The leading trend in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe.
The main features of romanticism:
· Interest in folklore and national history.
· Depicting extraordinary characters in exceptional circumstances. Interest in the unconscious, intuitive.
· Appeal to eternal ideals (love, beauty), discord with modern reality.
English and German romanticism had the greatest influence on Russian literature. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which clearly showed the greatness and strength of the common people. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not abolish serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. Thus, the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.
The originality of Russian romanticism:
1. Historical optimism - the hope of overcoming the contradictions between the ideal and reality.
2. Russian romantics did not accept the cult of a proud and selfish personality.
The founder of Russian romanticism is V.A. Zhukovsky. Romanticism includes the work of poets Denis Davydov, Nikolai Yazykov, Kondraty Ryleev, Yevgeny Baratynsky.
Ø Exercise. Read the poems carefully, find the features of romanticism in them.
Excommunicated from a friendly branch,
Say, solitary leaf,
Where are you flying?.. "I don't know myself;
The storm broke the dear oak;
Since then, through the valleys, over the mountains
Worn by chance
I strive where rock tells me,
Where in the world everything aspires
Where the bay leaf rushes,
And a light pink leaf."
V. Zhukovsky
Do not laugh at the young generation!
You will never understand
How can you live with one desire,
Only a thirst for will and goodness ...
You don't understand how it burns
Courage swearing breast of a fighter,
How holy the lad dies,
Faithful to the motto to the end!
So don't call them home
And do not interfere with their aspirations, -
After all, each of the fighters is a hero!
Be proud of the young generation!
Topic 1.2 A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837). Life and creative path. The main themes and motives of A.S. Pushkin
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born on May 26 (June 6), 1799 in Moscow, in the German Quarter. Brought up by French tutors, from home schooling he took out only an excellent knowledge of French and a love of reading.
In 1811, Pushkin entered the newly opened Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. After graduating from the Lyceum in June 1817, with the rank of collegiate secretary, Pushkin was appointed to serve in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, where he did not work even a day, completely devoting himself to creativity. The poems “Liberty”, “To Chaadaev”, “Village”, “On Arakcheev” belong to this period.
Even before graduating from the Lyceum, in 1817, he began to write the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila", which he finished in March 1820.
In May he was exiled to the south of Russia for "flooding Russia with outrageous verses". In July 1823, Pushkin was transferred under the command of Count Vorontsov, and he moved to Odessa. In Mikhailovsky, where he was exiled in 1824, Pushkin formed himself as a realist artist: he continued to write "Eugene Onegin", began "Boris Godunov", wrote poems "Davydov", "On Vorontsov", "On Alexander I", etc. .
In 1828, Pushkin left without permission for the Caucasus. The impressions of this trip are conveyed in his essays “Journey to Arzrum”, poems “Caucasus”, “Collapse”, “On the Hills of Georgia”.
In 1830, a cholera epidemic forced him to stay in Boldino for several months. This period of the poet's work is known as "Boldino Autumn". In Boldin, such works as "The Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", "Little Tragedies", "The House in Kolomna", "The Tale of the Priest and his Worker Balda", the poems "Elegy", "Demons", "Forgiveness" and many others, completed "Eugene Onegin".
In the summer of 1831, Pushkin again entered the civil service in the Foreign Collegium with the right of access to the state archive. He began to write "The History of Pugachev", a historical study "The History of Peter I".
The last years of Pushkin's life passed in a difficult situation, increasingly aggravated relations with the tsar and enmity towards the poet of influential circles of the court and bureaucratic aristocracy. But, although in such conditions creative work could not be intensive, it was in recent years that The Queen of Spades, Egyptian Nights, The Captain's Daughter, the poem The Bronze Horseman, and fairy tales were written.
At the end of 1835, Pushkin received permission to publish his own journal, which he called Sovremennik.
In the winter of 1837 between A.S. Pushkin and Georges Dantes had a conflict that led to a duel on January 27, 1837. In this duel, the poet was mortally wounded and died two days later. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was buried near the walls of the Svyatogorsky Monastery, near the Mikhailovskoye estate.
