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Realism and its features in literature. Realism in literature

Realism and its features in literature. Realism in literature

14.04.2019

What is realism in literature? It is one of the most common areas, reflecting a realistic image of reality. The main task of this direction is reliable disclosure of phenomena encountered in life, with the help of a detailed description of the depicted characters and the situations that happen to them, through typing. Important is the lack of embellishment.

In contact with

Among other directions, only in the realistic one, special attention is paid to the correct artistic depiction of life, and not to the emerging reaction to certain life events, for example, as in romanticism and classicism. The heroes of realist writers appear before readers exactly as they were presented to the author's gaze, and not as the writer would like to see them.

Realism, as one of the most widespread trends in literature, settled closer to the middle of the 19th century after its predecessor, romanticism. The 19th century was subsequently designated as the era of realistic works, but romanticism did not cease to exist, it only slowed down in development, gradually turning into neo-romanticism.

Important! The definition of this term was first introduced into literary criticism by D.I. Pisarev.

The main features of this direction are as follows:

Full compliance with reality depicted in any work of the picture.
True specific typing of all the details in the images of the characters.
The basis is the conflict situation between the individual and society.
Image in the work deep conflict situations the drama of life.
The author pays special attention to the description of all environmental phenomena.
A significant feature of this literary trend is the writer's considerable attention to the inner world of a person, his state of mind.

Main genres

In any of the areas of literature, including the realistic, a certain system of genres is being formed. It was the prose genres of realism that had a special influence on its development, due to the fact that they were more suitable than others for a more correct artistic description of new realities, their reflection in literature. The works of this direction are divided into the following genres.

A social and everyday novel that describes the way of life and a certain type of characters inherent in this way of life. A good example of a social genre was Anna Karenina.
A socio-psychological novel, in the description of which one can see a complete detailed disclosure of the human personality, his personality and inner world.
The realistic novel in verse is a special kind of novel. A wonderful example of this genre is "", written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A realistic philosophical novel contains age-old reflections on topics such as: the meaning of human existence, the opposition of good and evil sides, a certain purpose of human life. An example of a realistic philosophical novel is "", the author of which is Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov.
Story.
Tale.

In Russia, its development began in the 1830s and became a consequence of the conflict situation in various spheres of society, the contradictions between the highest ranks and the common people. Writers began to address the topical issues of their time.

Thus begins the rapid development of a new genre - a realistic novel, which, as a rule, described the hard life of the common people, their hardships and problems.

The initial stage in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature is the "natural school". During the period of the “natural school”, literary works were more inclined to describe the position of the hero in society, his belonging to any kind of profession. Among all genres, the leading place was occupied by physiological outline.

In the 1850s-1900s, realism began to be called critical, since the main goal was to criticize what was happening, the relationship between a certain person and spheres of society. Such questions were considered as: the measure of society's influence on the life of an individual; actions that can change a person and the world around him; reason for the lack of happiness in human life.

This literary trend has become extremely popular in Russian literature, as Russian writers were able to make the world genre system richer. There were works from in-depth questions of philosophy and morality.

I.S. Turgenev created an ideological type of heroes, the character, personality and internal state of which directly depended on the author's assessment of the worldview, finding a certain meaning in the concepts of their philosophy. Such heroes are subject to ideas that are followed to the very end, developing them as much as possible.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy, the system of ideas that develops during the life of a character determines the form of his interaction with the surrounding reality, depends on the morality and personal characteristics of the heroes of the work.

Founder of realism

The title of the initiator of this direction in Russian literature was rightfully awarded to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. He is a generally recognized founder of realism in Russia. "Boris Godunov" and "Eugene Onegin" are considered a vivid example of realism in the domestic literature of those times. Also distinguishing examples were such works by Alexander Sergeevich as Belkin's Tales and The Captain's Daughter.

Classical realism gradually begins to develop in Pushkin's creative works. The depiction of the personality of each character of the writer is comprehensive in an effort to describe the complexity of his inner world and state of mind which unfold very harmoniously. Recreating the experiences of a certain personality, its moral character helps Pushkin to overcome the willfulness of describing passions inherent in irrationalism.

Heroes A.S. Pushkin appear before readers with the open sides of their being. The writer pays special attention to the description of the sides of the human inner world, depicts the hero in the process of development and formation of his personality, which are influenced by the reality of society and the environment. This was served by his awareness of the need to depict a specific historical and national identity in the features of the people.

Attention! Reality in the image of Pushkin collects in itself an accurate concrete image of the details of not only the inner world of a certain character, but also the world that surrounds him, including his detailed generalization.

Neorealism in literature

New philosophical, aesthetic and everyday realities at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries contributed to a change in direction. Implemented twice, this modification acquired the name neorealism, which gained popularity during the 20th century.

Neorealism in literature consists of a variety of currents, since its representatives had a different artistic approach to depicting reality, which includes the characteristic features of a realistic direction. It is based on appeal to the traditions of classical realism XIX century, as well as to problems in the social, moral, philosophical and aesthetic spheres of reality. A good example containing all these features is the work of G.N. Vladimov "The General and his army", written in 1994.

Realism in literature is a direction, the main feature of which is a truthful depiction of reality and its typical features without any distortion or exaggeration. This originated in the 19th century, and its adherents sharply opposed the sophisticated forms of poetry and the use of various mystical concepts in the works.

signs directions

Realism in the literature of the 19th century can be distinguished by clear signs. The main one is the artistic depiction of reality in images familiar to the layman, which he regularly encounters in real life. Reality in the works is considered as a means of human cognition of the surrounding world and oneself, and the image of each literary character is worked out in such a way that the reader can recognize himself, a relative, a colleague or an acquaintance in it.

In the novels and short stories of realists, art remains life-affirming, even if the plot is characterized by a tragic conflict. Another sign of this genre is the desire of writers to consider the surrounding reality in its development, and each writer tries to detect the emergence of new psychological, social and social relations.

Features of this literary trend

Realism in literature, which replaced romanticism, has the characteristics of art that seeks and finds truth, seeking to transform reality.

In the works of realist writers, discoveries were made after much thought and dreams, after an analysis of subjective attitudes. This feature, which can be identified by the author's perception of time, determined the distinguishing features of the realistic literature of the early twentieth century from the traditional Russian classics.

