The seventeenth century was of particular importance for the formation of national cultures of modern times. In this era, the process of localization of large national art schools was completed, the originality of which was determined both by the conditions of historical development and by the artistic tradition that had developed in each country - Italy, Flanders, Holland, Spain, France. This allows us to consider the 17th century as a new stage in the history of art. National identity did not exclude, however, common features. Developing in many ways the traditions of the Renaissance, the artists of the 17th century significantly expanded the range of their interests and deepened the cognitive range of art.
Compared to the Renaissance, the art of the 17th century is more complex, contradictory in content and artistic forms. The holistic poetic perception of the world, characteristic of the Renaissance, is destroyed, the ideal of harmony and clarity is inaccessible. But the image of man remains the focus of the artist's attention. The titans, sung in the works of art of the Renaissance, gave way to a person who is aware of his dependence on the social environment and the objective laws of being. Its embodiment becomes more concrete, emotional and psychologically complex. It reveals the infinite diversity and richness of the inner world, national features stand out brighter and more definitely, and its place in society is shown. Real life is revealed by the artists of the 17th century in a variety of dramatic collisions and conflicts, grotesque-satirical and comedic situations. In literature, this is the heyday of tragedy and comedy (Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Calderon, Corneille, Racine, Molière).
The artistic culture of the 17th century reflects the complexity of the era that prepared the way for the victory of the capitalist system in the economically developed countries of Europe. By the beginning of the 17th century, revolutionary gains were being made in Holland, the first capitalist country in Europe. In England, the bourgeois revolution of 1640-1660 is taking place on a pan-European scale. In France, a classic model of an absolutist state is taking shape. Serving the interests of the feudal nobility, French absolutism ensured the growth of the bourgeoisie through its protectionist policy. However, feudalism was still strong. Spain, which in the 16th century was the strongest power in the world, turned into one of the backward reactionary states of Europe. In Italy and Germany, while maintaining feudal fragmentation, a small-power princely one is being formed; despotism. Even in England the bourgeoisie shares power with the landed aristocracy.
Popular movements played an important role in the struggle for the progressive development of the European states. The protest of the masses against the absolutist oppression and predation of the era of primitive accumulation was the main content of social life in the 17th century. The development of culture to one degree or another was affected by it. The speeches of advanced thinkers against feudalism were associated with criticism of the Catholic Church, which again strengthens its influence and fetters social thought.
At the same time, the general rise of the economy in the advanced countries of Europe, the flourishing of manufactory and trade created the ground for the progress of the exact and natural sciences. The great discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Leibniz, Descartes in mathematics, astronomy, physics, philosophy contributed to the approval of materialistic ideas (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza), expansion and deepening of ideas about nature and the universe. While for scientists of the Renaissance, the establishment of patterns of phenomena was based on the experimental observation of a single, individual, thinkers of the 17th century proceeded in their scientific theories from integral systems and views of the world. A more holistic and deeper perception of reality is also affirmed in the work of artists. Receives a new interpretation of the concept of synthesis of arts.
Separate types of art, as well as individual works, lose their isolation and tend to unite with each other. Buildings are organically included in the space of the street, square, park. Sculpture becomes dynamic, invades architecture and garden space. Decorative painting with spatial and perspective effects complements what is inherent in the architectural interior. The desire for a broad display of reality led in the 17th century to a variety of genre forms. In the visual arts, along with traditional mythological and biblical genres, secular ones are gaining an independent place: everyday genre, landscape, portrait, still life.
Complex relationships and the struggle of social forces give rise to a variety of artistic and ideological trends. Unlike previous historical periods, when art developed within the framework of homogeneous large styles (Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance), the 17th century is characterized by two large styles - Baroque and Classicism, elements of which are clearly expressed in architecture and in a new understanding of the synthesis of arts. Baroque art reveals the essence of life in the movement and struggle of random changeable elemental forces. In extreme manifestations, baroque art comes to irrationalism, to mysticism, affects the imagination and feelings of the viewer with dramatic tension, expression of forms. Events are interpreted in a grandiose way, the artists prefer to depict scenes of torment, ecstasy or panegyrics of exploits, triumphs.