The following periods are distinguished in Pushkin's work:
1).1813 - May 1817 - lyceum period. The time of poetic self-determination, the time of choosing the path. "To a Poet Friend", "Memories in Tsarskoye Selo"
2) June 1817 – May 1820 - Petersburg period. A decisive stage in the formation of Pushkin's original poetic style. "Liberty", "Village", "To Chaadaev", "Ruslan and Lyudmila"
3) May 1820 - August 1824 - period of southern exile. Romantic lyrics. “The daylight has gone out”, “The flying ridge is thinning clouds”, “To Ovid”, “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, “The Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Brothers - Robbers”, “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray”, “Gypsies”
4) August 1824 - September 1826 - the period of exile in Mikhailovskoye. Time for a change in aesthetic orientations. "To the Sea", "Prophet", "I Remember a Wonderful Moment", "The Burnt Letter", "Count Nulin", "Boris Godunov", 3-6 chapters of "Eugene Onegin"
5) September 1826 - September 1830 - works of the second half of the 1920s. "Arion", "In the depths of the Siberian ores", "Stans", "Poet", "To the poet", "Do I wander along the noisy streets", "Poltava", "Arap of Peter the Great"
6) September - November 1830 - Boldin autumn. The most fruitful period of creativity. "Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin". “House in Kolomna”, “little tragedies” (“The Miserly Knight”, “Mozart and Salieri”, “Stone Guest”, “Feast during the Plague”, “The Tale of the Priest and his worker Balda”, “Elegy”, “ Demons”, finished “Eugene Onegin”
7) 1831 - 1836 - creativity of the 30s. "The Captain's Daughter", "The Bronze Horseman", "The Queen of Spades", "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish", "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Bogatyrs", "I Visited Again", "The Desert Fathers and Immaculate Wives", "I erected a monument to himself not made by hands"
Romanticism is an ideological trend in art and literature that appeared in Europe in the 90s of the 18th century and became widespread in other countries of the world (Russia is one of them), as well as in America. The main ideas of this direction is the recognition of the value of the spiritual and creative life of each person and his right to independence and freedom. Very often, in the works of this literary trend, heroes with a strong, rebellious disposition were depicted, the plots were characterized by a bright intensity of passions, nature was depicted in a spiritualized and healing way.
Having appeared in the era of the Great French Revolution and the world industrial revolution, romanticism changed such a direction as classicism and the Enlightenment as a whole. In contrast to the adherents of classicism, who support the ideas of the cult significance of the human mind and the emergence of civilization on its foundations, romantics put mother nature on a pedestal of worship, emphasize the importance of natural feelings and the freedom of aspirations of each individual.
(Alan Maley "The Graceful Age")
The revolutionary events of the late 18th century completely changed the course of everyday life, both in France and in other European countries. People, feeling acute loneliness, were distracted from their problems by playing various games of chance, and having fun in a variety of ways. It was then that the idea arose to imagine that human life is an endless game, where there are winners and losers. In romantic works, heroes were often depicted opposing the world around them, rebelling against fate and fate, obsessed with their own thoughts and reflections on their own idealized vision of the world, which sharply disagrees with reality. Realizing their defenselessness in a world ruled by capital, many romantics were in confusion and confusion, feeling infinitely lonely in the life around them, which was the main tragedy of their personality.
Romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century
The main events that had a huge impact on the development of romanticism in Russia were the War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising of 1825. However, distinguished by originality and originality, Russian romanticism of the early 19th century is an inseparable part of the pan-European literary movement and has its common features and basic principles.
(Ivan Kramskoy "Unknown")
The emergence of Russian romanticism coincides in time with the maturing of a socio-historical turning point in the life of society at a time when the socio-political structure of the Russian state was in an unstable, transitional state. People of advanced views, disappointed in the ideas of the Enlightenment, promoting the creation of a new society based on the principles of reason and the triumph of justice, resolutely rejecting the principles of bourgeois life, not understanding the essence of antagonistic life contradictions, felt feelings of hopelessness, loss, pessimism and disbelief in a reasonable solution to the conflict.
Representatives of romanticism considered the human personality, and the mysterious and beautiful world of harmony, beauty and high feelings contained in it, to be the main value. In their works, representatives of this trend depicted not the real world, too base and vulgar for them, they displayed the universe of feelings of the protagonist, his inner world, filled with thoughts and experiences. Through their prism, the outlines of the real world appear, with which he cannot come to terms and therefore tries to rise above it, not obeying its social and feudal laws and morals.