Realism inXIX century

Such representatives of realism in literature as Balzac and Stendhal, Thackeray and Dickens, Jord Sand and Victor Hugo, in their works most clearly reveal the themes of good and evil, and avoid abstract concepts and show the real life of their contemporaries. These writers make it clear to readers that evil lies in the way of life of bourgeois society, capitalist reality, people's dependence on various material values. For example, in Dickens' novel Dombey and Son, the owner of the company was callous and callous, not by nature. It’s just that such character traits appeared in him due to the presence of big money and the ambition of the owner, for whom profit becomes the main life achievement.

Realism in literature is devoid of humor and sarcasm, and the images of the characters are no longer the ideal of the writer himself and do not embody his cherished dreams. From the works of the 19th century, the hero practically disappears, in the image of which the author's ideas are visible. This situation is especially clearly seen in the works of Gogol and Chekhov.

However, this literary trend is most clearly manifested in the works of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, who describe the world as they see it. This was also expressed in the image of characters with their own strengths and weaknesses, the description of mental anguish, a reminder to readers of the harsh reality that cannot be changed by one person.

As a rule, realism in literature also affected the fate of representatives of the Russian nobility, as can be seen from the works of I. A. Goncharov. So, the characters of the characters in his works remain contradictory. Oblomov is a sincere and gentle person, but because of his passivity, he is not capable of better. Another character in Russian literature possesses similar qualities - the weak-willed but gifted Boris Raysky. Goncharov managed to create the image of an "antihero" typical of the 19th century, which was noticed by critics. As a result, the concept of "Oblomovism" appeared, referring to all passive characters, the main features of which were laziness and lack of will.

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Introduction

1. Realism as an artistic movement of the 19th century

1.1 Prerequisites for the emergence of realism in art

1.2 Characteristic features, signs and principles of realism

1.3 Stages of development of realism in world art

2. The formation of realism in Russian art of the nineteenth century

2.1 Prerequisites and features of the formation of realism in Russian art

Applications

Introduction

Realism is a concept that characterizes the cognitive function of art: the truth of life, embodied by the specific means of art, the measure of its penetration into reality, the depth and completeness of its artistic knowledge. Thus, broadly understood realism is the main trend in the historical development of art, inherent in its various types, styles, eras.

A historically specific form of the artistic consciousness of the new time, which originates either from the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century ("proper realism").

Among the largest representatives of realism in various forms of art of the 19th century are Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, G. Flaubert, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, M. Twain, A.P. Chekhov, T. Mann, W. Faulkner, H. Daumier, G. Courbet, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, M.P. Mussorgsky, M.S. Shchepkin.

Realism arose in France and England in the conditions of the triumph of the bourgeois order. The social antagonisms and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. They denounced money-grubbing, flagrant social inequality, selfishness, hypocrisy. In its ideological focus, it becomes critical realism.

The relevance of this topic in our time lies in the fact that until now, as well as about art in general, there is no universal definition of realism that is well-established in all. Until now, its boundaries have not been defined - where is realism, and where is not. even within the narrower framework of realism in its various styles, although it has some common characteristics, signs and principles. Realism in the art of the 19th century is a productive creative method, which is the basis of the artistic world of literary works, knowledge of the social ties of man and society, a truthful, historically specific depiction of characters and circumstances that reflected the reality of this time.

The purpose of the course work is to review and study realism in the art of the XIX century.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Consider realism as an artistic direction of the 19th century;

2. Describe the prerequisites and features of the formation of realism in Russian art of the nineteenth century

3. Consider realism in all areas of Russian art.

In the first part of this course work, realism is considered as an artistic direction of the 19th century, its prerequisites for its emergence in art, characteristic features and signs, as well as stages of development in world art.
In the second part of the work, the formation of realism in Russian art of the 19th century is considered, the prerequisites and features of the formation of realism in Russian art, namely in music, literature, and painting, are characterized.
When writing this term paper, the greatest help was provided by the literature Petrov S. M. "Realism", S. Wyman "Marxist aesthetics and problems of realism."
Book by S.M. Petrov "Realism", turned out to be very meaningful and valuable with specific observations and conclusions about the features of artistic creativity of different eras and directions, a general approach was formulated To studying the problem of the artistic method.
S. Wyman's book "Marxist Aesthetics and Problems of Realism". At the center of this book is the problem of the typical and its treatment in the works of Marx and Engels.
1. Realismas an artistic movement of the 19th centuryeka

1.1 Prerequisites for the emergencerealismbut in art

Modern natural science, which alone has reached a significant, systematic and scientific development, like the whole of recent history, dates from that remarkable epoch, which the Germans called the Reformation, the French the Renaissance, and the Italians the Quinquecento.

This poha begins in the second half of the 15th century. It flourishes in the field of art at this time - one of the sides of the greatest progressive upheaval, characterized by the breaking of feudal foundations and the development of new economic relations. The royal power, relying on the townspeople, broke my feudal nobility and founded essentially large national monarchies in which modern European sciences developed. These shifts, which took place in an atmosphere of powerful popular upsurge, are closely connected with the struggle for secular culture independent of religion. In the XV-XVI centuries, advanced realistic art was created

In the 40s of the XIX century. realism becomes an influential trend in art. Its basis was a direct, lively and unbiased perception and a true reflection of reality. Like romanticism, realism criticized reality, but at the same time it proceeded from reality itself, and in it tried to identify ways of approaching the ideal. Unlike the romantic hero, the hero of critical realism may be an aristocrat, a convict, a banker, a landowner, a petty official, but he is always a typical hero in typical circumstances.

The realism of the 19th century, in contrast to the era of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, according to the definition of A.M. Gorky, is, above all, critical realism. Its main theme is the exposure of the bourgeois system and its morality, the vices of the contemporary writer's society. Ch. Dickens, W. Thackeray, F. Stendhal, O. Balzac revealed the social significance of evil, seeing the reason in the material dependence of man on man.

In the disputes between classicists and romantics in the visual arts, the basis for a new perception - realistic, was gradually laid.

Realism, as a visually reliable perception of reality, assimilation of nature, was approaching naturalism. However, already E. Delacroix noted that "realism must not be confused with the apparent likeness of reality." The significance of the artistic image did not depend on the naturalism of the image, but on the level of generalization and typification.

The term "realism", introduced by the French literary critic J. Chanfleury in the middle of the 19th century, was used to designate art opposed to romanticism and academic idealism. Initially, realism approached naturalism and the "natural school" in art and literature in the 1960s and 1980s.

However, later realism is self-determined as a trend that does not coincide with naturalism in everything. In Russian aesthetic thought, realism means not so much an exact reproduction of life as a "truthful" reflection with the pronouncement of a "sentence on the phenomena of life."

