“Within each significant part of speech, lexical and grammatical categories of words are distinguished. These are such subclasses of a given part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain morphological meanings or enter into oppositions within morphological categories” [Russian Grammar–1980, vol. 1, p. 459].
Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories: 1) proper and common nouns; 2) animate and inanimate; 3) concrete (actually concrete, real, collective) and abstract (abstract). These discharges in some cases intersect; for example, proper and common nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.
Proper and common nouns
Proper nouns include words denoting individual, single objects included in the class of homogeneous objects.
Among the proper names are: a) proper names in the narrow sense of the term; b) names.
Proper names in the narrow sense of the term include:
personal names, surnames, pseudonyms, nicknames ( Nina, Andrey, Mikhail Kuzmich, Fedorov, Mironova);
animal names ( Bug, Ball);
place names ( Simferopol, Salgir, Crimea);
names of states, organizations ( Canada, England);
astronomical names ( Orion, Vega, Sirius) etc.
Names - proper names - include a common noun or combinations of words. “At the same time, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function” [Russian Grammar–1980, vol. 1, p. 461]. Examples: newspaper "News", magazine "Youth" etc. If the names are not presented in one word, but in combinations and sentences, then such proper names cannot be called nouns, because they are not part of speech at all. Therefore, many titles of works of art, critical articles, which are multi-structured verbose names, should not be considered proper nouns. It is customary to write proper names with a capital letter. As a rule, they have the form of only one number (singular or plural): Europe, Tatyana, Volga, Alps, Athens. In the form of many h. they are used if they denote different persons with the same names or surnames ( in a group of fiveIrin , threeZhukov ); persons who are related sistersLebedev , brothersGusakovs , spousesOrlovs ), as well as geographical and astronomical names when comparing territories, volumes, etc. ( fiveFrance , twoDnipro etc.).
Common nouns are nouns denoting general concepts, covering homogeneous objects, abstract concepts: crowd, tree, dog, creativity, youth, monday, star, city. These nouns are mostly used in both the singular and the plural. cake - cakes, book - books).
The boundaries between proper and common nouns are mobile, mutual transition is possible between them. Proper names become common nouns if 1) the name of a person has passed to his product, invention ( ohm, ampere, joule, volt, x-ray, ford, cambric, browning, colt, mauser); 2) if the product is given the name of a person ( katyusha, maxim, matryoshka); 3) if the name of a person has become the designation of a number of homogeneous persons ( philanthropist, hercules).
Common nouns become proper names: Gemini, Libra(names of constellations), Eagle, Mines(names of cities), October(name of the October Revolution), Voskhod, Soyuz(names of spaceships), Ball, Jack(dog names), etc.
Common nouns used in fables as characters become proper: Wolf And Lamb, Crow, Cat And Cook.
The above examples of proper nouns are monostructural - they are represented by one-word units and reflect a narrow understanding of the term. In a broad sense, proper nouns include names that also include two or more words, sometimes sentences. Usually these are the titles of literary works, for example: “Who should live well in Rus'”, “The Tale of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” and others. Naturally, in the system of nouns in the section "Morphology" they are not considered.
We use nouns more often than other parts of speech: on average, there are about 40 nouns per 100 words.
The famous philologist L. Uspensky said: "The noun is the bread of the language."
1. What is a noun?
A noun is an independent part of speech that denotes an object or phenomenon and answers the questions “Who? What?". For example:
Who? - man, who? Eagle, who? - Carlson.
What? - apple, what? - movement, what? - memory.
Nouns have morphological characteristics of gender, number and case.
Nouns belong to one of three declensions.
The initial form of a noun is the nominative singular. For example: apple, person, friendship.
2. The syntactic role of nouns
In a sentence, a noun can be any member of the sentence, but most often it can be the subject or object. For example: The teacher took my notebook.
There are two nouns in this sentence: teacher and notebook. Let's put a question to them to determine which members of the sentence they are: (who?) teacher, this is the subject; took (what?) a notebook, this is an addition.
And also a noun in a sentence can act as:
Predicate (Moscow - the capital) Moscow - (what is it?) The capital.
Definitions (I saw a ladder to the attic) a ladder (what?) to the attic.
By circumstance (there was a closet in the corner) stood (where?) in the corner.
3. Training observation
Let's distribute the words palace, corn, gate, snow, friendship, bear, dream by three groups.
