a particularly capacious literary genre, within which it was possible to create a broad picture of modern life, reflect the movement of social ideas, the change of successive phases of social development. Turgenev declared himself a great master of the socio-psychological, "social-ideological" (S.M. Petrov) novel and a great story close to the novel, where he embodied the fate of the Russian noble and raznochinskaya intelligentsia of the 40-70s with uniquely beautiful artistic means. Turgenev had disagreements with the advanced radical environment about one or another one-sidedness in the portrayal of the modern hero (in the novels Fathers and Sons, Smoke, New). But in its general sense, his work, including, no doubt, the novels named, was a major engine of social and intellectual development of society. Turgenev's images of Russian women had enormous social and educational significance. Turgenev's work brilliantly expressed another remarkable feature of Russian literature and all of Russian advanced art - the unity, the fusion of a perfect artistic form with a depth of ideological and ethical content. The extraordinary mastery of construction, subtlety of writing, poetic speech, vitality and convexity of characteristics, combined with lyrical animation, warmth of feeling, made Turgenev one of the most beloved authors both in Russia and abroad .... (1;378). For example, in the novel “Fathers and Sons”, “the opposition of “fathers” and “children” stated in the title of the novel appears with particular sharpness in the antagonism of Evgeny Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. Pavel Petrovich is the most "full-fledged" opponent of Bazarov, both in the ideological and behavioral spheres. (4;55)…. Depicting Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov and correlating his image with the image of Bazarov, Turgenev, having first designated the "equivalence" of opponents, then reveals the similarity of their destinies and inner world. It becomes obvious when the author uses romantic traditions in the narrative, carefully following them or significantly transforming them. The traditional components of the romantic image (the superiority of the hero over those around him, his conscious and consistent alienation from them, the obvious originality and passion of nature, extraordinary love that affects the fate of the character, extraordinary actions and deeds, in particular, a duel, the tragic end of a life path), are found in both central characters in the novel. An indication of the closeness of the heroes allows the reader to realize the relative, temporary nature of their ideological contradiction, the subordination of their destinies to a higher, timeless truth. The author's desire to embody the idea of "eternal reconciliation and endless life" (Ch. 28. p. 199) forms the philosophical basis of Turgenev's novel "(4; 63-64).
“Unlike natural life, living human, social life, according to Turgenev, certainly fits into culture, is expressed in cultural and historical forms, rightly wrote N.N. , in historical attire he saw a masquerade, in cultural forms - violence against the eternally unchanged human nature, then Turgenev found in these forms traces of the conquests of culture, ways of possible improvement of socio-historical life .... The historical typicality of heroes is indispensable for Turgenev's poetics. In the past, in various cultural epochs, Turgenev's thought was looking for artistic perfection, spirituality, and the characteristic originality of cultural forms. “Aesthetically sociable”, as defined by A.V. Chicherin, Turgenev lives in an atmosphere of general cultural interests, freely dwells in different eras of the spiritual culture of mankind, takes his good wherever he finds it. Turgenev's heroes are immersed by the author in the context of world literature.
“The creative path of the great novelist, who also appeared in the 40s, F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881), was difficult. One of the main representatives of the Gogol school, who owed much to Belinsky, a member of the utopian socialist and democratic circles of the Petrashevists, who was subjected to cruel punishment for this (a death sentence replaced by a reference to hard labor), Dostoevsky then experienced a mental breakdown .... After a short transitional period (the end of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s, when such works as Notes from the House of the Dead and Humiliated and Insulted were created and printed), Dostoevsky acquired more or less firmly religious and monarchical views. Not only in purely journalistic, but also in works of art, also imbued with his journalistic spirit, Dostoevsky acted as an opponent of revolutionary democracy. Humanistic motives, which formed the most valuable basis of his activity before hard labor, nevertheless resonate loudly in his subsequent work .... Gifted with a brilliant power of analysis and representation, in a series of great novels (Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Teenager, The Brothers Karamazov) and in a number of works of smaller forms, Dostoevsky showed with rare force the suffering of the oppressed, the disintegration of the personality in the exploitative society under the inexorable power of money. He aroused sympathy for the fate of little people, for the fate of the downtrodden, the poor, the offended” (1;380).
“Dostoevsky is a master of the psychological, socio-philosophical novel. He is rightly regarded as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature. Moreover, he was often attracted to the image of a sick, “wounded” soul, psychopathological conditions; he liked to plunge into the sphere of the "unconscious, obscure and confused" (Gorky). A hater of capitalism and the bourgeoisie, at the same time revealing the decay of moral principles among the feudal nobility, Dostoevsky dreamed of a brotherhood of people, of an ethically pure life. ... called for "humility" (1;380).
“Dostoevsky piercingly felt and expressed the unique position of Russia and the Russian in the world. Dostoevsky considered the ability of universal responsiveness to be the main property of a Russian person. As he proclaimed in his “Speech on Pushkin”, to become “completely Russian” means to become “all-human”. Moreover, in this way, there is not a loss of national identity, but its full and comprehensive revelation” (5; 52).