Realism expands the social space of artistic vision, forces the "universal art" of classicism to speak the national language, and renounces retrospectivism more resolutely than romanticism. A realistic worldview is the reverse side of idealism [9, p.4-6].

In the XV-XVI centuries advanced realistic art was created. In the era of the Middle Ages, artists, submitting to the influence of the church, moved away from the real image of the world inherent in the artists of antiquity (Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius and Palephilus). Art moved towards the abstract and mystical, the real image of the world, the desire for knowledge, was considered a sinful act. Real images seemed too material, sensual, and, consequently, dangerous in the sense of temptation. Artistic culture was falling, fine writing was falling. Hippolyte Ten wrote: "Looking at church glass and statues, at primitive painting, it seems to me that the human race has degenerated, consumptive saints, ugly martyrs, flat-chested virgins, a procession of colorless, dry, sad personalities, reflecting the fear of oppression."

The art of the Renaissance puts a new progressive content into traditional religious subjects. In their works, artists glorify a person, show him beautiful and harmoniously developed, convey the beauty of the world around him. But what is especially characteristic of the artists of that time is that they all live by the interests of their time, hence the fullness and strength of character, the realism of their paintings. The widest social upsurge determined the true nationality of the best works of the Renaissance. The Renaissance is the time of the greatest cultural and artistic upsurge, which marked the beginning of the development of realistic art in subsequent eras. A new worldview was taking shape, free from the spiritual oppression of the church. It is based on faith in the strength and capabilities of man, an avid interest in earthly life. A huge interest in man, recognition of the values and beauty of the real world determine the activities of artists, the development of a new realistic method in art based on scientific research in the field of anatomy, linear and aerial perspective, chiaroscuro and proportions. These artists created deeply realistic art.

1.2 Characteristic features, signs and principlesrealismA

Realism has the following distinctive features:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.

3. Cognition of reality comes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical setting"). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the veracity of details in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.

4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, faith in the knowability and adequate reflection of the surrounding world, unlike, for example, romanticism.

5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

In the course of the development of art, realism acquires concrete historical forms and creative methods (for example, enlightenment realism, critical realism, socialist realism). These methods, interconnected by continuity, have their own characteristic features. Manifestations of realistic tendencies are also different in different types and genres of art.

In aesthetics, there is no definitively established definition of both the chronological boundaries of realism and the scope and content of this concept. In the variety of developed points of view, two main concepts can be outlined:

· According to one of them, realism is one of the main features of artistic knowledge, the main trend of the progressive development of the artistic culture of mankind, which reveals the deep essence of art as a way of spiritual and practical development of reality. The measure of penetration into life, artistic knowledge of its important aspects and qualities, and primarily social reality, also determines the measure of the realism of this or that artistic phenomenon. In each new historical period, realism acquires a new look, either revealing itself in a more or less clearly expressed trend, or crystallizing into a complete method that determines the characteristics of the artistic culture of its time.

· Representatives of a different point of view on realism limit its history to certain chronological frames, seeing in it a historically and typologically specific form of artistic consciousness. In this case, the beginning of realism refers either to the Renaissance, or to the 18th century, to the Enlightenment. The most complete disclosure of the features of realism is seen in the critical realism of the 19th century, its next stage is in the 20th century. socialist realism, which interprets life phenomena from the standpoint of the Marxist-Leninist worldview. A characteristic feature of realism in this case is the method of generalization, typification of life material, formulated by F. Engels in relation to a realistic novel: " … typical characters in typical circumstances...

Realism in this sense explores the personality of a person in indissoluble unity with the contemporary social environment and social relations. This interpretation of the concept of realism was developed mainly on the material of the history of literature, while the first - mainly on the material of the plastic arts.

Whatever point of view one holds, and no matter how one connects them with each other, there is no doubt that realistic art has an extraordinary variety of ways of cognizing, generalizing, artistic interpretation of reality, manifested in the nature of stylistic forms and techniques. Realism by Masaccio and Piero del Francesc, A. Dürer and Rembrandt, J.L. David and O. Daumier, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov and V.A. Serov, etc. differ significantly from each other and testify to the widest creative possibilities for the objective development of the historically changing world by means of art.

At the same time, any realistic method is characterized by a consistent focus on cognition and disclosure of the contradictions of reality, which, within the given, historically determined limits, turns out to be accessible to truthful disclosure. Realism is characterized by the belief in the cognizability of beings, features of the objective real world by means of art. realism art knowledge

The forms and methods of reflecting reality in realistic art are different in different types and genres. Deep penetration into the essence of life phenomena, which is inherent in realistic tendencies and constitutes the defining feature of any realistic method, is expressed in different ways in a novel, a lyric poem, in a historical picture, landscape, etc. Not every outwardly reliable depiction of reality is realistic. The empirical authenticity of the artistic image acquires meaning only in unity with a true reflection of the existing aspects of the real world. This is the difference between realism and naturalism, which creates only the visible, external, and not the true essential truthfulness of images. At the same time, in order to reveal certain facets of the deep content of life, sometimes sharp hyperbolization, sharpening, grotesque exaggeration of the "forms of life itself", and sometimes a conditionally metaphorical form of artistic thinking are required.

The most important feature of realism is psychologism, immersion through social analysis into the inner world of a person. An example here is the "career" of Julien Sorel from Stendhal's Red and Black, who experienced a tragic conflict of ambition and honor; psychological drama by Anna Karenina from the novel of the same name by L.N. Tolstoy, which was torn between the feeling and morality of a class society. The human character is revealed by representatives of critical realism in organic connection with the environment, with social circumstances and life conflicts. The main genre of realistic literature of the XIX century. accordingly becomes a socio-psychological novel. It most fully meets the task of objective artistic reproduction of reality.

Consider the general signs of realism:

1. Artistic depiction of life in images, corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Reality is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.

3. Typification of images, which is achieved through the veracity of details in specific conditions.

4. Even in a tragic conflict, art is life-affirming.

5. Realism is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and social relations.

The leading principles of realism in the art of the 19th century:

· an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height and truth of the author's ideal;

Reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual features);

· preference in ways of depicting "forms of life itself", but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, of conditional forms (myth, symbol, parable, grotesque);

· the prevailing interest in the problem of "personality and society" (especially in the inescapable confrontation between social laws and the moral ideal, personal and mass, mythologized consciousness) [4, p.20].

1.3 Stages of development of realism in world art

There are several stages in the realistic art of the 19th century.

1) Realism in the literature of pre-capitalist society.