Words palace, gate, bear we will refer to the group of nouns denoting objects that can be seen, can be touched, can be counted.
Words corn, snow we will refer to the group of nouns denoting objects that can be seen, can be touched (but not always), can be measured, weighed (cannot be counted).
Words friendship, dream we will refer to the group of nouns denoting objects that cannot be seen, cannot be touched, cannot be measured, weighed or counted.
By distributing words into appropriate groups, we divided nouns on the basis of a semantic feature common to their lexical meanings. From the Greek language the word "semantics" is translated as "denoting". In linguistics, semantics is a section that studies the meaning of language units.
4. Lexico-semantic categories
By meaning, all nouns can be divided into 4 groups:
1. Specific nouns name objects and processes that can be counted (as a rule, such nouns have singular and plural forms; the only exceptions are the names of paired objects: trousers, scissors):
- book - two books, many books;
- table - two tables, many tables;
- teacher - two teachers, many teachers.
2. abstract (or abstract) nouns call phenomena and concepts perceived mentally. These are actions, processes, states, qualities. (Such nouns cannot be counted):
- courage, friendship, running.
3.Real nouns name various substances that cannot be counted (but they can be measured). These are chemical elements, minerals, building materials, food products, medicines, etc. They are used either in units or in many. including:
- sawdust, salt, cement.
4. Collective nouns call a set of identical objects, persons, creatures as a whole. Used only in the form of units. numbers that can't be counted:
- kids, furniture, crows.
5. We distribute nouns according to lexico-semantic categories
It is necessary to pay attention to such words as "platoon", "group", "herd", "detachment", "flock". Such words also denote a set of objects or persons, but more specific and limited. Such nouns are concrete and can be counted.
The noun "children" names an indefinite number of persons of the same age, as a whole. This noun is uncountable. That is, you can not say "two kids." This noun is collective.
And in the phrase “a group of children”, the noun “group” names a specific limited set of persons and can be counted: you can say “two groups of children”, “several groups”. This is a specific noun.
The noun "crow" refers to an indefinite number of objects of the same type as a whole. It doesn't count. You can't say "two crows". This is a collective noun.
And in the phrase "flock of crows" the noun "flock" names a specific, limited set of objects. It lends itself to counting: you can say “two flocks”, “several flocks”. This noun is specific.
Some nouns, depending on the meaning that appears in their context, can be considered either as real (silver bracelet), or as collective (silverware).
Bibliography
- Russian language. Grade 6 / Baranov M.T. and others - M .: Education, 2008.
- Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.D. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 cells - M.: Bustard, 2008.
- Russian language. 6 cells / Ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta. - M.: Bustard, 2010.
- On the lexico-semantic categories of nouns ().
- Rudocs.exdat.com().
Homework
Task 1. Write down the words that are nouns and prove that they belong to this class of words.
Life, tomorrow, breakfast, expectation, greenery, green, turn green, laughter, cheers, cliff, a lot, blue, silver, transition, jump, jump, deuce, double, double.
Task 2. Give examples of words denoting: 1) names of people; 2) names of animals; 3) things; 4) substances; 5) natural phenomena; 6) events; 7) signs; 8) actions.
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
There are several large groups of nouns.
■ Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects. For example, city they call not a specific large settlement, but any one that is also an administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural center, regardless of whether it is large or small, old or new, built in one or different architectural styles.
■ Proper nouns call single, individual items. These include: names, patronymics, surnames of people ( Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin)- , geographical names ( Saint Petersburg, Cape of Good Hope); titles of literary works, films, performances, paintings ( "Pit", "They fought for their country", "Burnt by the Sun", "Gull", "Morning in a pine forest"); names of historical events Battle of Kulikovo, battle of Borodino); names of enterprises, institutions ( Publishing group "Jurist", joint-stock company "Zlatoust"); animal names ( Kashtanka, Murka).
The nouns of both groups are not limited by an impenetrable partition, but can move from one to another. Thus, the group of common nouns can be replenished with mythological names (cf.: Aurora- Goddess of the dawn and Aurora- dawn; Amur- deity of love Amur- a sculptural or pictorial image of the deity of love; handsome boy), names of scientists (cf .: Ampere- French physicist and ampere- unit of electric current strength; Faraday- English physicist and faraday- an off-system unit of electric charge), the names of literary and fairy-tale heroes (cf .: Harlequin— character comedy masks and harlequin- jester, clown; Baba Yaga- fairy tale character baba yaga- an ugly evil old woman), the names of cities and their parts (cf .: Broadway a street in New York Broadway- the central street of the city; Babylon an ancient city in Mesopotamia and Babylon- about turmoil, disorder, noise), etc.