“A huge period of Russian life - from the beginning of the 19th to the beginning of the 19th century. - was reflected in the works of the great writer of the Russian land L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). His work represents the pinnacle of critical realism, a step forward in the artistic development of mankind. His novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, the trilogy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”, “Sevastopol stories”, “Death of Ivan Ilyich”, dramatic works (“power of darkness”, etc.). Even at the first stage of his work, Leo Tolstoy proclaimed the truth to be his “hero”, whom he loves with all the strength of his soul and tries to reproduce in all its beauty (“Sevastopol in May”)…. Tolstoy was a great heart specialist, an incomparable connoisseur and depicter of the movements of the human soul, “the dialectic of the soul”, as Chernyshevsky defined it…. The desire to penetrate the spiritual world of the common man, the critical attitude towards the life of secular society, characteristic of Tolstoy from his first steps, took on a particularly vivid and consistent expression after the spiritual crisis he experienced at the turn of the 70-80s, which entailed Tolstoy's complete transition to positions of the patriarchal peasantry ... in his works of the last period, with irresistible force, he denounced the landlord state, the official church, the comedy of the royal court, militarism and war, the economic enslavement of the masses ”(1; 383).
2. Democratic poetry, N.A. Nekrasov.
“The leading figure of democratic poetry is N.A. Nekrasov (1821-1877)…. Nekrasov's poems, his poems "Peddlers", "Orina, a Soldier's Mother", "Frost, Red Nose", "Railway" in a tone of deep understanding and sympathy unfolded a picture of people's life, labor and suffering. She is especially shocking in the unfinished poem "To whom it is good to live in Rus'", written in the 60s and mainly in the 70s. Here, with all the acuteness, the poet raised the problem of "people's happiness", the question of the causes of the disasters of the village. Nekrasov was not deceived by the "good" consequences of the peasant reform. He saw that in the conditions of the post-reform era, the oppressive power of the master and the official, the fatal influence of landlessness, lawlessness, and spiritual darkness were preserved. Nekrasov’s boundless love for the people was combined with hatred for his enemies, with contempt for his false “friends”, which, in particular, found expression in a kind of Nekrasov satire. Nekrasov sang a lot about the "inexhaustible grief" of the people - the peasant, first of all, and at the same time about the sorrows of the urban poor, but Nekrasov was never touched by patience for oppression and violence; on the contrary, he resented "submissiveness without end." Nekrasov believed in the people, in the fact that he "endures everything - he will make a wide, clear chest path for himself." More than once Nekrasov glorified the feat of struggle for the people, for freedom. He sang the Decembrists and their selfless wives (“Girl”, “Russian Women”), created poetic images of the glorious figures of the Russian liberation - Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov; his works vividly reflected the struggle of the revolutionary populist generation of the 70s ... (1; 390-391). The form of Nekrasov's poetry is in complete harmony with its democratic and realistic content .... " (1;392).
“Nekrasov was the recognized head of a large poetic school .... Akin to the work of the brilliant poet of peasant democracy was the poetry of N.P. Ogarev (1813 -1877). She reached full maturity in the emigre period of the life of a revolutionary poet and publicist, constituting an integral part of all the activities of the foreign free Russian press. Very close to Nekrasov N.A. Dobrolyubov in his poetic writings. From the end of the 50s, one of the Petrashevsky poets A.N. Pleshcheev (1825-1893) was able to return to active literary activity .... The poetry of I.S. Nikitin (1824-1861) had a number of motifs in common with Nekrasov, especially in the last, most fruitful period of the poet's work, which falls on the second half of the 50s and the turn of the 50s and 60s. The situation and life of the peasants and the urban lower classes are depicted truthfully and with heartfelt sympathy by Nikitin.
M. L. Mikhailov (1829-1865) was one of the largest and most consistent representatives of revolutionary democratic poetry. Mikhailov, who at the time of the peasant reform, took a direct part in the revolutionary struggle, in the case of the proclamation "To the Young Generation" (1861) was exiled to hard labor, where he died. Mikhailov's poems ... are imbued with the conviction of the necessity and inevitability of the revolution and an open call for it. Mikhailov was a very talented translator. He translated the poets of Ancient Greece, English, French, German…. (1;392-393). As a translator of the works of Beranger, V.S. Kurochkin (1831-1875) gained his first fame .... Soon Kurochkin led a group of democratic poets and satirical fiction writers who united around the Iskra weekly edited by him. The poets of Iskra (V.S. and N.S. Kurochkin, D.D. Minaev, P.I. Veinberg, L.I. Palmin, V.I. Bogdanov and others) wrote an original and colorful page in history poetry" (1; 393).
“The revolutionary populist poets of the 70s are associated with the Nekrasov school, calling on the intelligentsia to a selfless struggle for the liberation of the people, addressing their word to the masses of the people themselves. A special place in this poetry was occupied by deeply impressive "prison" lyrics. Among the creators of populist poetry were the heroic figures of the revolutionary underground N.A. Morozov, S.S. Sinegub, F.V. Volkhovsky, D.A. Klements, V.N. P. L. Lavrov. The People's Will stage in the revolutionary movement brought forward the poet P.F. Yakubovich (1860-1911), a gifted and original representative of political lyrics. (1;393). The most popular poet of the 80s S. Ya. Nadson (1862-1887) adjoined the Nekrasov tradition with his strengths. Motives of melancholy and vigorous, bold impulses, doubts and faith in a happy future collided in his work. Many poems by democratic poets became militant revolutionary songs (for example, “Be brave, friends, do not lose” by M.L. Mikhailov, “Do not cry over the corpses of fallen fighters” by L.I. Palmin, “Let's renounce the old world” by P.L. Lavrov, "Tortured by severe bondage" by G.A.Machtet) "(1; 394). It is worth noting that next to the Nekrasov school there was another poetry: A.A. Fet, A.N. Maikov, Ya.N. Polonsky, F.I. Tyutchev, based on the concept of "art for art's sake".