Early creativity, both pre-class and early class (slave-owning, early feudal), is characterized by spontaneous realism, which reaches its highest expression in the era of the formation of a class society on the ruins of the tribal system (Homer, Icelandic sagas). In the future, however, spontaneous realism is constantly weakened, on the one hand, by the mythological systems of organized religion, and on the other hand, by artistic techniques that have developed into a rigid formal tradition. A good example of such a process is the feudal literature of the Western European Middle Ages, going from the mostly realistic style of the Song of Roland to the conditionally fantastic and allegorical novel of the 13th-15th centuries. and from the lyrics of the early troubadours [beg. XII century] through the conditional courtesy of the developed troubadour style to the theological abstractness of Dante's predecessors. The urban (burgher) literature of the feudal era does not escape this law, too, going from the relative realism of the early fablios and tales of the Fox to the bare formalism of the Meistersingers and their French contemporaries. The approach of literary theory to realism goes hand in hand with the development of the scientific worldview. The developed slave-owning society of Greece, which laid the foundations of human science, was the first to put forward the idea of fiction as an activity that reflects reality.

The great ideological revolution of the Renaissance brought with it an unprecedented flourishing of realism. But realism is only one of the elements found expression in this great creative effervescence. The pathos of the Renaissance is not so much in the knowledge of man in existing social conditions, but in identifying the possibilities of human nature, in establishing, so to speak, its "ceiling". But the realism of the Renaissance remains spontaneous. Creating images that expressed the era in its revolutionary essence with brilliant depth, images in which (especially in Don Quixote) the emerging contradictions of bourgeois society are deployed with the utmost generalizing power, which were destined to deepen more and more in the future, the artists of the Renaissance were not aware of the historical the nature of these images. For them, these were images of eternal human, not historical destinies. On the other hand, they are free from the specific limitations of bourgeois realism. He is not divorced from heroics and poetry. This makes them especially close to our era, which creates the art of realistic heroics.

2) Bourgeois realism in the West.

The realistic style develops in the 18th century. above all in the sphere of the novel, which was destined to remain the leading genre of bourgeois realism. Between 1720 and 1760 the bourgeois realist novel flourished for the first time (Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett in England; Abbé Prevost and Marivaux in France). The novel becomes a narrative about a specifically outlined modern life familiar to the reader, saturated with everyday details, with characters who are types of modern society.

The fundamental difference between this early bourgeois realism and the "lower genres" of classicism (including the picaresque novel) is that the bourgeois realist is freed from the obligatory conditional comic (or "picaresque") approach to the average person, who becomes in his hands an equal person capable of the highest passions, which classicism (and to a large extent, the Renaissance) considered only kings and nobles capable of. The main setting of early bourgeois realism is sympathy for the average, everyday-specific person of bourgeois society in general, his idealization and approval of him as a replacement for aristocratic heroes.

Bourgeois realism rises to a new level with the growth of bourgeois historicism: the birth of this new, historical realism coincides chronologically with the activities of Hegel and the French historians of the Restoration era. Its foundations were laid by Walter Scott, whose historical novels played an enormous role both in shaping the realistic style in bourgeois literature and in shaping the historical outlook in bourgeois science. The historians of the Restoration era, who first created the concept of history as a class struggle, were strongly influenced by W. Scott. Scott had his predecessors; of these, Maria Edgeworth is of particular importance. , whose story "Castle Rakrent" can be considered the true source of realism in the 19th century. To characterize bourgeois realism and historicism, the material to which bourgeois realism was able to approach historically for the first time is highly indicative. Scott's novel is also an important stage in the development of realism because it destroys the class hierarchy of images: he was the first to create a huge gallery of types from the people who are aesthetically equal in rights with heroes from the upper classes, are not limited to comic, rogue and lackey functions, but are carriers of all human passions and objects of intense sympathy.

Bourgeois realism in the West was raised to a higher level in the second quarter of the 19th century. balzac , in his first mature work ("Chuans"), who is still a direct student of Walter Scott. Balzac, as a realist, draws attention to modernity, interpreting it as a historical epoch in its historical originality. The exceptionally high appraisal that Marx and Engels gave to Balzac as an art historian of their time is well known. Everything they wrote about realism had in mind, first of all, Balzac. Images such as Rastignac, Baron Nusengen, Cesar Biroto and countless others are the most complete examples of what we call "the portrayal of typical characters in typical circumstances."

Balzac is the highest point of bourgeois realism in Western European literature, but realism becomes the dominant style of bourgeois literature only in the second half of the 19th century. In his time, Balzac was the only fully consistent realist. Neither Dickens, nor Stendhal, nor the Bronte sisters can be recognized as such. Ordinary literature of the 30-40s, as well as later decades, was eclectic, combining the everyday individualizing manner of the 18th century. with a number of purely conditional moments that reflected the philistine "idealism" of the bourgeoisie. Realism as a broad current emerged in the second half of the 19th century in the struggle against them. Abandoning apologetics and varnishing, realism becomes critical , rejecting and condemning the reality depicted by him. However, this criticism of bourgeois reality remains within the limits of the bourgeois worldview, remains self-criticism. . The common features of the new realism are pessimism (rejection of the "happy ending"), the weakening of the plot core as "artificial" and imposed on reality, the rejection of an evaluative attitude towards the heroes, the rejection of the hero (in the proper sense of the word) and the "villain", and finally passivism , considering people not as responsible builders of life, but as "the result of circumstances." The new realism opposes the vulgar literature of bourgeois self-satisfaction as the literature of bourgeois disillusionment with itself. But at the same time, he opposes the healthy and strong literature of the rising bourgeoisie as decadent literature, the literature of a class that has ceased to be progressive.

New realism is divided into two main currents - reformist and aesthetic. The source of the first is Zola, the second - Floberealism Reformist realism is one of the consequences of the influence that the struggle of the working class for its liberation had on literature. Reformist realism tries to convince the ruling class of the need to make concessions to the working people in order to preserve the bourgeois order. Stubbornly pursuing the idea of the possibility of resolving the contradictions of bourgeois society on its own soil, reformist realism provided bourgeois agents in the working class with an ideological weapon. With a sometimes very vivid description of the ugliness of capitalism, this realism is characterized by "sympathy" for the working people, which, as reformist realism develops, is mixed with fear and contempt - contempt for creatures that have failed to win a place for themselves at the bourgeois feast, and fear of the masses, who are winning a place for themselves completely. in other ways. The path of development of reformist realism - from Zola to Wells and Galsworthy - is the path of ever greater impotence to understand reality as a whole, and especially of ever greater mendacity. In the era of the general crisis of capitalism (the war of 1914-1918), reformist realism was destined to finally degenerate and lied about.