The group of proper names can be replenished by: names of structures (cf.: acropolis- a fortress in ancient cities and Acropolis in Athens as a monument of architecture, Kremlin- a fortress in old Russian cities and Kremlin in Moscow as a government residence), the names of objects (cf .: anthracite- coal and Anthracite- city; birch- tree and Birch- village); names of persons ( apostle- disciple of Christ a follower of some idea and Apostle- Christian liturgical book; twins- simultaneously born children of the same mother and Twins- constellation and zodiac sign), etc.
A large number of examples of the mutual transition of common nouns and proper nouns are presented in the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language. Capital or lowercase? (1999).
Proper names are written with a capital (big) letter. Titles of books, titles of magazines, paintings, movies, factories, ships, etc. are put in quotation marks.
■ Personal nouns denote a person, a person: animator, sponsor, Czech, Yalta. Many male names have parallel names for female persons: dissertation student, Czech — Czekh etc. Personal nouns with suffixes -sh (A) And -their (A) type doctor, engineer, doctor are usually colloquial, even derogatory. Many names of males are also used in relation to females, especially in the official sphere of communication: president, prime minister, professor, associate professor, technician ( the president spoke, the prime minister said, the technician didn't come).
■ Specific nouns name objects (persons), which, as a rule, can be considered: answering machine, auditor, Afghan. Such nouns have singular forms. and many others. h.
■ Abstract nouns have an abstract (abstract) meaning, they call any sign or any action that is not associated with specific objects (persons): regionalism, leveling, farming; modernization, acceleration, farming. Abstract nouns in their direct lexical meaning cannot carry a cardinal numeral and are usually used in the form of only one number - singular. ( evolution) or pl. ( elections). Some abstract nouns that have the singular form, when their direct lexical meaning changes, can be used in the plural form. ( Beauty of nature, which, living in the city, hard to imagine. beauty here they mean "beautiful places").
■ Collective nouns denote a set of homogeneous objects or persons as a whole. Here we mean the actual objects ( video equipment, weapon), faces ( underground, elite), animals ( animal, livestock). Collective nouns have forms of one number - usually singular. and rarely plural, are not able to combine with cardinal numbers, do not have the category of animation when designating a set of homogeneous living beings ( greet the generals). According to their structure, collective nouns are of two types: a) containing suffixes of a collective meaning: -V-, -j-, -n-, -stv-, -athnik, -uj- (foliage, crow, relatives, students, chicken coop, partocracy); b) not containing formal signs of collectiveness, expressing it only by lexical meaning ( furniture, limit, elite). Nouns are collective, denoting such collections of homogeneous objects that take place along with other similar collections, and therefore can be counted, i.e. have the forms of both numbers: people — peoples, herd — herds, detachment — squads.
. Real nouns denote a substance, a homogeneous mass ( milk, cement, perfume), which can be divided into parts, measured, but not counted. They are used in the form of only one number - singular. ( oil, sugar) or pl. ( shavings, sawdust); they cannot have a numeral. Some real nouns m.r. may have to indicate the measure and quantity in R.p. unit not only the main ending -A, -I, but also alternative -y, -yu: color cement A — ton of cement, cha weight I — a glass of tea Yu. If real nouns are used in a special sense, they can take plural forms: Distinguish by chemical composition carbon and alloyed become , by appointment — structural and instrumental become; The store sells a variety of mineral water.
NOUN. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Part-of-speech signs of nouns
A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflective category of gender.
The noun names objects in the broad sense of the word; these are the names of things table, wall, window, scissors, sled), persons ( child, girl, youth, woman, Human), substances ( groats, agony A, sugar, cream), living beings and organisms ( cat, dog, crow, woodpecker, snake, perch, pike; bacterium, virus, microbe), facts, events, phenomena ( fire, play, conversation, holidays, sadness, fear), as well as named as independent independent substances of non-procedural and procedural features - qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states ( kindness, stupidity, blue, run, solution, crush).