Undoubtedly, by “Nekrasov’s school…” they mean the poets of the 50s-70s, ideologically and artistically closest to him, who were directly influenced by the great poet, even organizationally, in essence, united already by virtue of the fact that most of them were grouped around a few democratic publications: Nekrasov's Sovremennik, Russkoe Slovo, Iskra (2;36).
The era of confusion and the search for new ideals (1880-90s).
“At the beginning of the last two decades of the century, there is a significant event - the Pushkin celebrations in June 1880, dedicated to the opening of a monument to the poet in Moscow. In the speeches of the writers who spoke at the festival, the name of Pushkin sounded not only as a symbol of the former greatness of Russian culture. As before, they saw in him “our everything”, as Ap. Grigoriev said about Pushkin, a symbol of integrity and inexhaustible forces of the national spirit. The apogee of the holiday was a speech by Dostoevsky, deep in moral and historical ideas, who spoke about the need to turn to the people's truth, about the great fate that awaits Russia, about the "worldwide responsiveness" of the Russian people. The enthusiasm that gripped everyone these days seemed to testify that there is a common thought in all Russian literature, that there is a common direction.
However, the feeling of unity, of a common cause was neither broad nor strong. Soon, following the voice of Dostoevsky, there were sharply dissonant voices not only of the liberal professor A.D. Gradovsky, but also of S.S. Turgenev, and even G. Uspensky. even at the time of the holiday, Goncharov and Saltykov-Shchedrin were on the sidelines, and L.N. Tolstoy resolutely refused to participate in it, because from his point of view, “the people absolutely do not care whether Pushkin existed or not.” All this was highly characteristic of the era.
Until recently, populism, which had so much control over the minds, now, in the face of a catastrophic “disorder of the people's order” (G. Uspensky), was going through a crisis and was heading for disintegration. Some of its leaders, like I.I. Kalits, saw a way out in giving up big tasks and doing their duty, serving the immediate needs of the masses. Others, like A.I.
The former faith in the "soil", in a reliable basis for convictions, creativity, practical activity, was undermined in the minds of a significant part of the intelligentsia and gave way to disappointment and social indifference.
Grassroots literature, which has especially bred since the 1980s, has become dominated by unrestrained decay: a variegated position, unscrupulousness and eclecticism, and a decline in artistic taste. Pessimistic moods penetrate into the highly educated part of society, into great literature, as evidenced by the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, Garshin, as well as Sluchevsky, Fofanov and other poets of the “sick generation”.
The attitude of the individual narrowed to individualism, and within these limits and in the general atmosphere of the era, even a sincere and disinterested desire for the public good took on a limited and essentially regressive character. This found expression in the most typical feature of that time - the theory and practice of "small deeds".
Social and moral problems were posed in terms of "personal conscience", which turned out to be out of touch with the "common conscience". The latter, not without the influence of positivist morality, seemed to be a groundless abstraction…. Literature and journalism spoke with growing alarm about the catastrophic decline in the spiritual level in all strata of society, including the intelligentsia, while the level of education was externally rising.
It is remarkable that in the face of this danger, greater than the most ferocious repressions of the government, Russian writers appeal to the self-consciousness of a person, to the reason and moral sense of the individual, continuing to believe in them and therefore on the individual himself, and not only on the environment, laying responsibility for personal and public morality, for the nature of social relations ... .. the desire to establish spiritual values that stand above the idealless modernity, above the needs of bourgeois society and the demands of an intelligent layman, was in many cases coupled with a keen interest in religious and philosophical problems. It was developed by the idealist philosopher V. Solovyov, who was close to Dostoevsky in the last years of his life, by members of the journal Issues of Philosophy and Psychology published since 1889, by some writers, such as A. Volynsky (who headed the journal Severny Vestnik), N. Minsky, one of the heralds of symbolism in Russian literature” (2; 383-384).
Indeed, “The beginning of the 1980s saw a new turn in public life…. A mood of decline and disbelief in the effectiveness of the political struggle became widespread; some press organs propagated the "theory of small deeds", reconciliation with reality .... There was a revival of the trends of ... pure art, the beginnings of the modernist trends that developed later appeared (1; 396).
But democratic literature did not give up its positions at all, the work of realist writers and champions of ideological, realistic literature in criticism did not stop. Shchedrin lived and worked until the end of the 1980s; in the atmosphere of that era, his voice sounded with exceptional power. Gleb Uspensky wrote a lot at this time. Tolstoy's activities continued; then Tolstoyism was born with its non-resistance…. Very important along with all this was the emergence of a galaxy of new, young writers of a democratic trend (6).
One of them was V.M. Garshin (1855-1888), a remarkable master of the socio-psychological short story…. “The lively flutter of a sensitive conscience and thought”, which, according to Korolenko, made Garshin’s stories “so close to his generation”, combined with true artistry, ensured a long life for Garshin’s legacy” ((1; 397).