(V. A. Zhukovsky)
One of the founders of Russian romanticism is the famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, who created a number of ballads and poems that had a fabulous fantastic content (“Ondine”, “The Sleeping Princess”, “The Tale of Tsar Berendey”). His works have a deep philosophical meaning, the desire for a moral ideal, his poems and ballads are filled with his personal experiences and reflections, inherent in the romantic direction.
(N. V. Gogol)
The thoughtful and lyrical elegies of Zhukovsky replace the romantic works of Gogol ("The Night Before Christmas") and Lermontov, whose work bears a peculiar imprint of an ideological crisis in the minds of the public, impressed by the defeat of the Decembrist movement. Therefore, the romanticism of the 30s of the 19th century is characterized by disappointment in real life and withdrawal into an imaginary world where everything is harmonious and perfect. Romantic protagonists were portrayed as people cut off from reality and having lost interest in earthly life, conflicting with society, and denouncing the powerful of this world for their sins. The personal tragedy of these people, endowed with high feelings and experiences, consisted in the death of their moral and aesthetic ideals.
The mindset of progressively thinking people of that era was most clearly reflected in the creative heritage of the great Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov. In his works “The Last Son of Liberty”, “Novgorod”, which clearly trace the example of the republican freedom of the ancient Slavs, the author expresses his ardent sympathy for the fighters for freedom and equality, those who oppose slavery and violence against the personality of people.
Romanticism is characterized by an appeal to historical and national sources, to folklore. This was most clearly manifested in the subsequent works of Lermontov (“The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and daring merchant Kalashnikov”), as well as in a cycle of poems and poems about the Caucasus, which was perceived by the poet as a country of freedom-loving and proud people who opposed the country of slaves and masters under the rule of the tsar-autocrat Nicholas I. The images of the main characters in the works of Izmail Bey "Mtsyri" are depicted by Lermontov with great passion and lyrical pathos, they bear the halo of the chosen ones and fighters for their Fatherland.
The early poetry and prose of Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”), the poetic works of K. N. Batyushkov, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Yazykov, the work of the Decembrist poets K. F. Ryleev, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. K. Kuchelbeker.
Romanticism in foreign literature of the 19th century
The main feature of European romanticism in foreign literature of the 19th century is the fantastic and fabulous nature of the works of this direction. For the most part, these are legends, fairy tales, novellas and short stories with a fantastic, unrealistic plot. The most expressive romanticism manifested itself in the culture of France, England and Germany, each of the countries made its own special contribution to the development and spread of this cultural phenomenon.
(Francisco Goya" Harvest " )
France. Here, literary works in the style of romanticism were of a bright political color, largely opposed to the newly-minted bourgeoisie. According to French writers, the new society that emerged as a result of social changes after the French Revolution did not understand the value of the personality of each person, destroyed its beauty and suppressed the freedom of the spirit. The most famous works: the treatise "The Genius of Christianity", the stories "Attala" and "Rene" by Chateaubriand, the novels "Delphine", "Korina" by Germaine de Stael, the novels by George Sand, Hugo "Notre Dame Cathedral", a series of novels about the musketeers Dumas, a collection writings of Honore Balzac.
(Karl Brullov "Horsewoman")
England. In English legends and traditions, romanticism was present for a long time, but did not stand out as a separate direction until the middle of the 18th century. English literary works are distinguished by the presence of a slightly gloomy Gothic and religious content, there are many elements of national folklore, the culture of the working and peasant class. A distinctive feature of the content of English prose and lyrics is the description of travels and wanderings to distant lands, their study. A striking example: "Oriental Poems", "Manfred", "Childe Harold's Journey" by Byron, "Ivanhoe" by Walter Scott.
Germany. The foundations of German romanticism were greatly influenced by the idealistic philosophical worldview, which promoted the individualism of the individual and his freedom from the laws of feudal society, the universe was viewed as a single living system. German works written in the spirit of romanticism are filled with reflections on the meaning of human existence, the life of his soul, and they are also distinguished by fabulous and mythological motifs. The most striking German works in the style of romanticism: fairy tales by Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, short stories, fairy tales, Hoffmann's novels, Heine's works.