The meaning of objectivity is manifested in the fact that nouns either name objects, or denote signs and actions like objects. Whatever the noun names, it represents a certain substance as independent, as a bearer of attributes. Each noun can be questioned with pronouns. Who or What. A. M. Peshkovsky called such questions “measures of the noun”, that is, objectivity. "When we ask Who or What, we do not name any object (and we don’t know it, otherwise we wouldn’t ask), but only show with our question that what we ask about appears to us as an object, and not as a quality or action.
The meaning of an object can be in the root (house, bench, book, feather, dog, raven, coat, taxi etc.), but in general objectivity is associated with the grammatical structure of the word, which includes forms of inflection, word-forming suffixes (and other word-forming features), substitution of syntactic positions of the subject and complement, and syntactic links. Yes, the word tenderness lexical meaning denotes quality, but at the same time expresses objectivity, and this is explained by the fact that it is grammatically designed as a noun: formed with the help of a substantive suffix -awn, has a substantive gender, changes according to the substantive paradigm, in a sentence it can be a subject and an object and attach an agreed definition to itself (Your tenderness surprised me).
Morphological features of nouns are categories of gender, number and case. As for animation (inanimateness), it is the basis for highlighting a special lexical and grammatical category of nouns.
From the syntactic side, nouns are characterized by the fact that they can be any member of the sentence, except for a simple predicate (i.e., they cannot replace the position of the finite form of the verb), but they are specifically distinguished from other parts of speech by the fact that they express the grammatical subject and object. These two functions for a noun are primary. If it is known about some lexeme that it cannot be either a subject or an object, then we can assume that this lexeme does not apply to nouns (should not apply).
A striking syntactic sign of nouns is their agreement property. There are no nouns with which this or that adjective could not agree.
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
When describing nouns in grammars, it is customary to single out lexico-grammatical categories. This allocation is subject to the following conditions:
Each category combines words with certain semantics;
The words of each of the selected lexico-grammatical categories have common morphological, and in some cases, word-formation characteristics;
Lexico-grammatical categories are closely related to grammatical categories and interact with them;
The meanings on the basis of which words are combined into lexico-grammatical categories are not necessarily expressed by morphological means. In this, lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories, the meanings of which are regularly expressed by morphological means.
Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories:
own and common nouns;
concrete, abstract, collective and material;
animate and inanimate.
These categories intersect: for example, proper names include the names of both animate and inanimate objects; real nouns denoting a homogeneous mass of a substance can have a collective meaning ( cranberry, grape, sugar); concrete nouns combine in their composition all those words - animate and inanimate - that name counted objects.
On the basis of naming an object as an individual or as a representative of a whole class, all nouns are divided into own And common nouns. Proper nouns(or proper names) are words that name individual objects that are included in the class of homogeneous ones, but in themselves do not carry any special indication of this class. Common nouns(or common nouns) - these are words that name an object according to its belonging to a particular class; accordingly, they designate an object as a carrier of features characteristic of objects of a given class.
The boundary between proper names and common nouns is inconstant and mobile: common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames. Proper names are often used to generalize homogeneous objects and at the same time become common nouns: dzhimorda, Don Quixote, Don Juan; We all look at Napoleons(Pushkin); Your iconic and austere face hung in chapels in Ryazan(Yesenin.); Coming to the capital Humbly and smartly Young Yesenins In red cowboy shirts(Smelyakov).
Among proper names, there are: 1) proper names in the narrow sense of the word and 2) denominations.
Proper names in the narrow sense of the word are geographical and astronomical names and names of people and animals. This is a lexically limited and slowly replenished circle of words-names assigned or assigned to one subject. Repetitions here are possible as coincidences (for example, coinciding names of rivers, villages, towns); they are also high-frequency in the system of proper names of persons and animals.
Among the names of persons, as a rule, there are no words repeating common nouns. In cases like Idea, Era, Helium, Radium, Uranus, Steel(personal names given in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century) generalized subject meanings in proper names are weakened, and in old names of this type they are completely lost, for example: Faith, Hope, Love.