V. G. Korolenko (1853-1921) himself in his work “combining penetrating realism with the features of progressive romanticism, unshakably believed in the people, in the person, in a happy future…. During the 80s and early 90s, dozens of talented stories and essays and great stories by S. Karonin (N.E. Petropavlovsky, 1853-1892) appeared, who devoted his work to the peasant theme and the fate of the modern intelligentsia .... Artistic works of one of the largest representatives of the revolutionary populist movement S.M. Kravchinsky (pseudonym: Stepnyak, 1851-1895) date back to the 80-90s. The most famous of his purely fictional works - the novel "Andrei Kozhukhov" - was written and published abroad in the late 80s in English (under the title "The Path of the Nihilist"; a full Russian translation appeared shortly after the death of the author) .... The work of Kravchinsky "Underground Russia" was a kind of interweaving of historical, journalistic and memoir genres. A large place in the book is devoted to "Revolutionary profiles" - lovingly painted images of a number of the seventies (Perovskaya, Zasulich, Kropotkin, Klemenets, Valerian Osinsky, etc.) ... (1; 397-398). D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak (1852-1912) made his note in the literature of the 80-90s, whose realistic talent was given to depicting the life and people of the Urals, an important topic in the development of Russian capitalism. In a series of novels (“Privalovsky Millions”, “Mountain Nest”, “Three Ends”, “Gold”, etc.), in essays and stories, Mamin-Sibiryak in bright, typical images depicted the capitalist masters of life, on the one hand, and the mass working people - on the other .... A quarter of a century, the activity of the brilliant novelist and playwright A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), which began in the 80s, continued .... (1;398)…. The 1990s became the time for the formation of Russian decadence, but they were also marked by new fruitful phenomena in the development of the literature of critical realism. The end of the century brought new prominent names of realist writers to literature, whose work continued, and in most cases reached its peak in the 20th century (Serafimovich, Garin-Mikhailovsky, Bunin, Kuprin, Veresaev, Gorky). (1;399).
Conclusion.
Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - from Turgenev, Nekrasov, Leo Tolstoy to Chekhov and early Gorky - has come a wonderful way, has accumulated gigantic values. Delighting readers with artistic perfection, she was distinguished by the harmony of bright form and rich content, deep ideological content and high moral sense. Citing the words of Leo Tolstoy - "there is no greatness where there is no simplicity, goodness and truth", one of the ... critics aptly pointed out that they expressed the "moral and artistic program" of Russian literature. Advanced literature was associated with the liberation movement, and in many ways contributed to the growth of this movement. Along with nationality, a patriotic thought about the fate of the motherland, all-pervading realism was a fundamental and defining feature of literature. She is characterized to the limit by a truthful, honest and bold reproduction of the essential aspects of reality, a deep comprehension of the spiritual movements of the individual, sincere pain for the “humiliated and insulted”; she passionately denounced social evil and wrestled with the question of ways to overcome it. (1;400-401).
“The eighties sum up the development of Russian classical realism. It was formed and flourished in the works of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Leskov, Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Leo Tolstoy…. Russian classical realism is historical realism. By the 1980s, such realism turned out to be a great stage for literature, but a stage passed through” (2; 385).
Second half of the 19th century - a new stage in the development of world literature. International literary ties are significantly strengthened and strengthened, but at the same time, the originality of national literatures is also deepening.
A distinctive feature of the literary process is the development of realism. That deep study of man and society in their constant relationship, which was begun by Stendhal, Balzac, and in Russian literature by Pushkin and Gogol, was continued in the work of a whole galaxy of remarkable representatives of world literature: Turgenev, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Flaubert, Dickens, Maupassant and many other writers.
Realism strives for a truthful and comprehensive reproduction of the diverse phenomena of life, for a wide coverage of reality with all its inherent contradictions.
The artistic discoveries of realism were manifested not only in the reliability of the depiction of everyday life, but also in the depiction of diverse human characters. In art, a new concept of the world and man arises.
There is a certain dependence of man on external circumstances; upbringing, living conditions, social status. A spiritless prosaic society can have a destructive effect on a person, push him to abandon past ideals, or reconcile with the surrounding reality, or even lead to death (physical or moral). However, while objectively depicting the impact of social conditions on the destinies, morals and spiritual world of people, realistic literature at the same time reflected the growing resistance of the individual. In the best representatives of realistic literature, the positive hero is endowed with moral stamina, showing the ability to withstand adverse circumstances. Russian writers, in particular, sought to show their hero (and heroine!) as an active person, aware of the full responsibility not only for himself, but also for others, and even for all of humanity.
It is the life activity of the hero that often predetermines the main conflict in the development of the plot, giving him the features of dramatic tension.
The strength of realism lies in the formulation of the most important socio-philosophical and psychological problems, which predetermines the universal significance of the masterpieces of realistic art. That is why it is difficult to clearly outline the line separating realism from romanticism.
Despite the constant literary controversy, in practice, romantic tendencies are clearly felt in the work of many outstanding realist writers. It's not about changing directions (standard phrase from romanticism to realism not always confirmed by facts), but about the peculiar coexistence of realism and romanticism, their interpenetration, which ultimately enriches art. This applies even to the work of such seemingly consistent realists as Stendhal, Balzac, Dickens, Turgenev and others. material from the site
It is often said that the main sign of realism is the desire for lifelikeness. However, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of verisimilitude and artistic truth. These concepts are not identical. Realism is characterized by an extraordinary wealth of artistic forms, styles, and techniques. It is no coincidence that many writers, while remaining realists, widely use in their work a variety of ways of artistic expression, referring to myth, symbolism, allegory, and the grotesque. You will see this when you read the works of writers and playwrights such as Stendhal, Balzac, Dostoevsky or Chekhov.
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On this page, material on the topics:
- summary of the development of literature in the 2nd half of the 19th century
- characteristics of literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century
- Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century abstract
- paragraph 37 literature in the Tue half of the 19th century
- development of dramaturgy in the second half of the 19th century
Introduction
Historical and cultural process and periodization of Russian literature. The specifics of literature as an art form. Interaction of Russian and Western European Literature. The originality of Russian literature (with a generalization of previously studied material). The value of literature in mastering the professions of secondary vocational education and specialties of secondary vocational education.
RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XIX CENTURY
The development of Russian literature and culture in the first half of the 19th century
Historical and cultural process at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. Romanticism. Features of Russian romanticism. Literary societies and circles. The origin of Russian literary criticism. The formation of realism in Russian literature. Russian art.
Repetition. The main trends in the development of literature in the late XVIII - early XIX century. Creativity of M.V.Lomonosov, G.R.Derzhavin, D.I.Fonvizin, I.A.Krylov, N.M.Karamzin.
Theory of Literature. Fiction as an art form. Periodization of Russian literature of the XIX-XX centuries. Romanticism, romantic hero. Realism.
Demos. Architecture of St. Petersburg and Moscow of the 18th century. Painting of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The development of the Russian theater.
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of a report (message or abstract): "The life and work of one of the Russian poets (writers)-romantics", "Romantic ballad in Russian literature", "The development of the genre of the historical novel in the era of romanticism", "Romantic stories in Russian literature" , "The Development of Russian Literary Criticism".
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (1799-1837)
The personality of the writer. Life and creative path (with a generalization of previously studied). Childhood and youth. Petersburg and freedom-loving lyrics. Southern exile and the romantic period of creativity. Mikhailovskoe: themes, motives and artistic originality of creativity. The formation of realism in the work of Pushkin. The role of Pushkin in the formation of the Russian literary language. Boldin autumn in the works of Pushkin. Pushkin the thinker. Creativity of A.S. Pushkin in criticism and literary criticism. Life of Pushkin's works in other art forms.
"Good Feelings" in the Lyrics of A.S. Pushkin: Dreams of the "Liberty of a Saint". Spiritual nobility and harmony in the expression of love feelings. The search for the meaning of life, inner freedom. Man's relationship with God. Understanding the high purpose of the artist, his mission as a prophet. The idea of continuity of generations. Comprehension of historical processes from humanistic positions. Moral solution of the problems of man and his time.
For reading and studying. Poems: “Liberty”, “Village”, “To the Sea”, “Prophet”, “Poet”, “Poet and Crowd”, “To the Poet”, “Elegy” (“Crazy Years Faded Joy…”).
Theory of Literature. Lyrical hero and lyrical plot. Elegy. Poem. Tragedy. Conflict. Issues.
The psychological depth of the image of the characters.
Demos. Portraits of A.S. Pushkin (artist S.G. Chirikov, V.A. Tropinin, O.A. Kiprensky, V.V. Mate and others), self-portraits. Drawings by A.S. Pushkin. Illustrations for the works of A.S. Pushkin V. Favorsky, V. Dudorov, M. Vrubel, N. Kuzmin, A. Benois, G. Epifanov, A. Plastov and others. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. Verstovsky, M. Glinka, G.V. Sviridov and others. Fragments from M.P. Mussorgsky "Boris Godunov".
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of a report (message or abstract): "Pushkin in the memoirs of his contemporaries", "Pushkin's ancestors and his family", "Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum and his pupils", "The fate of N.N. Pushkina", "Duel and death of A.S. Pushkin.
Preparation and conduct of a correspondence excursion to one of the museums of A.S. Pushkin (at the choice of students).
Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814 - 1841)
Personality and life path of M.Yu. Lermontov (with a generalization of what was previously studied). Themes, motives and images of Lermontov's early lyrics. Genre and artistic originality of M.Yu. Lermontov of the Petersburg and Caucasian periods.
The theme of loneliness in the lyrics of Lermontov. Poet and Society. The tragedy of Lermontov's love lyrics.
For reading and studying. Poems: “Duma”, “No, I’m not Byron, I’m different ...”, “Poet” (“My dagger shines with gold trim ...”), “How often surrounded by a motley crowd ...”, “Valerik”, “Motherland”, “ Goodbye, unwashed Russia…”, “Dream”, “Both boring and sad!”, “I go out alone on the road…”.
Repetition. Lyrics by M.Yu. Lermontov, "A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov." Poem "Mtsyri". The novel "A Hero of Our Time".
Theory of Literature. The development of the concept of romanticism. Antithesis. Composition.
Demos. Portraits of M.Yu. Lermontov. Paintings and drawings by M.Yu. Lermontov. M.Yu.Lermontov's works in the work of Russian painters and illustrators.
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of a report (message or abstract): “The Caucasus in the fate and work of Lermontov”, “M.Yu. Lermontov in the memoirs of his contemporaries”, “M.Yu.
Preparation and conduct of a correspondence excursion to one of the museums of M.Yu. Lermontov (at the choice of students).
By heart. At least three poems of students' choice.
Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol (1809-1852)
The personality of the writer, life and creative path (with a generalization of the previously studied). "Petersburg stories": problems and artistic originality. Features of Gogol's satire. The value of N.V. Gogol's work in Russian literature.
For reading and studying. "Portrait".
Repetition. "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", "Taras Bulba". Comedy "Inspector". Poem "Dead Souls"
Theory of Literature. literary type. Detail. Hyperbola. Grotesque. Humor. Satire.
Demos. Portraits of N.V. Gogol (artist I. Repin, V. Goryaev, F. A. Moller and others). Illustrations for the works of N.V. Gogol L. Bakst, D. Kardovsky, N. Kuzmin, A. Kanevsky, A. Plastov, E. Kibrik, V. Makovsky, Yu. Korovin, A. Laptev, Kukryniksy.
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of a report (message or abstract): "Petersburg in the life and work of N.V. Gogol", "N.V. Gogol in the memoirs of his contemporaries."