(Caspar David Friedrich "Stages of life")
America. Romanticism in American literature and art developed a little later than in European countries (30s of the 19th century), its heyday falls on the 40s-60s of the 19th century. Such large-scale historical events as the US War of Independence at the end of the 18th century and the Civil War between North and South (1861-1865) had a huge impact on its appearance and development. American literary works can be conditionally divided into two types: abolitionist (supporting the rights of slaves and their emancipation) and eastern (supporters of plantation). American romanticism is based on the same ideals and traditions as European, in its rethinking and understanding in its own way in the conditions of a peculiar way of life and pace of life of the inhabitants of a new, little-known continent. American works of that period are rich in national trends, they have a keen sense of independence, the struggle for freedom and equality. Outstanding representatives of American romanticism: Washington Irving ("The Legend of Sleepy Hollow", "The Ghost Groom", Edgar Allan Poe ("Ligeia", "The Fall of the House of Usher"), Herman Melville ("Moby Dick", "Typey"), Nathaniel Hawthorne ("The Scarlet Letter", "The House of Seven Gables"), Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ("The Legend of Hiawatha"), Walt Whitman, (poetry collection "Leaves of Grass"), Harriet Beecher Stowe ("Uncle Tom's Cabin"), Fenimore Cooper ("The Last of the Mohicans").
And although romanticism reigned in art and literature for a very short time, and heroism and chivalry were replaced by pragmatic realism, this in no way diminishes his contribution to the development of world culture. Works written in this direction are loved and read with great pleasure by a large number of fans of romanticism around the world.
By the end of the 18th century, classicism and sentimentalism as integral trends no longer exist. In the bowels of obsolete classicism and sentimentalism, a new direction began to emerge, which was later called pre-romanticism .
Pre-romanticism is a pan-European phenomenon in the literature of the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, pre-romanticism was most clearly manifested in the work of poets and prose writers, who in 1801 united in the "Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, Sciences and Arts", which included I.P. Pnin, A.Kh. Vostokov, V.V. Popugaev, A.F. Merzlyakov, K.N. Batyushkov, V.A. and N.A. Radishchev, N.I. Gnedich. Russian pre-romanticism was formed under the influence of the ideas of the French enlighteners Rousseau, Herder and Montesquieu.
There are two essential differences between pre-romanticism and proper romanticism, and both of them are connected with the character of the hero. If the romantic hero was, as a rule, a rebel torn apart by contradictions, then the hero of pre-romanticism, experiencing conflict with the outside world, does not enter into a fight with circumstances. The hero of romanticism is a controversial personality, the hero of pre-romanticism is suffering and lonely personality, but whole and harmonious.
Alexey Fyodorovich Merzlyakov
The most striking figure of pre-romanticism was Alexey Fyodorovich Merzlyakov(1778 - 1830), professor at Moscow University, translator, teacher of Vyazemsky, Tyutchev and Lermontov. The leading genre in Merzlyakov's lyrics was the Russian song - a poem close in poetics to folk songs. The world of the poet is full of special beauty: in his poems, such images as the red sun, the bright moon, scarlet roses, noisy springs, green gardens, clear rivers are frequent. The hero of Merzlyakov's poetry is a lonely young man suffering without love and understanding of loved ones. The heroine of Merzlyakov's poetry is a beautiful girl, beautiful by nature and likened to birds and beasts. Merzlyakov's best works include "Among the Flat Valley", "Not Curly Velvet", "Nightingale", "Waiting". In his works, the subjective-personal principle prevails, and in this sense Merzlyakov is the predecessor of the poet A.V. Koltsov.
Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky
Actually romanticism began to take shape in Russia in the second decade of the 19th century - initially in the work of V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov. Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783 - 1852) is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. His poetic attitude was formed under the influence of the work of Derzhavin and Karamzin, as well as under the influence of German romantic lyrics. The main motive of Zhukovsky's poetry is evil fate gravitating over a person's life. Zhukovsky worked in the genres of ballads, elegies, poems, fairy tales, romantic stories.
In the elegies, Zhukovsky for the first time showed the human soul filled with suffering. His elegies are philosophical in nature. Main idea - the thought of the transience and mystery of life("Sea", "Evening", "Rural Cemetery").
Romanticism reached its peak in the works of E.A. Baratynsky, D.V. Venevitinov, Decembrist poets and early A.S. Pushkin. The decline of Russian romanticism is associated with the work of M.Yu. Lermontov and F.I. Tyutchev.