The composition of the names of persons includes patronymics (names after the name of the father) and surnames (inherited family names). The patronymic is always motivated by the personal name of the father: Vladimirovich, Alexeyevich, Vladimirovna, Alekseevna; Nikitich– Nikitichna; Ilyich– Ilyinichna. Russian surnames, as a rule, are formed from various nominal bases with the help of suffixes - ov (-yov) And - in (-un), less often sk(Ouch), -sk(uy), -ck(Ouch), -ck(uy): Korolev, Pushkin, Borodin, Kunitsyn, Lugovskoy, Mayakovsky, Trubetskoy. There are a number of surnames that formally coincide with adjectives in the forms im. n. husband or wives. R.: Good, Bridge– good, pavement, and also (in pronunciation, but not in stress) in the forms of the genus. p. units h. husband R.: Blagovo, Durnovo, Sukhovo, in Church Slavonic form Zhivago, dead, or genus. n. pl. hours: twisted, Polish, Chernykh.
The semantic originality of proper names determines their morphological features: these words are not used in plural forms. h. Forms pl. h. here are normal to refer to different persons and objects that have the same proper name: There are several Svetlanas in one class; There were six Valentines in the orphanage. Plural forms. h. surnames denote, firstly, persons who are among themselves in family, kinship relations: Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, spouses Dobrynina, merchants Morozov, dynasty of steelworkers Kuznetsov; secondly, persons with the same surname (namesake): Three hundred Ivanovs and two hundred Petrovs live in the city.; Both of them– my namesakes: Alexandrov Nikolai Grigorievich(gas.).
For proper names - denominations common nouns or combinations of words are used. At the same time, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function. These are the names newspaper « News", magazine « Health", factory « Hammer and sickle", factory « Bolshevik", perfume « Lilac". Names can also serve as proper names: hotel « Moscow», steamer « Ukraine".
The meanings of common nouns are preserved in the composition of the names of artistic and scientific works: " Dead Souls", « cliff», « Crime and Punishment", « Lady with a dog", « Cities and years», « Capital", « Dialectics of nature».
The orthographic sign of all proper names is their spelling with a capital (capital) letter. If a proper name - the name consists of several words, then only the first word is capitalized: " Captain's daughter", « Fathers and Sons", « Hammer and sickle"(factory name).
Common nouns are divided into four types: concrete, abstract (abstract), real and collective. This division is connected with the morphological category of number, since only specific nouns are consistently used in the forms of both numbers.
Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and all phenomena of reality that can be presented separately and counted: pencil, ring, engineer, duel, war. All concrete nouns, with the exception of nouns that do not have singular forms. h. (pluralia tantum), have the form of units. and many others. h. In terms of their meaning and morphological features, specific nouns are opposed not only to abstract nouns, but also to collective and material nouns.
abstract (abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laughter, good, captivity, kindness, closeness, dexterity, run, movement. Most of the abstract nouns are words formed from adjectives and verbs with the help of a zero suffix ( bitterness, sickness[simple], export, replacement), suf. - awn(spelling also - There is) (prettiness, freshness, cowardice), -stv(O) (nonentity, majority, championship, boasting), -tires(A)/ -rank(A) (piecework, German[obsolete]), - ism (realism, humanism), -And|j|- / -stve|j|- (spelling words in - ie, -action) (cordiality, calmness), -from(A) (acid, kindness, hoarseness), -out(A) (white, curvature), -in(A) (depth, gray hair), -neither|j|- / -eni|j|- / -ti|j|- (spelling words in - nie, -enenie, -tie) (punishment, patience, extraction, development), -To(A) (fuse, hunger strike, bombing), -aci|j|- / -enci|j|- / -iti|j|- / -qi|j|-/- And|j|- (spelling words in - ation, -ation, -tion, -ition, -tion, -and I) (stylization, compilation, transposition[specialist.], competition), -already (massage), -hedgehog (payment) and some other, less productive suffixes.
A minority of abstract nouns are unmotivated words: trouble, mind, temper, fear, flour, sadness, passion, grief, cosiness, sadness, essence.
Abstract nouns usually do not have plural forms. h. Forms pl. h. form only those words that can name not only abstract properties, qualities, states or actions, but also their individual manifestations: pain – pain, deception– deceptions, m at ka– m at ki, sadness– sadness, joy– joy, movement– movements.
TO collective include nouns that name a set of homogeneous objects and express this meaning with the help of suffixes such as - stv(O): students, youth; -|j|- (spelling words in - yo:): babieux, animal, fools; -n(I): sailor, kids; -And|j|- (spelling words in - and I): pioneer, aristocracy; -from(A): poor and etc.