Preparation and conduct of a correspondence excursion to one of the museums of N.V. Gogol (at the choice of students).
Features of the development of Russian literature in the second half of the XIX century
Cultural and historical development of Russia in the middle of the XIX century. The conflict of liberal nobility and raznochinny democracy. Abolition of serfdom. Crimean War. Populism. Strengthening the realistic trend in Russian painting in the second half of the 19th century. (I.K.Aivazovsky, V.V.Vereshchagin, V.M.Vasnetsov, N.N.Ge, I.N.Kramskoy, V.G.Perov, I.E.Repin, V.I.Surikov). Masters of Russian realistic landscape (I.I. Levitan, V.D. Polenov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, F.A. Vasiliev, A.I. Kuindzhi) (on the example of 3-4 artists of choice teacher). The Commonwealth of Russian Composers "Mighty Handful" (M.A. Balakirev, M.P. Mussorgsky, A.I. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov).
The Maly Theater is "the second Moscow University in Russia". MS Shchepkin is the founder of Russian scenic realism. The first public museum of national Russian art is the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow.
Literary criticism and magazine controversy of the 1860s about “superfluous people” and “new man” in the journals Sovremennik, Otechestvennye Zapiski, Russkoe Slovo. Newspaper "Kolokol", socio-political and literary activities of A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky. The development of realistic traditions in prose (I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.S. Leskov and others). New types of heroes in Russian literature. Nihilistic and anti-nihilistic novel (N.G. Chernyshevsky, I.S. Turgenev). Dramaturgy by A.N. Ostrovsky and A.P. Chekhov and its stage performance. Poetry of "pure art", and realistic poetry.
Demos. Excerpts from the musical works of PITchaikovsky. Reproductions of paintings by artists of the second half of the XIX century: I.K. Aivazovsky, V.V. Vereshchagin, V.M. Vasnetsov, N.N. Ge, I.N. Kramskoy, V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin, V.I.Surikov, I.I.Levitan, V.D.Polenov, A.K.Savrasov, I.I.Shishkin, F.A.Vasiliev, A.I.Kuindzhi.
Creative tasks. Preparation and conduct of a correspondence tour "Through the halls of the Tretyakov Gallery".
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky (1823-1886)
The life and creative path of A. N. Ostrovsky (with a generalization of the previously studied). Socio-cultural novelty of the dramaturgy of A.N. Ostrovsky. Themes of "hot heart" and "dark kingdom" in the works of A.N. Ostrovsky.
Drama Storm. Creative History of Drama. Genre originality. Artistic features of the drama. Kalinov and its inhabitants (character system). The originality of the idea, the originality of the main character, the power of the tragic denouement in the fate of the heroes of the drama. Storm symbolism. The image of Katerina is the embodiment of the best qualities of female nature. The conflict of a romantic personality with a way of life devoid of folk moral foundations. The motives of temptations, the motive of willfulness and freedom in the drama. Katerina in the assessment of N.A. Dobrolyubov and D.I. Pisarev. The position of the author and his ideal. The role of the characters of the second row in the play.
For reading and studying. Drama Storm. Article by N.A. Dobrolyubov “A Ray of Light in the Dark Kingdom”.
Demonstration. Fragments from musical compositions based on the plots of A.N. Ostrovsky's works.
Repetition. Development of Russian theater traditions.
Theory of Literature. Drama. Comedy.
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of the abstract: "The significance of the work of A.N. Ostrovsky in the history of the Russian theater."
Ivan Alexandrovich Goncharov (1812-1891)
Life path and creative biography of I.A. Goncharov. The role of V. G. Belinsky in the life of I. A. Goncharov. "Oblomov". Creative history of the novel. The originality of the plot and genre of the work. The problem of the Russian national character in the novel. Dream of Ilya Ilyich as the artistic and philosophical center of the novel. Oblomov's image. The inconsistency of Oblomov's character. Oblomov as a representative of his time and a timeless image. The typical character of Oblomov. The evolution of the image of Oblomov. Stolz and Oblomov. Past and future of Russia. Problems of love in the novel. Love as a way of human relations (Olga Ilyinskaya - Agafya Pshenitsyna).
Evaluation of the novel "Oblomov" in criticism (N. Dobrolyubova, D.I. Pisareva, I. Annensky and others).
Demos. Illustrations by Yu.S. Gershkovich, K.A. Trutovsky to Goncharov's novels. Fragments from the film "A Few Days in the Life of I.I. Oblomov" (dir. N. Mikhalkov).
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of an abstract: "Women's images in Goncharov's novels", "What is the tragedy of Oblomov?", "What is "Oblomovism"?".
Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (1818-1883)
The life and creative path of I.S. Turgenev (with a generalization of the previously studied). Psychologism of Turgenev's creativity. The theme of love in the work of I.S. Turgenev (the stories "Asya", "First Love", "Poems in Prose"). their artistic originality. Turgenev the novelist (a review of one or two novels with reading episodes). Typification of social phenomena in the novels of I.S. Turgenev. The originality of the artistic manner of Turgenev the novelist.
The novel "Fathers and Sons". Meaning of the title of the novel. Display in the novel of the socio-political situation of the 1860s. The problem of the novel. Features of the composition of the novel. Bazarov in the system of images of the novel. Nihilism of Bazarov and a parody of nihilism in the novel (Sitnikov and Kukshina). Bazarov's views on art, nature, society. Bazarov and Kirsanovs. Bazarov and Odintsova. Love intrigue in the novel and its role in revealing the ideological and aesthetic content of the novel. Bazarov and parents. The essence of disputes, the conflict of "fathers" and "children". The significance of the final scenes of the novel is in revealing its ideological and aesthetic content. Author's position in the novel.