The basis of the art of classicism is a rational principle. Beautiful from the point of view of classicism is only that which is ordered, reasonable, harmonious. The heroes of classicism subordinate their feelings to the control of the mind, they are restrained and majestic. The theory of classicism substantiates the division into high and low genres. In the art of classicism, unity is achieved by connecting and matching all parts of the whole, which, however, retain their independent meaning. Both Baroque and Classicism are characterized by a desire for generalization, but Baroque masters tend to dynamic masses, to complex, extensive ensembles. Often the features of these two great styles are intertwined in the art of one country and even in the work of the same artist, giving rise to contradictions in it.
Along with baroque and classicism, a more direct, powerful realistic reflection of life, free from stylistic elements, appears in the visual arts. The realistic direction is an important milestone in the evolution of Western European art. Its manifestations are unusually varied and vivid, both in various national schools and among individual masters. The greatest masters of realism belong to the 17th century - Caravaggio, Velazquez, Rembrandt, Hals, Vermeer of Delft. In the 17th century, those national schools in whose art the highest creative results were achieved came to the fore. Italy, Spain, Flanders, Holland, France are rapidly becoming influential artistic centers. In other European countries - England, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark, artistic culture retains the imprint of local properties and relationships with the tradition of previous eras.
The seventeenth century is the heyday of the feudal period in Russia. At this time, the feudal-serf system was strengthened and bourgeois ties were born along the way in the depths of the same system. The rapid development of cities and society in general led to the flourishing of culture. Painting in the 17th century in Russia also gained strength. The masses began to concentrate in large cities, which, in turn, was the main reason for such a rapid development of culture. The horizons of the Russian people were also expanded by the beginning of industrial production, which forced them to take a closer look at the distant regions of the country. Various secular elements permeate 17th century painting in Russia. The paintings are getting more and more popular.
The impact of the church on art
The great power of the impact of art, in particular painting, was also realized by the church. Representatives of the clergy tried to control the writing of pictures, trying to subordinate them to religious dogma. Folk masters - painters, who, in their opinion, deviated from the established canons, were subjected to persecution.
Painting in the 17th century in Russia was still far from realistic tendencies and developed extremely slowly. In the foreground there was still an abstract dogmatic and allegorical vision of painting. Icons and murals were congested with small scenes and objects around the main image. Explanatory inscriptions on the pictures were also characteristic of that time.
Personality and paintings of the 17th century
Describing painting in the 17th century in Russia, one cannot fail to mention the artist Simon Fedorovich Ushakov, who is the author of such famous paintings as “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, “Trinity” and “Planting the Tree of the Russian State”. A remarkable phenomenon in painting was the interest in man as a person. This was evidenced by the widespread portrait painting of the 17th century in Russia.
It should be noted that the portrait became the property of the masses only from the middle of the 18th century, and until that time only those close to the supreme power could leave a memory of themselves on the artist’s canvas. A number of ceremonial and decorative paintings were created for large public spaces such as the Academy of Arts, the Senate, the Admiralty and the Imperial Palaces. Families could also order portraits, but they did not flaunt them, but left them in their own circle. They could decorate even the poor St. Petersburg apartments of the intelligentsia, who tried to follow the trends and fashion in society.
Influence on Russian painting of Western European culture
It should be noted that painting in the 17th century in Russia has changed a lot, especially portraiture. The real world with real destinies and processes began to come to the fore. Everything became more secular and lifelike. Huge influence wafted from the West. The aesthetic tastes of the West gradually began to flow into Russia. This applied not only to art in general, but also to such artistic things as dishes, carriages, clothes, and much more. It became popular to engage in portraits as a hobby. It was fashionable to bring paintings depicting monarchs as a gift to the king. In addition to this, the envoys were not averse to acquiring portraits of interest to them in world capitals. A little later, it became popular to imitate the skill of painting on canvas by foreign artists. The first "Titulars" appear, in which portraits of foreign and Russian sovereigns are depicted.