With a broad understanding of collectiveness, words in which collectiveness is expressed not word-formatively, but lexically can also be attributed to nouns with a collective meaning as a lexico-grammatical category with a broad understanding of collectiveness: haulm, small fry, trash, furniture. All such words.
Note. Nouns used in singular forms. hours in a collective sense, are not collective, for example: corn (new harvest grain), feather (stuff pillows with feathers), enemy(enemy army).
A distinctive feature of all collective nouns is that they do not form plural forms. h.
Nouns real substances are called: foodstuffs ( fat, groats, flour, sugar), materials ( gypsum, cement), types of fabrics ( velvet, chintz), fossils, metals ( iron, coal, tin, steel, emerald, jasper), chemical elements, medicines ( Uranus, pyramidon, aspirin), agricultural crops ( oats, potato, wheat) and other homogeneous divisible masses. Unlike collective nouns, real nouns usually do not have suffixes to express real meaning. This value is expressed only lexically.
Real nouns are usually used or only in singular. hours, or only in many. hours: honey, tea, flour, tin; yeast, perfume, cream. Taking the form pl. h., a real noun, usually used in singular. hours, is separated from the form of units. h. lexically: groats(whole or crushed grain of some plants, eaten), but cereals(various types of cereals).
Husband Nouns r., naming substances, in the genus. p. units hours along with flexion - A(spelling also - I) have inflection - at(spelling also - Yu): a glass of tea And tea, sugar cube And sugar, chocolate bar And chocolate.
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. animated nouns are the names of people and animals: Human, son, teacher, student, cat, squirrel, a lion, starling, crow, perch, pike, insect. inanimate nouns are the names of all other objects and phenomena: table, book, window, wall, institute, nature, forest, steppe, depth, kindness, incident, movement, drive.
Note. The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not fully reflect the existing division in the world into living and inanimate. Animated nouns do not include, firstly, the names of trees and plants ( pine, oak, Linden, hawthorn, gooseberry, chamomile, bell), secondly, the names of aggregates of living beings ( people, army, battalion, crowd, herd, Roy).
Animate nouns are morphologically and word-formatively different from inanimate ones. Animate nouns - the names of female persons or animals - are often motivated by a word that names a person or animal without specifying its gender or (less often) names a male person or animal: teacher ← teacher, student ← student, student ← schoolgirl, Muscovite ← Muscovite, grandson ← granddaughter, pop ← priest, lion ← lioness, elephant ← female elephant, cat ← cat, goose ← goose.
Animated nouns, as a rule, have the morphological meaning male. or wives. R. and only a few - the meaning of environments. r., while the belonging of a noun to one or another gender (except for median r.) is defined semantically: nouns husband. R. call a person or animal male, and nouns women. R. - female. Animated nouns. R. called living beings regardless of gender. This or the name of a non-adult creature ( child), or generic type names face, creature, animal, insect, mammal, herbivore. Inanimate nouns are divided into three morphological genders - masculine, feminine and neuter.
Paradigms of animate and inanimate nouns in the plural. hours consistently differ: animate nouns in plural. hours have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form of the genus. P.: no siblings, no animals - saw brothers and sisters, saw animals. Inanimate nouns in plural hours have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form of them. P.: peaches, pears and apples are on the table - I bought peaches, pears and apples. The forms of agreed definitions repeat this distinction: no siblings, there are no animals, I saw my brothers and sisters, saw interesting animals And ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples lie on the table, bought ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples.
In the paradigm h. animation and inanimateness are expressed in the words husband. R. 2 cl., but not at the words of women. and avg. R.: in units. hours for animate nouns husband. R. match the forms of the genus. and wine. P. ( no brother, see brother), and in inanimate - forms to them. and wine. P. ( need a pencil, bought a pencil). Thus, the forms of wines. p. in units h. at the words husband. R. consistently differ depending on whether the word names an animate or inanimate object. Women's words R. in units h. the formulated rule for expressing animateness / inanimateness is not followed: no brother And see brother, But no sister, I see my sister; need a pencil And bought a pencil, But need a pen, bought a pen. Wednesday words. r., like the words of women. r., in units hours do not have a formal distinction between animateness/inanimateness. All nouns. R. (both animate and inanimate) are formally characterized in the same way as inanimate nouns husband. r., - forms to them. and wine. n. they have the same: an unknown animal appeared, saw an unknown animal.