The controversy around the novel "Fathers and Sons" (D.I. Pisarev, N. Strakhov, M. Antonovich).
For reading and studying. The novel "Fathers and Sons". D.I. Pisarev. "Bazarov".
Repetition. Features of realism by I.S. Turgenev (“Notes of a hunter”).
Theory of Literature. Socio-psychological novel.
Demos. Portraits of I.S. Turgenev (artist A. Liber, V. Perov and others). Illustrations for the works of I.S. Turgenev by artists V. Domogatsky, P. M. Boklevsky, K. I. Rudakov (at the choice of the teacher). Romance by A.M. Abaza to the words of I.S. Turgenev “Foggy morning, gray morning ...”.
Creative tasks. By heart. One prose poem (chosen by students).
Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (1828-1889)
Brief essay on the life and work of N.G. Chernyshevsky.
Aesthetic views of Chernyshevsky and their reflection in the novel. Features of the genre and composition of the novel. Utopian ideas in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky. Moral and ideological problems in the novel. "Women's question" in the novel. Images of "new people". The theory of "reasonable egoism". The image of a "special person" Rakhmetov. Contrasting the "new people" with the old world. The theory of "reasonable egoism" as the philosophical basis of the novel. The role of Vera Pavlovna's dreams in the novel. The fourth dream as a social utopia. The meaning of the novel's ending.
For reading and studying. The novel "What to do?" (review with reading fragments).
Repetition. Women's issue in the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons".
Theory of Literature. Utopia. Dystopia.
Demos. Reproductions of paintings: A. Rudnev "N. G. Chernyshevsky under interrogation in the Senate"; Yu.Kazmichev “Defence of the thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky”; V.Ladyzhensky "T.G.Shevchenko and N.G.Chernyshevsky in a circle of friends." Illustrations for the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?" artist V. Minaev.
Creative task. Research and preparation of the abstract “The society of the future in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky “What is to be done?””
Nikolai Semenovich Leskov (1831-1895)
Information from the biography (with a generalization of the previously studied). The artistic world of the writer. Righteous N.S. Leskov. The work of N.S. Leskov in the 1870s. The story of the Enchanted Wanderer. Features of composition and genre. The image of Ivan Flyagin. The theme of the tragic fate of a talented Russian person. Meaning of the title of the story. Features of the narrative manner of N.S. Leskov.
For reading and studying. Tale-chronicle "The Enchanted Wanderer".
Repetition. National character in the works of N.S. Leskov ("Lefty").
Demos. Portraits of N.S. Leskov (artist V.A. Serov, I.E. Repin). Illustrations for the story "Lefty" (artist N.V. Kuzmin). Illustrations for the story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (artist I.S. Glazunov). Reproduction of the painting "Ilya Muromets at the feast at Prince Vladimir" by VV Vereshchagin.
Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889)
The life and creative path of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (with a generalization of the previously studied). The writer's outlook.
Genre originality, themes and problems of fairy tales by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The originality of fantasy in the fairy tales of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Allegorical figurativeness of fairy tales. Grotesque, allegory, symbolism, language of fairy tales. General meaning of fairy tales.
The idea, the history of the creation of the "History of one city". The originality of the genre, composition. ME Saltykova-Shchedrina Techniques of satirical fiction, grotesque, artistic allegory. Aesopian language.
The role of Saltykov-Shchedrin in the history of Russian literature.
For reading and studying. Fairy tales by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Bear in the Voivodeship”, “Konyaga”. "History of one city" (chapters: "On the root of the origin of the Foolovites", "Inventory of the mayors", "Organchik", "Confirmation of repentance. Conclusion").
Repetition. Fiction in the fairy tales of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin as a means of satirical depiction of reality (“The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals”, “The Wild Landowner”, “The Wise Piskar”).
Theory of Literature. Development of the concept of satire. Concepts of conventionality in art (grotesque, Aesopian language).
Demos. Portrait of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin by I.N. Kramskoy. Illustrations by artists Kukryniksy, Remi, N.V. Kuzmin, D.A. Shmarinov for the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881)
Information from the life of the writer (with a generalization of the previously studied).
The novel "Crime and Punishment" The originality of the genre. Plot features. Display of Russian reality in the novel. Social and moral-philosophical problems of the novel. Social and philosophical foundations of the Raskolnikov rebellion. The meaning of Raskolnikov's theory. The problem of "strong personality" and "crowd", "trembling creature" and "having the right" and its refutation in the novel.
Secrets of the inner world of man: readiness for sin, trampling high truths and moral values. The drama of the character and fate of Rodion Raskolnikov. Raskolnikov's dreams in revealing his character and the general composition of the novel. The evolution of the idea of "duality". Suffering and purification in the novel. symbolism in the novel. The symbolic meaning of the image of "eternal Sonya". The originality of the embodiment of the author's position in the novel. Raskolnikov's "Truth" and Sonya's "Truth". Petersburg of Dostoevsky. Biblical motifs in the work. The controversy surrounding the novel and its protagonist.
For reading and studying. The novel Crime and Punishment.
Repetition. The theme of the "little man" in Russian literature: A.S. Pushkin. "The Stationmaster", N.V. Gogol. "Overcoat".
Theory of Literature. Polyphonism of the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky.