Characteristic features of romanticism as an artistic method.
1. The general trend of romanticism - rejection of the surrounding world, its denial. For a romantic hero, there are two worlds: the real world, but imperfect, and the dream world, the ideal world. These worlds in the mind of the hero are tragically separated.
2. The romantic hero is rebel hero. His struggle for the realization of a dream ends either in the collapse of a dream or in the death of a hero.
3. The hero of a romantic work is outside of socio-historical ties. His character, as a rule, was formed by itself, and not under the influence of the era, historical circumstances.
5. Romantic hero lives and acts in exceptional, often extreme circumstances- in a situation of lack of freedom, war, dangerous travel, in an exotic country, etc.
6. Romantic poetry is characterized by the use symbolic images. For example, among the poets of the philosophical current, the rose is a symbol of rapidly fading beauty, the stone is a symbol of eternity and immobility; for poets of the civil-heroic movement, a dagger or sword is a symbol of the struggle for freedom, and the names of tyrant-fighters contain a hint of the need to fight against the unlimited power of the monarch (for example, Brutus, the murderer of Julius Caesar, was considered by the Decembrist poets as a positive historical figure).
7. Romanticism subjective in essence. The works of the Romantics are confessional in nature.
Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov
In Russian romanticism, there are 4 currents:
A) philosophical
(Batyushkov, Baratynsky, Venevitinov, Tyutchev),
b) civil-heroic
(Ryleev, Küchelbeker, Vyazemsky, Odoevsky),
V) elegiac
(Zhukovsky),
G) Lermontov
.
The first two currents - philosophical and civil-heroic - opposed each other, as they pursued opposite goals. The second two - elegiac and Lermontov - were special models of romanticism.
Kondraty Fyodorovich Ryleev
The work of poets belonging to the philosophical movement was based on the ideas of English and German romanticism. They believed that romantic poetry should focus only on the eternal themes of love, death, art, nature. Everything vain, momentary was considered as a topic unworthy of the poet's pen.
In this regard, they opposed the poets of the civil-heroic trend, who considered it their sacred duty to address social problems in poetry, to awaken and educate patriotic feelings in the reader, to call him to fight autocracy and social injustice. Any deviations from the civil theme, the Decembrist poets considered unacceptable for true romantics.
Answers TO THE LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
Romanticism is the largest trend in European and American literature and art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange was called romantic (from English - romantic). At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. the term "romanticism" denotes a new direction opposed to classicism. Romanticism was a reaction to the crisis of all previous great styles - baroque, rococo, empire.
The main feature of romanticism is the idealization of the past (Ancient Rome - Roma, hence the name). Then romanticism begins to idealize the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages).
Romantics dreamed of a holistic resolution of all the contradictions of life. The discord between the ideal and reality acquires extraordinary sharpness and tension in romanticism, which is the essence of the so-called romantic dual world. Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity and depth of the spiritual world of man, the inner infinity of human individuality. Man for them is a microcosm, a small universe. An intense interest in strong and vivid feelings and secret movements of the soul, in its night side, a craving for the intuitive and the unconscious are the essential features of a romantic worldview. The demand for the historicity and nationality of art is one of the enduring achievements of romantic art. The historicism of the romantics' thinking is clearly manifested in the genre of the historical novel (W. Scott, F. Cooper, W. Hugo). In the field of aesthetics, romanticism contrasts the classical "imitation of nature" with the creative activity of the artist with the right to transform the real world.
Hence the following features of the poetics of a romantic work:
Symbolism of images
Brightness, colorful language
Picturesque
Personification of nature
Richness of feelings and shades
Russian romanticism borrows a lot from Western European romanticism, but at the same time solves the problems of its own national self-determination. Russian romanticism, in comparison with Western European, has its own specifics, its own national-historical roots.
Romantics claimed that the highest value is the human person, in whose soul there is a beautiful and mysterious world; only here you can find inexhaustible sources of true beauty and high feelings. Behind all this, one can see (albeit not always clearly) a new concept of a person who cannot and should no longer submit himself to the power of estate-feudal morality.