The words have a husband. R. with flexion - A in them. etc., as well as for words of the general gender, in those cases when they name a male person, animation is expressed syntactically - in the form of genus-wine. n. of an adjective consistent with a noun, and is not expressed by the case forms of the nouns themselves: borrowed a book from a young friend; moved away from the obnoxious crybaby And met a young man, remembered the unbearable crybaby.
The only deviation from the consistent expression of animation in the plural. h. is a form of wines. p., equal to them. (and not genus) n. in words - names of persons as part of phraseologized constructions such as go to soldiers , take (whom-n.) V couriers , go to nannies .
The belonging of words to the category of animate or inanimate reveals itself morphologically in a system of names, which in their lexical meanings combine the concepts of living and inanimate. These are the following cases.
1) Nouns that name such objects that or do not correspond to the ordinary idea of \u200b\u200ba living thing (names of microorganisms: virus, microbes, bacterium) or, conversely, are associatively identified with living objects ( dead man, Deceased, doll), are used in the following way: the former tend to be used as inanimate ( observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes And observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes ; the latter is preferable), the latter are used as animated (... our nets dragged dead man . Pushkin).
2) Inanimate nouns applied to specific persons or to living beings acquire morphological signs of animation. These are derogatory names like bag, oak, stump, cap, mattress usually with a defining pronominal adjective: our bag deceived, in this oak (stump) don't push anything, I saw this old cap , this mattress .
3) Words idol And idol in meaning (the one who is worshiped, who is adored) (when they are related to a certain person) act as animated: look with admiration at idol , adore your idol ; thirteen years old, Imagine, fell in love with her current husband... Until the age of twenty-three I waited, father angered, and went-still for his idol (Turgenev); look at idols movie(gas.). Word idol in meaning (what is worshiped, imitated; ideal) appears now as animate, then as inanimate: Do idol from this old, useless person(L. Tolstoy); don't do idol from spelling(gas.); But: How Desdemona chooses Idol for your heart(Pushkin); All in the past, she gradually created idol in the virtue of a real man(A. Rybakov). Use of the word idol in this meaning as inanimate prevails. Noun idol in meaning (statue, statue, which is worshiped as a deity) in rare cases is used as animated: On the banks of the Danube, the Russians set up a wooden idol Perun(A. N. Tolstoy); Mityai looked sternly at the gray, carved with a pagan chisel idols (S. Borodin).
Words blockhead, idol, idol, used abusively in relation to a person, have morphological signs of animation: I don't want to see this blockhead ; And in whom idol ugly! (Sholokhov).
4) Words spirit(an incorporeal supernatural being), genius, type when applied to a person, they act as animated: summon the spirit, know a genius, meet a strange type; I give him German as an example geniuses (Pushkin); It's not the time to call out shadows (Tyutchev) (word shadow used in the meaning (spirit, ghost)).
5) Words used in some games, in particular, in cards and chess; lady, jack, king, horse, elephant are declined like animate nouns: open jack, king; take the elephant, horse. Modeled on the declension of such names as jack And king, change ace And trump: discard an ace; open the trump card; We went to Silvio and found him in the yard, putting a bullet on a bullet in ace , glued to the gate(Pushkin).
Note. In games, it is generally possible to represent inanimate objects as animate. So, in billiards, expressions are known play ball A, make a ball A: " Such ball missed", – said the student with a sneer. Like all players, he declined the ball in the genitive case, like a living being, for no billiard player can bring himself to see an inanimate object in the ball, – so many purely feminine whims in it, sudden stubbornness and inexplicable obedience(L. Slavin).
The fact that animate nouns have their own paradigm, which distinguishes them from inanimate nouns, is the basis for many researchers to single out a special morphological category of animation/inanimateness in the Russian language. However, the consideration of animate and inanimate nouns as lexico-grammatical categories (i.e., as classes of words within a noun as a part of speech) is supported by the fact that these nouns are absolutely consistently contrasted on the basis of only lexico-semantic features. The opposition of animateness/inanimateness does not have a regular grammatical expression obligatory for the morphological category: consistently this opposition is reflected in the plural case forms. h. and inconsistently - in case forms singular. hours In units h. the opposition of words on the basis of animation / inanimateness takes place only in the words husband. R.; at the words of women. and avg. R. such opposition is not formally expressed.