Despite the fact that the resistance of some circles grew in direct proportion to the increase in the popularity of folk art, it was simply impossible to contain the movement. In the second half of the century, painting in the 17th century gained momentum in Russia. One of the main workshops of art centers was in which more than one hundred paintings were painted by two dozen masters under the guidance of Loputsky, Wukhters and Bezmin. Their works reflected the existing contradictory trends in painting. Some of the paintings were made in the official style, and the other part - in the Western European style.
Novelty in portraiture
Painting in the 17th century in Russia changed its appearance. The secular genre, the portrait, took on a new form. Man became the main theme of art. It can be concluded that the role of the individual as a person has increased. Canonical "faces" faded into the background and gave way to worldly relations and the personality as a whole. Poetry became worthy of a real person, and not just a divine or saint. The ceremonial portrait has left the stage of Russian art. Naturally, his influence has not ended today, but it has become less significant. In the Petrine period, he also finds a place for himself on Russian soil, and even exists on a par with the European portrait.
Conclusion
This is how the painting of the 17th century developed in Russia. Briefly, we can conclude that it was in this century that a turning point in art took place, which influenced the culture of the country and its further development.
Content
Introduction
1.1. Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - the greatest Dutch artist of the 17th century
1.2. Rubens Peter Paul
1.3. French painter Nicolas Poussin
Chapter II Russian Artists of the 17th Century
2.1. Zubov Alexey Fedorovich (1682-1750)
2.2. Nikitin Ivan Nikitich (1680-1742)
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The painting of the 17th century developed under the influence of the Baroque style, which dominated European art until the middle of the 18th century. The new philosophy of the world, which consisted in changed judgments about the unity, diversity and infinity of the world, had a great influence on the worldview of the artists of that time. Splendor and dynamics, intensity of feelings and pathos, showiness, reality and illusoryness, contrasts and play of light distinguish the painting of this period.
The seventeenth century was largely important in the formation of national cultures of the new time. At this time, the process of localization of art schools was completed, the diversity of which was mainly determined by the conditions of historical development and established traditions in each particular country. Russian artists of the 17th century were mainly engaged in icon painting. Spanish artists of the 17th century were formed under the ideology of monastic orders, so the main commissions for works of art were from the spiritual realm. Italian artists of the 17th century closely studied various sciences: natural sciences, perspective, anatomy and others. They portrayed religious scenes in paintings as secular ones. In the episodes, they learned to convey character and reveal the deep feelings of a person. Looking at the "Crucifixion" written by Andrea Mantegna. The Dutch artists of the 17th century were distinguished by the fact that almost all types of painting prevailed among them. This profession was far from rare, among the first artists there was serious competition. In Holland, paintings by artists of the 17th century adorned the homes of not only wealthy members of society, but also ordinary artisans and peasants.