A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman" (summary)
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born in Moscow. From an early age, Pushkin was brought up in a literary environment. His father was a connoisseur of literature, had a large library, his uncle was a poet. Pushkin's house was visited by Karamzin, Zhukovsky, Dmitriev. Communication with his grandmother, with Arina Rodionovna, with his uncle Nikita Kozlov gave many impressions to young Pushkin. Father and uncle decided to send Alexander to the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where he began to study in 1811. A lot has been said about the role of the Lyceum in the development of Pushkin's personality. Let us recall the names of the friends that Pushkin found at the Lyceum: Ivan Pushchin, Wilhelm Kuchelbecker, Anton Delvig. They forever remained loyal and close friends to Pushkin. In the Lyceum, Pushkin began to write poetry, in 1814 the first poem "To a Poet Friend" was published. After graduating from the Lyceum, Pushkin did not return to Moscow, in 1817 he moved to St. Petersburg and was enrolled in the service of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In St. Petersburg, he communicated in a secular society, in a literary environment, attended balls, theaters. In 1820 he completed the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" - the first major work. For epigrams, free poems, which quickly spread throughout St. Petersburg, in 1820 Pushkin was sent to southern exile. For four years he moved to different cities: Yekaterinoslav, Chisinau, Odessa. During this exile, he wrote the romantic southern poems The Prisoner of the Caucasus, The Fountain of Bakhchisaray, The Robber Brothers, and in 1823 he began work on the novel in verse Eugene Onegin. In 1824, Pushkin was sent into northern exile to his parents' estate, Mikhailovskoye, where, after the family's departure, he lived with a nanny. There he continued to work on "Eugene Onegin", wrote "Boris Godunov", poems. There, in Mikhailovsky, his friends visited, Pushchin brought Pushkin “Woe from Wit” there, while there, Pushkin corresponded. There he found the news of the Decembrist uprising, in which many of his friends participated, and of their execution. On September 4, 1826, Nicholas 1 unexpectedly summoned Pushkin to Moscow. But the freedom granted by the king was short-lived. Already in 1328, the State Council issued a decree on the supervision of Pushkin. In the same year, he arbitrarily left for the Caucasus, where his friends served. In 1830 Pushkin got married to N. Goncharova. Before his marriage, he went to the estate in Boldino, where he was forced to stay due to quarantine. This period in Pushkin's work is called the Boldin autumn, during which he wrote a large number of literary works of various genres. May 15, 1831 Pushkin married and moved to St. Petersburg. During these years, he worked a lot in the archives, wrote works on historical topics. These are Dubrovsky, The Captain's Daughter, Pugachev's History. Pushkin, the Sovremennik magazine, was its editor, communicated with Belinsky, Gogol, and artists. Difficulties arose again when Pushkin was forced to communicate in court circles. On February 9, 1837, Pushkin shot himself in a duel with Dantes, was fatal and died on February 10 in his house on the Moika.
ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
Features.
Literature
Music.
ROMANTICISM- (French romantisme, from medieval French romant - novel) - a direction in art that was formed within the general literary trend at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. in Germany. It has become widespread in all countries of Europe and America. The highest peak of romanticism falls on the first quarter of the 19th century.
The French word romantisme goes back to the Spanish romance (in the Middle Ages, the Spanish romances were called so, and then the chivalric romance), the English romantic, which turned into the 18th century. in romantique and then meaning "strange", "fantastic", "picturesque". At the beginning of the 19th century romanticism becomes the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism.
Entering into the antithesis of "classicism" - "romanticism", the direction assumed the opposition of the classicist requirement of rules to romantic freedom from rules. This understanding of romanticism persists to this day, but, as the literary critic J. Mann writes, romanticism is “not just a denial of the“ rules ”, but following the“ rules ”more complex and whimsical.”
The center of the artistic system of romanticism is the personality,
its main conflict is between individuals and society.
Decisive n premise development of romanticism were the events of the French Revolution. The emergence of romanticism is associated with the anti-enlightenment movement, the causes of which lie in disappointment in civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, which resulted in new contrasts and contradictions, leveling and spiritual devastation of the personality.
Enlightenment preached the new society as the most "natural" and "reasonable". But reality turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", the future - unpredictable, irrational, and the modern social order began to threaten the nature of man and his personal freedom. The rejection of this society, the protest against lack of spirituality and selfishness is already reflected in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism.