Aesthetic realism is a kind of decadent rebirth of romanticism. Like romanticism, it reflects the typically bourgeois discord between reality and the "ideal", but unlike romanticism, it does not believe in the existence of any kind of ideal. The only way left for him is to force art to transform the ugliness of reality into beauty, to overcome the ugly content with a beautiful form. Aesthetic realism can be very vigilant, since it is based on the need to transform precisely the given reality and thus, so to speak, take revenge on it. The prototype of the whole trend, the novel "Madame Bovary" by Flaubert is undoubtedly a genuine and deep realistic generalization of the very essential aspects of bourgeois reality. But the logic of the development of aesthetic realism leads it to convergence with decadence and to a formalistic rebirth. Extremely characteristic is Huysmans' path from aesthetically conditioned realistic novels to the "created legends" of such novels as "Inside Out" and "Down There". In the future, aesthetic realism rests on pornography, on purely psychological idealism, which retains only the external forms of a realistic manner (Proust), and on formalist cubism, where realistic material is entirely subordinated to purely formal constructions (Joyce).

3) Bourgeois-noble realism in Russia

Bourgeois realism received a peculiar development in Russia. The characteristic features of Russian bourgeois-gentry realism compared to Balzac are much less objectivism and less ability to embrace society as a whole. Still weakly developed capitalism could not put pressure on Russian realism with such force as on Western realism. It was not perceived as a natural state. In the mind of the bourgeois-noble writer, the future of Russia was not predetermined by the laws of economics, but entirely depended on the mental and moral development of the bourgeois-noble intelligentsia. Hence the peculiar educational, "instructive" character of this realism, whose favorite device was to reduce socio-historical problems to the problem of individual suitability and individual behavior. Before the emergence of a conscious vanguard of the peasant revolution, bourgeois-gentry realism directs its edge against serfdom, especially in the brilliant work of Pushkin and Gogol, which makes it progressive and allows it to maintain a high degree of truthfulness. From the moment the revolutionary-democratic avant-garde made its appearance [on the eve of 1861], bourgeois-gentry realism, degenerating, acquired slanderous traits. But in the work of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, realism gives rise to new phenomena of world significance.

The work of both Tolstoy and Dostoevsky is closely connected with the era of the revolutionary-democratic movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which raised the question of the peasant revolution. Dostoevsky is a renegade of genius who put all his strength and all his organic instinct for the revolution at the service of reaction. Dostoevsky's work is a gigantic distortion of realism: achieving an almost unprecedented realistic effectiveness, he puts a deeply false content into his images by subtly mystifying real problems and replacing real social forces with abstract mystical ones. In developing methods for the realistic depiction of human individuality and the motivation for human actions, Tolstoy in War and Peace raised realism to a new level, and if Balzac is the greatest realist in terms of coverage of modernity, Tolstoy has no rivals in the immediate concrete treatment of the material of reality. In Anna Karenina, Tolstoy is already freed from apologetic tasks, his truthfulness becomes freer and more conscious, and he creates a huge picture of how after 1861 "everything turned upside down" for the Russian nobility and peasantry. In the future, Tolstoy moves to the position of the peasantry, but not its revolutionary vanguard, but the patriarchal peasantry. The latter weakens him as an ideologist, but does not prevent him from creating unsurpassed examples of critical realism, which already merge with revolutionary democratic realism.

4) Revolutionary democratic realism

In Russia, revolutionary-democratic realism also received its most striking development. Revolutionary democratic realism, being an expression of the interests of petty-bourgeois peasant democracy, expressed the ideology of the broad democratic masses under the conditions of an unconquered bourgeois revolution and was simultaneously directed against feudalism and its survivals and against all existing forms of capitalism. And since the revolutionary democratism of that time merged with utopian socialism, it was sharply anti-bourgeois. Such a revolutionary-democratic ideology could develop only in a country in which the bourgeois revolution developed without the participation of the bourgeoisie, but it could remain full-fledged and progressive only until the working class emerged as the hegemon of the revolution. Such conditions existed in the most pronounced form in Russia in the 1960s and 1970s.

In the West, where the bourgeoisie remained the hegemon of the bourgeois revolution and where, consequently, the ideology of the bourgeois revolution was to a much greater extent specifically bourgeois, revolutionary-democratic literature is a variety of bourgeois literature, and we do not find any developed revolutionary-democratic realism. The place of such realism is occupied by romantic semi-realism. , which, although he was able to create large works ("Les Misérables" by V. Hugo), did not feed on the growing forces of the revolutionary class, which was the peasantry in Russia, but on the illusions of social groups doomed to damage and who wanted to believe in a better future. This literature was not only essentially petty-bourgeois in its ideals, but to a large extent was (albeit unwittingly) the instrument of that enveloping of the masses in democratic intoxication, which the bourgeoisie needed. On the contrary, revolutionary-democratic realism is emerging in Russia, standing on the highest level of historical understanding accessible to pre-Marxist consciousness. Its representatives are a remarkable pleiad of "raznochintsev" fiction writers, Nekrasov's ingeniously realistic poetry, and especially the work of Shchedrin. The latter occupies an exceptional place in the general history of realism. Marx's comments on the cognitive-historical significance of his work are comparable to those of Balzac. But unlike Balzac, who created an objectivist, in the final analysis, epic about capitalist society, Shchedrin's work is thoroughly imbued with a consistent militant partisanship, in which there is no place for a contradiction between a moral-political assessment and an aesthetic assessment.

Petty-bourgeois peasant realism was destined to experience a new flowering in the era of imperialism. It flourished most characteristically in America, where the contradictions between the illusions of bourgeois democracy and the realities of the epoch of monopoly capitalism became particularly acute. Petty-bourgeois realism in America went through two main stages. In the pre-war years, it takes on the forms of reformist realism (Crane, Norris, the early stuff of Upton Sinclair and Dreiser), which differs from bourgeois reformist REALISM (of the Wells type) in its sincerity, its organic disgust with capitalism, and its genuine (albeit half-conceived) connection with the interests of the masses. In the future, petty-bourgeois realism loses its "conscientious" faith in reforms and faces a dilemma: to merge with bourgeois self-critical (and aesthetically decadent) literature or to take a revolutionary position. The first path is represented by a biting, but essentially harmless satire on philistinism by Sinclair Lewis, the second - by a number of major artists approaching the proletariat, primarily by the same Dreiser and Dos Passos. This revolutionary realism remains limited: it is unable to artistically see reality in "its revolutionary development", that is, to see the working class as the bearer of the revolution. 5) Proletarian realism

In proletarian realism, as in the realism of revolutionary democracy, at first the critical trend is especially strong. In the creative work of M. Gorky, the founder of proletarian realism, purely critical works from "The Town of Okurov" to "Klim Samgin" play a very significant role.