Chapter I Foreign Artists of the 17th Century
1.1. Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - the greatest Dutch artist of the 17th century
The work of the Dutch artist Rembrandt Harmens Van Rijn (1606-1669) is one of the pinnacles of world realistic painting. Rembrandt painted historical, biblical, mythological and everyday themes, portraits and landscapes. He was the largest master of drawing and etching in Europe. His work is characterized by the desire for a philosophical understanding of life, honesty towards himself and people, interest in the spiritual world of man. The moral assessment of events and a person is the main nerve of the master's art. The artist perfectly conveyed the spirituality of the model and the dramatic nature of the event through the effects of chiaroscuro, when the space seems to be drowning in shadows, in golden twilight, and a beam of light highlights individual figures of people, their faces, gestures and movements. In this method of pictorial construction of a picture, Rembrandt had no equal (only the Italian Caravaggio can compete with him in the skill of using chiaroscuro). As often happens in the history of art, despite his brilliant talent, Rembrandt died in poverty and loneliness, a forgotten, useless master. But his work lives on for centuries, so it can be said without exaggeration that Rembrandt is one of the greatest artists in the history of world art. Many would call him an unsurpassed painter, even a much greater one than Raphael or Leonardo. It would seem that his work was fettered by the traditions and dogmas of Dutch Protestant art, because he never traveled outside of Holland. And yet, Rembrandt not only delights with the brilliant technique of painting, but also reveals a revelation with his work: no one has ever spoken about simple human feelings so deeply, tenderly, interestingly and penetratingly. In his historical and biblical scenes, in his portraits of his contemporaries, he reaches the depths of psychological expressiveness. His wisdom, compassion and insight, most likely, are the result of self-knowledge: many times, like no other, he painted self-portraits and captured his life path, starting from the time of youth and success and ending with old age, which brought sorrows and hardships. At the moment, more than a hundred self-portraits of Rembrandt are known, each of which is an amazing masterpiece. Thanks to fortunate historical circumstances, Russia now has one of the richest collections of Rembrandt paintings. Almost all of them are stored in the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, including such famous masterpieces as "The Return of the Prodigal Son", "Danae", "Portrait of Saskia as Flora", "Portrait of an Old Man in Red", "David and Uria", etc. . More than one generation of Russian artists studied on Rembrandt's paintings from the Hermitage. If you do not have the opportunity to visit the State Hermitage, then we invite you to our virtual gallery of paintings by Rembrandt. Here you can see almost all the famous masterpieces of the master, many of which are given detailed descriptions. Have a nice trip to the captivating world of an amazing artist and sensitive person - Rembrandt.
1.2. Peter Paul Rubens
Peter Paul Rubens, 1577-1640 - Flemish painter and diplomat. Born in Siegen in Westphalia on June 28, 1577 in the family of Jan Rubens, an Antwerp lawyer. When Peter Paul Rubens was eleven years old, his father died and his mother moved with the children to Antwerp. The future artist was educated at a Jesuit school. Ability to languages (he spoke six languages) allowed him not only to master the cultural heritage of his era, but also to achieve significant success in the diplomatic field. Rubens studied with three Flemish painters - Tobias Verhacht, Adam van Noort and Otto van Ven. In 1598 he was admitted to the guild of St. Luke. In 1600 the artist arrived in Italy; there he studied ancient architecture and sculpture, Italian painting, and also painted portraits (mainly in Genoa) and altarpieces (in Rome and Mantua). In 1603, Rubens' Italian patron Vicenzo Gonzaga sent him to Spain as part of a diplomatic mission. In 1608, Rubens became the court painter of Isabella of Austria, settled in Antwerp and in 1609 married the aristocrat Isabella Brant. Three children were born from this marriage. To meet the growing demand for his paintings, Rubens created a large workshop in a few years, where A. van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens and F. Snyders worked. He made sketches, which his students and assistants transferred to the canvas, and then, at the end of the work, slightly corrected the paintings. He even organized an engraving school to spread his work even more widely. Paintings by Rubens of these years are full of passionate dynamics. Among the plots, scenes of hunting, battles, vivid and dramatic gospel episodes and scenes from the life of saints, allegorical and mythological compositions predominate; in them, Rubens enjoyed writing energetic, powerful bodies that his contemporaries liked so much. In addition to orders from local churches and Antwerp aristocrats, the artist received orders from abroad, mainly from England. The large workshop, whose building he designed in the style of a Genoese palazzo (restored in 1937-1946), soon became the social center and landmark of Antwerp. In the 1620s, Rubens worked for the French royal house. He wrote for Marie de Medici a cycle of allegorical panels on scenes from her life and made cardboard tapestries commissioned by Louis XIII, and also began a cycle of compositions with episodes from the life of the French king Henry IV of Navarre, which remained unfinished. From the beginning of the 1620s, Rubens was active in diplomacy. In 1628 and 1630 Rubens traveled to Madrid and London on diplomatic missions and participated in the conclusion of a peace treaty between Spain, England and Holland. Returning to Antwerp, Rubens was received with great honors; the Spanish king granted him the title of state councilor, and the English king - personal nobility. Rubens soon married sixteen-year-old Elena Fourman; they had five children. During these years, Rubens' style changed - the compositions are built in a free and smooth rhythm, the rigid sculptural interpretation of forms, characteristic of the early period of creativity, is replaced by lighter and airy color modeling. In them, one can notice the influence of the works of Titian, which Rubens copied during his stay in Madrid. Despite the fact that he spent a lot of time working on large decorative compositions and structures (painting the plafond in the banquet hall in Whitehall Palace in London; triumphal arches in honor of the entry of Infante Ferdinand into Antwerp; decoration of the Torre de la Parada hunting castle), Rubens managed to write also more chamber, lyrical works. Among them are the portrait of "Helena Fourman Fur Coat" (c. 1638-1640, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum), "Kermessa" (c. 1635-1636, Louvre), and especially several radiant, brightly lit landscapes created in recent five years of living in a country estate near Mechlin. Rubens died on May 30, 1640.