Parts of speech in Russian
Parts of speech- these are groups of words united on the basis of the commonality of their features.
The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups of words.
So, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections And non-interjective words. Interjections are unchangeable words denoting emotions ( oh, alas, damn it), will ( stop, that's it) or being formulas of verbal communication ( thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections lies in the fact that they do not enter into any syntactic relations with other words in the sentence, they are always separated intonation and punctuation.
Non-interjective words can be divided into independent And official. The difference between them lies in the fact that independent words can appear in speech without auxiliary ones, and auxiliary words cannot form a sentence without independent ones. Functional words are immutable and serve to convey formal semantic relations between independent words. Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( to, after, during), unions ( and, as if, despite the fact that), particles ( exactly, only, not at all).
Independent words can be divided into significant And pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf .: table - he, convenient - such, easy - so, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - the pronoun.
Significant words are divided into parts of speech, taking into account the following features:
1) generalized value,
2) morphological features,
3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic links).
There are at least five significant parts of speech: a noun, an adjective, a numeral (a group of names), an adverb and a verb.
Thus, parts of speech are lexical and grammatical classes of words, i.e., classes of words distinguished taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.
This can be represented in the form of the following table:
In complex 3, 10 parts of speech are distinguished, combined into three groups:
1. Independent parts of speech:
Noun,
Adjective,
numeral,
Pronoun,
Adverb.
2. Service parts of speech:
Pretext,
Particle.
3. Interjection.
Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, performs the syntactic function of a subject or object in a sentence.
However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, an adjective, a verb are determined for the most part by their morphological features (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specifically stipulated that this is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech, distinguished on the basis of meaning, are the pronoun and the numeral.
The pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that "do not name an object or feature, but point to it." Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns ( who am I), adjectives ( this one which), numerals ( how many, several).
The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to the number: they indicate the number of objects or their order in counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words of the type three And third different.
Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to single out a larger number of parts of speech. So, participle and gerund in them are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes, the words of the state are highlighted ( can't, must); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In complex 3, the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the section "Adverb". On the other hand, it is said about the words of state that they “are similar in form to adverbs”, from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2, the pronoun is expanded by including non-significant words in it, grammatically correlated with adverbs ( there, why, never and etc.).
The question of parts of speech in linguistics is debatable. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. So, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications using several bases. School classification is of this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works is different and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.
In the Russian language there are words that do not fall into any of the parts of speech allocated by the school grammar. These are sentence words. Yes And No, introductory words not used in other syntactic functions ( so total) and some other words.
Noun
A noun is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that
1) have a generalized meaning of objectivity and answer questions Who? or What?;
2) are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a permanent gender and non-permanent (for most nouns) signs of number and case;
3) in the proposal most often act as subjects or additions, but can be any other members of the proposal.
A noun is a part of speech, in the selection of which the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is the only part of speech that can mean anything: subject ( table), face ( boy), animal ( cow), sign ( depth), an abstract concept ( conscience), action ( singing), ratio ( equality). These words are united in terms of meaning by the fact that you can ask a question to them. Who? or What?; this, in fact, is their objectivity.
Noun ranks by value
Within the words of different parts of speech, it is customary to distinguish digits by value- groups of words united by their lexical meaning, which affects their morphological features. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the basis of this word.
Nouns have two groups of digits according to their meaning:
1) property / common noun;
2) concreteness / abstractness / materiality / collectiveness.
common nouns nouns designate objects without distinguishing them from the class of the same type ( city, river, girl, newspaper).
Own nouns denote objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them ( Moscow, Volga, Masha,« News"). Proper names must be distinguished from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects (" Evening Moscow"). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name ( Moscow State University).
Specific nouns name sensually perceived objects - things ( table), faces ( Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.
abstract nouns denote abstract concepts ( joy), features ( white), actions ( drawing).
Real nouns denote substances ( milk, cream, sand).
Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects ( foliage) or persons ( kids).
The meaning of the morphological selection of precisely these groups of nouns by meaning is that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological sign of the number of this noun. So, common nouns have the form of both numbers ( home - at home). The words of the other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only the only one), for example.