But proletarian realism is free from the contradiction between the subjective ideal and the objective historical task and is closely connected with a class that is historically capable of reshaping the world in a revolutionary way, and therefore, unlike revolutionary democratic realism, a realistic depiction of the positive and heroic is available to this realism. Gorky's "mother" played the same role for the Russian working class as "What is to be done?" Chernyshevsky for the revolutionary intelligentsia of the 60s. But between the two novels there is a deep line, which does not boil down to the fact that Gorky is a greater artist than Chernyshevsky.

2 . The Formation of Realism in Russian Art of the Nineteenth Century

2.1 Prerequisites and features of the formation of realism in Russian art

The establishment of realism in Russian art of the second half of the 19th century. is inextricably linked with the rise of democratic social thought. A close study of nature, a deep interest in the life and fate of the people are combined here with the denunciation of the bourgeois-serf system. Of course, this is the reform of 1861, which opened a new, capitalist era in the history of Russia. New attempt to modernize Russian society 1860s 1870s touched upon the main aspects of social and economic life, the liberation of the peasants, the political reform of the court, the army, local government and the cultural reform of the education system, the press. This led to a revival and to a certain democratization of cultural life. Thinking about the problem of the tragic and the comic in the Russian artistic culture of the 19th century, one tends to think that the tragic occupies a much larger part. Further, looking back at the entire 19th century, I would like to focus more on the period when realism was born in Russian art.

A brilliant galaxy of realist masters of the last third of the 19th century. united in a group of Wanderers (V.G. Perov, I.N. Kramskoy, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, N.N. Ge, I.I. Shishkin, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Levitan and others), who finally approved the position of realism in everyday and historical genres, portrait and landscape.

The beginning of the nineteenth century was marked by the appearance of the genius Pushkin. Pushkin, whose great life was cut short in a duel in 1837, when the poet was only 38 years old, not only was the founder of new Russian literature, but also inscribed his name in golden letters in the history of Russian literature, which is an integral part of world literature. Literature was ahead of other art forms. Painting, criticism, music experienced the process of mutual penetration, mutual enrichment and development; in the struggle against the then authorities and ingrained customs, a new era was being created. It was a time when the masses who defeated Napoleon felt their strength, which led to the growth of self-consciousness, and the reform of serfdom and tsarism became simply necessary. The desire for common great goals contributed to the flowering of the best creative qualities of the Russian people.

Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Nekrasov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Chekhov, Gorky and the Ukrainian poet and painter Shevchenko appeared in literature. In journalism - Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Mikhailovsky, Vorovsky. In music - Glinka, Mussorgsky, Balakirev, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninov and other great composers. And, finally, in painting - Bryullov, Alexander Ivanov, Fedotov, Perov, Kramskoy, Savitsky, Aivazovsky, Shishkin, Savrasov, Vereshchagin, Repin, Surikov, Ge, Levitan, Serov, Vrubel - great masters, each of whom can be called the pearl of the world art.

With the advent of Gogol and Chernyshevsky in the thirties and forties of the 19th century, socially critical tendencies intensified in the realism created by Pushkin and Lermontov, the art of critical realism was established, exposing social evil to the end, clearly defining the responsibility and purpose of the artist: "Art must recreate life and show your attitude to the phenomena of life. This view of art, approved in literature by Pushkin and Gogol, had a significant impact on other forms of art.

Realism in painting

Realism in painting manifested itself in the creation of a group of "artists-wanderers", which included artists who protested against the conservative system of academism. This group, in order to educate the masses of the people, depicted the real Russian reality, it was associated with the populist movement of going to the people, and contributed to the development of revolutionary democracy.

in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. tendencies of realism are inherent in the portraits of K.P. Bryullova, O.A. Kiprensky and V.A. Tropinin, paintings on the themes of peasant life by A.G. Venetsianov, landscapes by S.F. Shchedrin. Conscious adherence to the principles of realism, culminating in the overcoming of the academic system, is inherent in the work of A.A. Ivanov, who combined a close study of nature with an inclination towards deep socio-philosophical generalizations. Genre scenes P.A. Fedotov tells about the life of a "little man" in the conditions of feudal Russia. The accusatory pathos characteristic of them at times determines Fedotov's place as the ancestor of Russian democratic realism.

The Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (TPKhV) was founded in 1870. The first exhibition opened in 1871. This event had its own prehistory. In 1863, the so-called "revolt of 14" took place at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. A group of graduates of the Academy, headed by I.N. Kramskoy, protested against the tradition, according to which the competition program limited the freedom to choose the theme of the work. The demands of young artists expressed the desire to turn art to the problems of modern life. Having received a refusal from the Council of the Academy, the group defiantly left the Academy and organized the Artel of Artists according to the type of working commune described in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?". Thus advanced Russian art was freed from the official tutelage of the court Academy.

By the beginning of the 1870s. democratic art has firmly won the public platform. It has its theorists and critics in the person of I.N. Kramskoy and V.V. Stasov, supported financially by P.M. Tretyakov, who at that time mainly acquired the works of the new realistic school. Finally, it has its own exhibition organization - TPHV.

The new art thus received a wider audience, which was mainly made up of raznochintsy. The aesthetic views of the Wanderers were formed in the previous decade in an atmosphere of public controversy about the ways of further development of Russia, generated by dissatisfaction with the reforms of the 1860s.

The idea of the tasks of the art of the future Wanderers was formed under the influence of the aesthetics of N.G. Chernyshevsky, who proclaimed as a worthy subject of art "general interest in life", which was understood by the artists of the new school as a requirement for sharply modern and topical topics.

The heyday of the activities of the TPHV - the 1870s and the beginning of the 1890s. The program of folk art put forward by the Wanderers was expressed in the artistic development of various aspects of folk life in the depiction of typical events of this life, often with a critical tendency. However, characteristic of the art of the 1860s. critical pathos, focus on the manifestations of social evil gives way in the paintings of the Wanderers to a wider coverage of folk life, aimed at its positive aspects.