In his works, Rubens managed to achieve what three previous generations of Flanders artists aspired to: the combination of Flemish realism with the classical tradition revived by the Italian Renaissance. The artist was endowed with great creative energy and inexhaustible imagination; drawing inspiration from a variety of sources, he created his own unique style. The altar images made by him are characterized by sensuality and emotionality; decorating the castles of the aristocracy of the era of emerging absolutism, he contributed to the spread of the Baroque style - the artistic language of not only the Counter-Reformation, but also the secular culture of this time.
1.3. French painter Nicolas Poussin
Born in 1594 at Les Andelys in Normandy. Poussin's first teacher was Quentin Varin from Amiens, who lived in Les Andelys between 1611 and 1612. In 1612, Poussin arrived in Paris, where Alexandre Cutois, the king's valet, gave the young artist the opportunity to visit the royal collection of paintings; there he first saw the works of Raphael and the masters of his school. In Paris, Poussin met the poet Giovanni Battista Marino, for whom he subsequently completed a wonderful series of drawings on subjects from Ovid, Virgil and Titus Livius, now stored in Windsor Castle.
In the spring of 1624 the artist arrived in Rome and settled there for the rest of his life. In 1640, when Poussin's fame finally reached his homeland, he received an invitation from Louis XIII and was forced to return to Paris for a while. In Paris, Poussin created such works as the Eucharist, the Miracle of St. Francis Xavier (both in the Louvre) and Time Saves Truth from Envy and Discord (Lily, Museum of Fine Arts). The latter was commissioned by Cardinal Richelieu and was intended to decorate the ceiling. It is known that life at the royal court weighed heavily on Poussin, and in 1642 he returned to Rome.
The main sources of Poussin's painting are the works of classical antiquity and the Italian Renaissance. Numerous drawings testify to his great interest in the monuments of Ancient Rome. He owns many sketches of ancient reliefs, statues and sarcophagi. However, the classical motifs, so numerous in Poussin's works, are almost always changed and reworked by him in accordance with his own artistic goals. Of the works of the masters of the Italian Renaissance, the painting of Raphael and Titian had the strongest influence on the artist. In the later works of Apollo and Daphne (c. 1664) and the series of four paintings The Seasons (1660–1664, all in the Louvre), Poussin turns to lyrical motifs; these works are richer in composition and finer in technique than the purely romantic canvases of the early period. The Seasons series with biblical scenes Paradise (Spring), Ruth (Summer), Exodus (Autumn) and Flood (Winter) is one of Poussin's best landscapes.