Romanticism expresses this rejection most acutely. Opposed Romanticism to the Age of Enlightenment and verbally:
language romantic works, striving to be natural, "simple", accessible to all readers,
was something opposite to the classics with its noble, "sublime" thematically th, characteristic, for example, of the classical tragedy.
In late Western European romantics pessimism in relation to society, it acquires cosmic proportions, becomes the “disease of the century”. The heroes of many romantic works (F. R. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, A. Lamartine, G. Heine, etc.) are characterized by moods of hopelessness, despair, which acquire a universal character. Perfection is lost, evil rules the world, ancient chaos is resurrected. "Scary World" Theme characteristic of all romantic literature, most clearly embodied in the so-called. "black genre" (in the pre-romantic "gothic novel"– A. Radcliffe, C. Maturin,
in the drama of rock”, or “tragedy of rock”, - Z. Werner, G. Kleist, F. Grillparzer),
V works Byron, C. Brentano, E.T.A. Hoffmann, E. Poe and N. Hawthorne.
At the same time, romanticism is based on ideas that throw challenge to the "terrible world”, - above all the ideas of freedom. The disappointment of romanticism is a disappointment in reality, but progress and civilization are only one side of it. The rejection of this side, the lack of faith in the possibilities of civilization, provides another way, path to ideal to the eternal, to the absolute. This path must resolve all contradictions, completely change life. This is the path to perfection, “to the goal, the explanation of which must be sought on the other side of the visible” (A. De Vigny).
For some romantics, the world is dominated by incomprehensible and mysterious forces, which must be obeyed and not try to change fate (the poets of the “lake school”, Chateaubriand, V.A. Zhukovsky).
For others, "world evil" provoked a protest, demanded revenge, struggle. (J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mitskevich, early A. S. Pushkin).
The common thing was that they all saw in man a single entity, the task of which is not at all reduced to solving ordinary problems. On the contrary, without denying everyday life, the romantics sought to unravel the mystery of human existence, turning to nature, trusting their religious and poetic feelings.
characteristic feature of romanticism Interest in strong and vivid feelings, all-consuming passions, in the secret movements of the soul.
Attractive for romantics become fantasy, folk music, poetry, legends
Romantics turned to different historical eras, they were attracted by their originality, attracted by exotic and mysterious countries and circumstances. interest in history became one of the enduring conquests of the artistic system of romanticism. He expressed himself in the creation of the genre historical novel(F. Cooper, A. Vigny, V. Hugo), whose founder is considered to be V. Scott, and in general the novel, which acquired a leading position in the era under consideration.
Interest in history was also reflected in the works of historians of the French romantic school (O. Thierry, F. Guizot, F. O. Meunier).
During the era of Romanticism, discovery of medieval culture And admiration for antiquity does not weaken and at the end of 18 - early. 19th centuries
Variety of features of national, historical, individual also had a philosophical meaning: the wealth of a single world whole consists of the totality of these individual features, and the study of the history of each people separately makes it possible to trace, in the words of Burke, uninterrupted life through new generations following one after another.
The era of Romanticism was marked flowering of literature, one of the distinguishing features of which was passion for social and political issues.
Romanticism is connected both with the legacy of the Enlightenment and with the artistic movements that preceded it. So a lyrical intimate psychological novel and a story by Atala (1801) and Rene (1802) Chateaubriand, Delphine (1802) and Corinne, or Italy (1807) J. Stahl, Oberman (1804) E.P. Senancourt, Adolf (1815) B .Konstana - had a great influence on the formation French romanticism. Genre of the novel receives further development: psychological (Musset), historical (Vigny, early work of Balzac, P. Merime), social (Hugo, George Sand, E. Xu). romantic criticism represented by Stahl's treatises, Hugo's theoretical speeches, studies and articles by Sainte-Beuve, the founder of the biographical method. Here, in France, a brilliant flowering reaches poetry(Lamartine, Hugo, Vigny, Musset, Ch.O. Sainte-Beuve, M. Debord-Valmore). Appears romantic drama(A. Dumas-father, Hugo, Vigny, Musset).
For american romanticism characterized by great closeness to the traditions of enlightenment, especially among the early romantics (W. Irving, Cooper, W. K. Bryant), optimistic illusions in anticipation of the future of America. Great complexity and ambiguity are characteristic of mature American romanticism: E.Poe, Hawthorne, G.W. nature and simple life, rejected urbanization and industrialization.