The Wanderers show not only poverty, but also the beauty of folk life ("The sorcerer's arrival at a peasant wedding" by V.M. Maksimov, 1875, TG), not only suffering, but also stamina in the face of life's adversities, courage and strength of character ("Barge haulers on Volga" by I.E. Repin, 1870-1873. RM) (Appendix 1), the wealth and grandeur of native nature (works by A.K. Savrasov, A.I. Kuindzhi, I.I. Levitan, I.I. Shishkin) (Appendix 2), heroic pages of national history (creativity of V.I. Surikov) (Appendix 2), and the revolutionary liberation movement ("Arrest of a propagandist", "Refusal of confession" by I.E. Repin). The desire to cover various aspects of social life more widely, to reveal the complex interweaving of positive and negative phenomena of reality, attracts the Wanderers to enrich the genre repertoire of painting: along with the everyday painting that dominated the previous decade, in the 1870s. the role of portrait and landscape increases significantly, and later - historical painting. The result of this process was the interaction of genres - the role of the landscape intensifies in the everyday picture, the development of the portrait enriches everyday painting with a depth of depiction of characters, at the junction of the portrait and the everyday picture there arises such an original phenomenon as a social portrait ("Woodworker" by I.N. Kramskoy: " Stoker" and "Cursist" N.A. Yaroshenko). Developing individual genres, the Wanderers as the ideal towards which art should strive, thought of unity, the synthesis of all genre components in the form of a "choral picture", where the main character would be the mass of the people. Such a synthesis was fully implemented already in the 1880s. I.E. Repin and V.I. Surikov, whose work represents the pinnacle of itinerant realism.

A special line in the art of the Wanderers is the work of N.N. Ge and I.N.

Kramskoy, resorting to the allegorical form of gospel stories to express complex issues of our time ("Christ in the Desert" by I.N. Kramskoy, 1872, TG; "What is Truth?", 1890, TG and paintings of the gospel cycle by N.N. Ge 1890- x years). Active participants in traveling exhibitions were V.E. Makovsky, N. A. Yaroshenko, V.D. Polenov. Remaining true to the main precepts of the Wanderers, the participants of the TPHV from a new generation of masters expand the range of topics and plots designed to reflect the changes that took place in the traditional way of Russian life at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. These are the pictures of S.A. Korovin ("On the World", 1893, TG), S.V. Ivanova ("On the Road. The Death of a Settler", 1889, TG), A.E. Arkhipova, N.A. Kasatkin and others.

It is natural that it was in the works of the younger Wanderers that the events and moods associated with the onset of a new era of class battles on the eve of the 1905 revolution were reflected (the painting "Execution" by S.V. Ivanov). The opening of the topic related to the work and life of the working class, Russian painting is obliged to N.A. Kasatkin (painting "Coal miners. Change", 1895, TG).

The development of the traditions of wandering takes place already in Soviet times - in the activities of artists of the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR). The last, 48th exhibition of the TPHV took place in 1923.

Realism in literature

Of great importance in the social and cultural life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. bought literature. The special attitude to literature dates back to the beginning of the century, to the era of the brilliant development of Russian literature, which went down in history under the name of the "Golden Age". Literature was seen not only as an area of artistic creativity, but also as a source of spiritual perfection, an arena of ideological battles, a pledge of a special great future for Russia. The abolition of serfdom, bourgeois reforms, the formation of capitalism, the difficult wars that Russia had to wage during this period found a lively response in the work of Russian writers. Their opinion was listened to. Their views largely determined the public consciousness of the Russian population of that time.

The leading trend in literary creativity was critical realism. Second half of the 19th century turned out to be extremely rich in talents. World fame for Russian literature was brought by the work of I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharova, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.P. Chekhov.

One of the most remarkable writers of the middle of the century was Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818-1883). The representative of an old noble family, who spent his childhood in the parental estate of Spassky-Lutovinovo near the city of Mtsensk, Oryol province, he, like no one else, was able to convey the atmosphere of the Russian village - peasant and landowner. Most of his life Turgenev lived abroad. Nevertheless, the images of Russian people are surprisingly alive in his works. The writer was exceptionally truthful in depicting a gallery of portraits of peasants in a series of stories that brought him fame, the first of which "Khor and Kalinich" was published in the journal Sovremennik in 1847. Sovremennik published stories one after another. Their release caused a great public outcry. Subsequently, the entire series was published by I.S. Turgenev in one book, called "Notes of a Hunter". Moral quests, love, the life of a landowner's estate are revealed to the reader in the novel "The Noble Nest" (1858).

The conflict of generations, unfolding against the backdrop of a clash between the nobility in crisis and the new generation of raznochintsy (embodied in the image of Bazarov), who made denial ("nihilism") the banner of ideological self-affirmation, is shown in the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862).

The fate of the Russian nobility was reflected in the work of I.A. Goncharova. The characters of the heroes of his works are contradictory: soft, sincere, conscientious, but passive, unable to "get up from the sofa" Ilya Ilyich Oblomov ("Oblomov", 1859); educated, gifted, romantically minded, but again in an Oblomov-style inactive and weak-willed Boris Raisky ("Cliff", 1869). Goncharov managed to create an image of a very typical breed of people, to show a common phenomenon in the social life of that time, which, at the suggestion of literary critic N.A. Dobrolyubov name "Oblomovism".

The beginning of the literary activity of the greatest Russian writer, thinker and public figure Count Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy (1828-1910) falls on the middle of the century. His legacy is enormous. The titanic personality of Tolstoy is a figure of the author, characteristic of Russian culture, for whom literature was closely connected with social activity, and the professed ideas were propagated primarily by the example of one's own life. Already in the first works of L.N. Tolstoy, published in the 50s. 19th century and those who brought him fame (the trilogy "Childhood", "Boyhood", "Youth", Caucasian and Sevastopol stories), a powerful talent appeared. In 1863, the story "Cossacks" was published, which became an important stage in his work. Tolstoy came close to creating the historical epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869). His own experience of participating in the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol allowed Tolstoy to accurately depict the events of the heroic year of 1812. The novel combines a huge and diverse material, its ideological potential is immeasurable. Pictures of family life, a love line, characters of people are intertwined with large-scale canvases of historical events. According to L.N. Tolstoy, the main idea in the novel was "people's thought". The people are shown in the novel as the creator of history, the people's environment as the only true and healthy soil for any Russian person. The next novel by L.N. Tolstoy - "Anna Karenina" (1874-1876). It combines the history of the family drama of the protagonist with an artistic understanding of the acute social and moral issues of our time. The third great novel of the great writer is "Resurrection" (1889-1899), called by R. Rolland "one of the most beautiful poems about human compassion." Dramaturgy of the second half of the 19th century. was represented by plays by A.N. Ostrovsky ("Our people - let's settle", "Profitable Place", "The Marriage of Balzaminov", "Thunderstorm", etc.) and A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin (trilogy "Krechinsky's Wedding", "The Case", "Tarelkin's Death").