Poussin creates works that anticipate the harsh citizenship of late classicism ("Death of Germanicus", circa 1628, Institute of Arts, Minneapolis), baroque canvases ("Martyrdom over Erasmus", circa 1628-1629, Vatican Pinakothek), enlightened-poetic paintings on mythological and literary themes, marked by the special activity of the color system, close to the traditions of the Venetian school. ("Sleeping Venus", Art Gallery, Dresden; "Narcissus and Echo", Louvre, Paris; "Rinaldo and Armida", Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin, Moscow; all three - about 1625-1627; "Kingdom Flora", about 1631-1632, Art Gallery, Dresden; "Tancred and Erminia"). Poussin's classical principles are more clearly revealed in the canvases of the second half of the 1930s. ("The Rape of the Sabine Women", 2nd version, circa 1635; "Israel Gathering Manna", circa 1637-1639; both - in the Louvre, Paris). The chased compositional rhythm reigning in these works is perceived as a direct reflection of the rational principle, which moderates base impulses and gives greatness to the noble deeds of a person. In the years 1640-1642, Nicolas Poussin worked in Paris at the court of Louis XIII ("Time saves the Truth from the encroachments of Envy and Discord", about 1641-1642, Art Museum, Lille). The intrigues of court artists, led by S. Vue, prompt Poussin to return to Rome.
Chapter II Russian Artists of the 17th Century
2.1. Zubov Alexey Fyodorovich
At first he was a painter at the Armory, from 1699 he studied with Adrian Schkhonebek to “make coats of arms” (for stamp paper). To prove his knowledge of engraving, already in 1701 Zubov submitted to the Armory a copy from the Dutch Bible of 1674, signed: “From the fresco the Descent of the Holy Spirit.”
Zubov soon became a skilled engraver and engraved many large sheets, in which he achieved high technology. The huge view of St. Petersburg, engraved by him on 8 boards, in a pair of the view of Moscow, engraved by Jan Bliklandt, is the best work of Zubov. He also owns images of naval battles (“Battle at Grengam”, 1721), festivities on the occasion of victories (“The solemn entry of Russian troops into Moscow after the victory at Poltava”, 1711) and other important events of that time. Zubov supplemented the front part of such images with accurately conveyed life details. He created engravings, using the drawings and projects of architects, for example, M. G. Zemtsov. The documentary nature of the compositions was combined with the decorativeness of the engraved sheet and the image of the alleged buildings. The views of the city were depicted by the artist "from a bird's eye view", which contributed to the feeling of the scale of grandiose scenes - panoramas of the banks of the Neva.
From 1714 Zubov worked in St. Petersburg. He was a senior master at the St. Petersburg printing house. After the death of Peter I, in the reign of Catherine I, Zubov makes a portrait of the Empress (1726, from the original by I. Adolsky), engraves, together with P. Pikart, an equestrian portrait of Peter (1726), commissioned by A. D. Menshikov, portraits of his wife and daughters of the "most serene" prince - D. M. and M. A. Menshikov (1726). In the autumn of 1727, the St. Petersburg printing house was closed, at which Zubov had been since his arrival in the northern capital. After his resignation, he was forced, like his brother, to turn into a master of popular popular prints. The artist tried to get a job at the Engraving Chamber of the Academy of Sciences, but he never got a permanent job there. By 1730 he returned to Moscow.
In the old capital, Zubov still works very intensively. In 1734 he creates portraits of Peter I, Peter II and Anna Ioannovna. He works a lot on orders from churches and wealthy citizens. But the works of Zubov of this time show how thin the layer of the new culture was, how much the Russian artists depended on the environment, how strong the traditions of the pre-Petrine era were. This is evidenced by the famous "View of the Solovetsky Monastery" - a huge engraving made by Zubov together with his brother Ivan in 1744. As if there were no views of St. Petersburg, battles, portraits. As if there was no Petrine era itself. As if he never left the Zubov of Moscow and the Armory. The last works of the engraver known to us are dated 1745, and the last mention of him is 1749. The master died in poverty and obscurity.
The last sheet engraved by Zubov was noted in 1741. His best portraits in black style: "Catherine I", "Peter I", two princesses "Daria and Marya Menshikov" - are extremely rare; chisel - "Catherine I", "Golovin" and "Stefan Yavorsky". Rovinsky ("Russian engravers", M. 1870) gives a list of 110 boards by Zubov. Some boards have survived to this day and are even capable of producing still good prints.