Demos. Portrait of F.M.Dostoevsky by V.G.Perov. Gospel. Illustrations by P.M.Boklevsky, I.E.Grabar, E.I. Neizvestny for "Crime and Punishment". I. S. Glazunov's illustrations for Dostoevsky's novels. Painting by N.A. Yaroshenko “Student”. Painting by V.G. Perov “The Drowned Woman”. Stills from the film "Crime and Punishment" (dir. L.A. Kulidzhanov. Stills from the film "Quiet Pages" (dir. A. Sokurov).
Creative task. Preparation of questions for the discussion "Raskolnikov's Personality".
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (1828-1910)
Life path and creative biography (with a generalization of previously studied). Spiritual searches of the writer.
Epic novel "War and Peace". genre of the novel. Features of the compositional structure of the novel. Artistic principles of Tolstoy in the depiction of Russian reality: following the truth, psychologism, "dialectics of the soul". Combination in the novel of the idea of personal and universal. The symbolic meaning of the concepts of "war" and "peace". Spiritual quest of Andrei Bolkonsky, Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha Rostova. Secular society in the image of Tolstoy, condemnation of his lack of spirituality and false patriotism. The author's ideal of the family in the novel. The true image of the war and Russian soldiers is the artistic discovery of L.N. Tolstoy. The Battle of Borodino is the greatest manifestation of Russian patriotism, the climax of the novel. "Cudgel of the People's War", guerrilla warfare in the novel. Images of Tikhon Shcherbaty and Platon Karataev, their attitude to the war. People's commander Kutuzov. Kutuzov and Napoleon in the author's assessment. The problem of the Russian national character. Condemnation of the cruelty of war in the novel. Debunking the idea of "Napoleonism". Patriotism in the understanding of the writer.
A brief overview of the work of the late period: "Kreutzer Sonata", "Hadji Murad".
World significance of Leo Tolstoy's creativity. L.N. Tolstoy and culture of the XX century.
For reading and studying. Epic novel "War and Peace".
Repetition. The theme of the war of 1812 in the work of M.Yu. Lermontov ("Borodino").
Theory of Literature. The concept of the epic novel.
Demos. Portraits of L.N. Tolstoy by I.E. Repin, I.N. Kramskoy, L.O. Pasternak, N.N. Ge, V.V. Meshkov. Paintings and landscapes of the Tolstoy estate and estate in Yasnaya Polyana. Illustrations by A. Kokorin, P. Pinkisevich for "Sevastopol stories". Illustrations by A. Apsit, D. A. Shmarinov, K. I. Rudakov for the epic novel "War and Peace". Paintings by I.M. Pryanishnikov “In 1812” and A.D. Kivshenko “Council in Fili”. Portrait of M.I. Kutuzov by R. Volkov. Portrait of Napoleon by P. Delyaroche. Engravings by L. Rugendas “Fire of Moscow in 1812” and A. Adam “Battle of Borodino. Battle for the Rayevsky Battery. Stills from the film "War and Peace" (dir. S.F. Bondarchuk). Illustrations by M.A. Vrubel, O.G. Vereisky, A.N. Samokhvalov for the novel "Anna Karenina". Fragments from the film "Anna Karenina" (dir. A. Zarkhi).
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of a report on one of the topics (at the choice of students): "Natasha Rostova - Tolstoy's favorite heroine", "My Tolstoy", "My favorite pages of the novel "War and Peace"".
Compilation of the text of the dictation based on the materials of the life and work of Leo Tolstoy. Preparation and conduct of a correspondence excursion to one of the museums of Leo Tolstoy.
By heart. An excerpt from the novel "War and Peace" (at the choice of students).
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904)
Information from the biography (with a generalization of the previously studied). The originality and all-penetrating power of Chekhov's creativity. Artistic perfection of A.P. Chekhov's stories. Chekhov's innovation. Periodization of Chekhov's creativity. The work of a writer in magazines. Chekhov is a reporter.
Humorous stories. Parody of early stories. Chekhov's innovation in search of genre forms. A new type of story. Heroes of Chekhov's stories. Features of the image of the "little man" in the prose of A.P. Chekhov.
Dramaturgy of Chekhov. Comedy "The Cherry Orchard". History of creation, genre, system of characters. The complexity and ambiguity of relationships between characters. The destruction of noble nests in the play. The combination of comic and dramatic in the play "The Cherry Orchard". Lyricism and humor in the play "The Cherry Orchard". Meaning of the play's title. Character features.
Dramaturgy by A.P. Chekhov and the Moscow Art Theatre. The Chekhov Theater is the embodiment of the crisis of modern society. The role of A.P. Chekhov in the world dramaturgy of the theater.
Criticism about Chekhov (I. Annensky, V. Pietsukh).
For reading and studying. The stories "House with a Mezzanine", "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberries", "About Love". The play "The Cherry Orchard".
Repetition. Artistic features of the early work of A.P. Chekhov (“Horse Surname”, “Chameleon”, “Thick and Thin”, “Death of an Official”).
Theory of Literature. Development of the concept of dramaturgy (internal and external action; subtext; the role of the author's remarks, pauses, replicas, etc.).
Demos. Portraits of A.P. Chekhov by artists N.P. Ulyanov, V.A. Serov. Kukryniksy's illustrations for A.P. Chekhov's stories "Lady with a Dog", "Anna on the Neck", "Horse Family". Illustrations by D.A. Dubinsky for the stories of A.P. Chekhov "A House with a Mezzanine", "The Man in a Case".
Creative tasks. Research and preparation of the abstract: "The theme of an intelligent person in the work of A.P. Chekhov."
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