An important place in the literature of the 70s. takes M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, whose satirical talent was manifested with the greatest force in the "History of a City". One of the best works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlevs" tells about the gradual disintegration of the family and the extinction of the landowners Golovlevs. The novel shows the lies and absurdity underlying the relationship within the noble family, which ultimately leads them to death.

Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was an unsurpassed master of the psychological novel. Dostoevsky's genius was manifested in the extraordinary ability of the writer to reveal to the reader the hidden, sometimes terrifying, truly mystical depths of human nature, showing monstrous mental catastrophes in the most ordinary setting ("Crime and Punishment", "The Brothers Karamazov", "Poor People", "The Idiot").

The pinnacle of Russian poetry of the second half of the XIX century. was the work of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821-1878). The main theme of his works was the image of the hardships of the working people. To convey by the power of the artistic word to an educated reader living in prosperity the whole depth of people's poverty and grief, to show the greatness of a simple peasant - such was the meaning of N.A. Nekrasov (poem "To whom it is good to live in Rus'", 1866-1876). The poet understood his poetic activity as a civic duty of serving his country. In addition, N.A. Nekrasov is known for his publishing activities. He published the magazines Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski, on the pages of which the works of many subsequently famous Russian writers were published for the first time. In Nekrasov's "Sovremennik" L.N. published his trilogy "Childhood", "Boyhood", "Youth" for the first time. Tolstoy, published the first stories of I.S. Turgenev, Goncharov, Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky were published.

...

46. Global problems of culture of the 20th century.

The world culture of the 20th century is a complex process, divided into several stages by events of global significance - world wars. The complexity and inconsistency of this process is aggravated by the fact that for a significant period of time the world was split into two camps along ideological lines, which introduced new problems and ideas into cultural practice. The problem of the crisis of culture is one of the leading ones in the philosophical and cultural thought of the twentieth century. The problem of the crisis of culture was generated by the changes in the life of European society that it underwent in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The atmosphere of the global crisis that has engulfed all spheres of European society has exacerbated a number of contradictions. Economic instability, confusion and despair in the face of social catastrophes, the decline of traditional values, the fall of faith in science, in the rational comprehension of the world and other features of a crisis state that gave rise to a terrible confusion of the Spirit. However, the twentieth century made the greatest contribution to understanding the problem of the crisis of culture. Perhaps, in European philosophical thought there is not a single serious researcher who, to one degree or another, would not touch on this topic: O. Spengler and A. Toynbee, H. Ortega y Gasset and J. Huizinga, P.A. Sorokin and N.A. Berdyaev, G. Hesse and I.A. Ilyin, P. Tillich and E. Fromm, K. Jaspers and G. Marcuse, A.S. Arseniev and A. Nazaretyan. In the 20th century, culture and art faced a more complicated reality, with an increase in the catastrophic nature of social development, an aggravation of social contradictions, with conflicts generated by the scientific and technological revolution, with global problems affecting the interests of all mankind and, as a result, the flourishing of modernism. The politicization of culture can be clearly seen in the history of Russian culture in the 20th century. The October Revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the transition to a new system of social relations, to a new type of culture. At the beginning of the 20th century, V. I. Lenin formulated the most important principles of the attitude of the communist party to artistic and creative activity, which formed the basis of the cultural policy of the Soviet state. the first post-October decade, the foundations of a new Soviet culture were laid. The beginning of this period (1918-1921) is characterized by the destruction and denial of traditional values (culture, morality, religion, way of life, law) and the proclamation of new guidelines for socio-cultural development: world revolution, communist society, universal equality and fraternity. Marxism became the spiritual core of the Soviet civilizational system and served as a theoretical tool for formulating a doctrine that reflected the problems of Russian reality. Ideological propaganda took on an increasingly chauvinistic and anti-Semitic character. In January 1949, a campaign began against the "rootless cosmopolitans", which entailed a destructive intervention in the fate of a number of scientists, teachers, workers in literature and art. Most of those accused of cosmopolitanism turned out to be Jews. Jewish cultural institutions were closed - theaters, schools, newspapers. Ideological campaigns, the constant search for enemies and their exposure maintained an atmosphere of fear in society. After Stalin's death, features of totalitarianism continued to exist in cultural politics for a long time. The beginning of the 1990s was marked by the accelerated disintegration of the unified culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values of the common culture of the USSR, but also the cultural traditions of each other. Such a sharp opposition of different national cultures led to an increase in socio-cultural tension, to the emergence of military conflicts, and subsequently caused the collapse of a single socio-cultural space.

Realism is usually called a direction in art and literature, whose representatives strove for a realistic and truthful reproduction of reality. In other words, the world was portrayed as typical and simple, with all its advantages and disadvantages.

General features of realism

Realism in literature is distinguished by a number of common features. First, life was portrayed in images that corresponded to reality. Secondly, the reality for the representatives of this trend has become a means of knowing themselves and the world around them. Thirdly, the images on the pages of literary works were distinguished by the truthfulness of details, specificity and typification. It is interesting that the art of the realists, with their life-affirming positions, strove to consider reality in development. Realists discovered new social and psychological relations.

The emergence of realism

Realism in literature as a form of artistic creation arose in the Renaissance, developed during the Enlightenment and emerged as an independent trend only in the 30s of the 19th century. The first realists in Russia include the great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin (he is sometimes even called the founder of this trend) and no less outstanding writer N.V. Gogol with his novel Dead Souls. As for literary criticism, the term "realism" appeared within it thanks to D. Pisarev. It was he who introduced the term into journalism and criticism. Realism in the literature of the 19th century became a hallmark of that time, having its own characteristics and characteristics.

Features of literary realism

Representatives of realism in literature are numerous. The most famous and outstanding writers include Stendhal, C. Dickens, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy, G. Flaubert, M. Twain, F.M. Dostoevsky, T. Mann, M. Twain, W. Faulkner and many others. All of them worked on the development of the creative method of realism and embodied in their works its most striking features inextricably linked with their unique authorial features.