2.2. Nikitin Ivan Nikitich
Born in Moscow, son of priest Nikita Nikitin, who served in Izmailovo, brother of priest Irodion Nikitin, later archpriest of the Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin, and painter Roman Nikitin.
He studied in Moscow, apparently at the Armory Chamber, possibly under the guidance of the Dutchman Shkhonebek in an engraving workshop. In 1711 he was transferred to St. Petersburg, studied with Johann Tannauer, a German artist who was one of the first to accept the invitation of Peter the Great to move to St. Petersburg to teach perspective painting to Russian artists. Quickly gaining authority at court. In 1716-1720, on a state pension, together with his brother Roman, he was sent, among twenty people, to study in Italy, in Venice and Florence. He studied with such masters as Tommaso Redi and J. G. Dangauer. After returning, he becomes a court painter. So, Nikitin owns a portrait of the dying Peter the Great. In 1732, together with his brother Roman, also an artist, he was arrested in connection with the distribution of libels against Feofan Prokopovich. After five years of pre-trial detention in the Peter and Paul Fortress, he was whipped and exiled to Tobolsk for life. In 1741, after the death of Anna Ioannovna, he received permission to return to St. Petersburg. Left in 1742 and died on the way.
There are only three signed works by Nikitin, along with those attributed to him, only about ten. Early works still contain traces of the parsuna, which was the only portrait style in Russia in the 17th century. Nikitin is one of the first (often referred to as the first) Russian artists who moved away from the traditional icon-painting style of Russian painting and began to paint with perspective, as they did in Europe at that time. Thus, he is the founder of the tradition of Russian
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In the history of Russian art, the 17th century was a period of struggle between two painting schools and the formation of new genres. The Orthodox Church still had a huge influence on the cultural life of man. Artists also experienced some restrictions in their activities.
iconography
During the late Middle Ages, the center of concentration in Russia of artists and artisans was the Kremlin, or rather the Armory. The best masters of architecture, painting and other types of creativity worked there.
Despite the rapid development of art throughout Europe, painting in Russia in the 17th century had only one genre - icon painting. Artists were forced to create under the vigilant supervision of the church, which strongly opposed any innovations. Russian icon painting was formed under the influence of the painting traditions of Byzantium and by that time had clearly formed canons.
Painting, like culture in Russia in the 17th century, was rather self-contained and developed very slowly. However, one event led to a complete reformation of the icon-painting genre. In a fire in 1547 in Moscow, many ancient icons burned down. It was necessary to restore the lost. And in the process, the main stumbling block was the dispute over the nature of the faces of the saints. Opinions were divided, adherents of the old traditions believed that the images should remain symbolic. While the artists of more modern views were in favor of giving the saints and martyrs more realism.
Split into two schools
As a result, painting in Russia in the 17th century was divided into two camps. The first included representatives of the "Godunov" school (on behalf of Boris Godunov). They sought to revive the icon-painting traditions of Andrei Rublev and other medieval masters.
These masters worked on orders for the royal court and represented the official side of art. Characteristic features for this school were the canonical faces of saints, simplified images of a crowd of people in the form of many heads, golden, red and blue-green tones. At the same time, one can notice the attempts of artists to convey the materiality of some objects. The Godunov school is best known for its wall paintings in the chambers of the Kremlin, in the Smolensky Cathedral, the Trinity Cathedral.
The opposing school was "Stroganov". The name is associated with the merchants Stroganovs, for whom most of the orders were made and who acted as "sponsors" in the development of painting in Russia in the 17th century. It was thanks to the masters from this school that the rapid development of art began. They were the first to make miniature icons for home prayers. This contributed to their spread among ordinary citizens.
The Stroganov masters more and more went beyond the church canons and began to pay attention to the details of the environment, the appearance of the saints. And so the landscape slowly began to develop. Their icons were colorful and decorative, and the interpretation of biblical characters was closer to the images of real people. The most famous of the surviving works are the icons "Nikita the Warrior", "John the Baptist".