Romanticism in Europe. Music.
Musical romanticism is called a special style that swept Europe in the first third of the 19th century. This direction, which characterized the spiritual situation of this period, originally arose in the circle of German writers and philosophers - Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, the brothers F. and A. Schlegel, Wackenroder. Rapidly picked up by other European nations, romanticism simultaneously manifested itself in various forms of art, most clearly in music. The development of a new style in different countries took place in its own way, in accordance with the historical and cultural background of each people. However, they were united a common feature of romanticism is a reflection of a deeply hidden inner world of experiences associated with reflections on the position of man in the world and society, the loneliness of the artist among his contemporaries.
The transience of feelings replacing each other found its organic embodiment in miniature genre. It has become the most sought-after form in the work of the brightest representatives of romanticism - Frederic Chopin and Robert Schumann, Franz Schubert and Felix Mendelssohn.
Among them, a significant place belongs to the Polish composer Chopin. His works concentrate the deep psychological content and inconsistency of the romantic world, where sometimes naked despair and mental pain are hidden under the mask of a light dance genre, as, for example, in the Great Brilliant Polonaise, Op. 22.
Unlike the "hardened" romantics, Schubert and Mendelssohn belong to a group of composers who made a gradual transition from the era of classicism to romanticism in their work. The ground for a new direction was prepared by Beethoven in the late period of creativity. Schubert and Mendelssohn in many ways still belonged to the old world, adhering to the strict forms and ideals of the music of the great classics - Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. And although Mendelssohn's writings are closely connected with the classicist traditions, they do not contain literal imitation, for which he was often reproached by radical circles. The composer's goal was to revive the most viable principles of composition, to preserve the "purity" of style. Mendelssohn's music lacks the passion and dramatic intensity characteristic of mature romanticism, the themes of loneliness and misunderstanding of the modern artist are alien to him, he lacks philosophical and psychological depth.
At the same time, his Violin Concerto in E minor became a major event in instrumental music of the post-Beethoven period. Acting as a counterbalance to the outwardly spectacular, virtuoso concert pieces that were in use at that time, which are distinguished by their “poor” internal content, the Concerto contains the most characteristic features of the composer’s musical talent: song lyrics, brilliant scherzo, poetic sense of nature. A wide range of images, brightness, inspiration and Beethoven's drama make Mendelssohn's violin concerto the best symphonic phenomenon in world violin literature along with the concertos of Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, Brahms.
Nevertheless, the new wave in music was too complex and bold to define. circle of listeners. Schubert's ingenious Quartet in D minor with variations on a previously composed song called "Girl and Death" in the first performance did not arouse the admiration that accompanies him in present. time. According to the memoirs of Schubert's friends, after the performance of the quartet, the first violinist advised the composer to stay with his songs, giving an unflattering review of the music.
Richard Wagner imprinted in the world history of music as one of the many great romantic composers, and as a person who carried away most of the second half of the creative intelligentsia. 19th century Many composers of that time experienced his influence: Ernest Chausson, Franz Liszt, Claude Debussy. His famous symphonic excerpt - Ride of the Valkyries - is one of the episodes of the opera "Valkyrie" - the second part in the grandiose opera tetralogy "Rings of the Nibelungs".
1. Fryderyk Chopin (1810–1849) Andante spianate and Great Brilliant Polonaise for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 22
Vladimir Feltsman, piano, Academic Symphony Orchestra of the Moscow State Philharmonic, Dmitry Kitaenko, conductor
2. Franz Schubert (1797-1828) Quartet No. 14 in D minor "Death and the Maiden", Quartet im. Beethoven
3. Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847), Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64, movement I. Allegro molto appassionato Victor Pikaizen, violin Grand Symphony. Orchestra of the All-Union Radio and Television
Gene. Rozhdestvensky, conductor
4. Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) Tragic Overture, Op. 81. State. Symp. orchestra of the USSR Igor Markevich, conductor
5. Franz Liszt (1811–1886) Mephisto Waltz, Vladimir Ashkenazy, piano
6. Richard Wagner (1813-1883 Ride of the Valkyries from the opera "Valkyrie" . Academic Symphony Orchestra of the Leningrad State Philharmonic. Evgeny Mravinsky, conductor