Yaroslavl frescoes
A unique monument in the history of painting of the 17th century in Russia are the frescoes in the Church of the Prophet Elijah in Yaroslavl, on which artists from the Armory worked. A feature of these frescoes are scenes from real life that prevail over biblical stories. For example, in the scene with healing, the main part of the composition is occupied by the image of peasants during the harvest. It was the first monumental image in the domestic genre.
Among these frescoes one can find fabulous and mythological scenes. They amaze with their bright colors and complex architecture.
Simon Ushakov
Significant persons appear at each stage of the country's cultural development. The person who promoted painting in Russia in the 17th century in a new direction and contributed to its partial liberation from religious ideology was Simon Ushakov.
He was not only a court painter, but also a scientist, teacher, theologian, a man of broad views. Simon was fascinated by Western art. In particular, he was interested in the realistic depiction of the human face. This is clearly seen in his work "The Savior Not Made by Hands".
Ushakov was an innovator. He was the first Russian artist to use oil paint. Thanks to him, the art of engraving on copper began to develop. Being the chief artist of the Armory for thirty years, he wrote many icons, engravings, as well as several treatises. Among them is "A Word to the Lover of Icon Painting", in which he expressed his thoughts that the artist should, like a mirror, truthfully reflect the world around him. He followed this in his writings and taught it to his students. In his notes there are references to an anatomical atlas, which he wanted to write and illustrate with engravings. But, apparently, it was not published or was not preserved. The main merit of the master is that he laid the foundations for portraiture of the 17th century in Russia.
Parsuna
After significant transformations in icon painting, the portrait genre began to take shape. At first, it was performed in the icon-painting style and was called "parsuna" (from the Latin - person, personality). Artists are working more and more with living nature, and parsoons are becoming more realistic, the faces on them are gaining volume.
Portraits of Boris Godunov, tsars Alexei Mikhailovich, Fyodor Alekseevich, tsarinas Evdokia Lopukhina, Praskovya Saltykova were painted in this style.
It is known that foreign artists also worked at the court. They also greatly contributed to the evolution of Russian painting.
book graphics
Printing also came to Russian lands rather late. However, in parallel with its development, engravings, which were used as illustrations, also gained popularity. The images were both religious and domestic in nature. The book miniature of that period is distinguished by complex ornamentation, decorative letters, and portrait images are also found. Masters of the Stroganov school made a great contribution to the development of book miniatures.
Painting in Russia in the 17th century turned from a highly spiritual into a more secular and close to the people. Despite the opposition of church leaders, the artists defended their right to create in the genre of realism.
One of the dominant styles is baroque: it is a flamboyant impetuous style, manifested in pomp and excess. Michelangelo da Caravaggio can be considered the founder of the Baroque, which originated in Italy.
The first and most prominent representative of the church baroque was the artist known as El Greco. The work of de Silva Velasquez is considered the pinnacle of Spanish art of the golden age of the Baroque.
The greatest representatives of Flemish painting of the 17th century are Peter Rubens and Rembrandt.
At the beginning of the 18th century, a new style, rococo, occupied a leading position. The name of this direction comes from the French word meaning "pattern of stones and shells." A characteristic feature of the new direction was the departure from real life to an invented world, which was vividly expressed in the work of the best representatives of the style.
One of the representatives of the first period of French Rococo is Antoine Watteau, Francois Boucher, Nicolas Lancret. The portrait genre was developed in the work of Jean Nattier.
In Italian Rococo, Giovanni Tiepolo, Francesco Guardi, Pietro Longhi were a prominent representative of the style.
In the second half of the 18th century, the light, refined Rococo style in painting was replaced by classicism with its deep content and striving for an ideal standard. Representatives of French classicism of the mid-18th century are Joseph Marie Vien, Jacques Louis David. Representatives of German classicism - Anton Mengs, Anton Graff, Franz Maulberch.
