Only gradually did Russian culture recover from the consequences of the Mongol invasion, which had inflicted terrible damage on it. Interest in the structure of the Earth and the universe led to the appearance of special works. Increasing interest in medicine. Many diseases and epidemics were described in the annals, information about medicinal plants began to be systematized, and “Healers” appeared. In 1581, the first pharmacy opened in Moscow. The development of trade and money circulation caused the need to improve knowledge in arithmetic. Interest in the structure of the world also grew.
Chronicles were the main monument of socio-political and historical thought, as well as literature. The chronicle reflected the processes of social and political life that were going on in Rus'. In connection with the creation of a new large Assumption Cathedral, the Moscow annalistic code of 1480 appeared - one of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing. In the 16th century, the official character of the Moscow chronicle increased, various official documents are widely used in it. It should be noted that in the field of historical knowledge, already in the 16th century, there were changes that testify, if not to the elimination of the chronicle genre, then to the cessation of its dominance. Thus, according to a new form of presentation, in the third quarter of the 16th century, the “Book of Power of the Royal Genealogy” was compiled. Here, the presentation was carried out not by year, but by “degrees” or “facets”, that is, the historical material is grouped according to the directions of princes and metropolitans. With the formation of a single state, the desire to comprehend the history of Russia in connection with world history intensified. That is why chronographs have gained further distribution. The most famous chronograph edition of 1512 describes the events of Byzantine, South Slavic and Russian history. The basis of the literature of ancient Rus' was historical knowledge, historical facts, and these works themselves are most often stories that were part of the annals. In the second half of the 13th-15th centuries, the struggle of the Russian people against the conquerors became the central theme of literature. One of the significant works was "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", which is in the collection of the 16th century. A whole cycle of works arises under the influence of the Battle of Kulikovo. The literature of the turn of the century is associated with socio-political thought. In the letters of Sylvester, thoughts were developed about the king's high responsibility before God, the idea was expressed of the need to limit monastic land ownership, of "the wise ascetics of the king."
Architecture. Tver became the first city in North-Eastern Rus', where stone construction began again after the invasion. Here in 1285-1290 the main temple was built - the Transfiguration of the Savior. The largest center for the development of architecture in the 14th-15th centuries was Veliky Novgorod. Here, already in 1292, one of the most interesting monuments of Novgorod architecture was built - the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna. A feature of the architecture is masonry, the use of boulders and partially bricks. This created an uneven, wavy surface and reinforced the impression of raw strength and power. Now the monumental buildings of the 11th-12th centuries have been replaced by small structures. In the first half of the 14th century A new style of Novgorod architecture was developed, which flourished in the second half of the century. One of the classic monuments is the Church of Theodore Stratilat on the trading side. The example of this church shows the desire for elegant, decorative decoration of the building, which distinguishes these buildings from the more severe and strict buildings of the previous time. Soon, Novgorodians begin to avoid decorativeness, returning to the old strict forms. In the second quarter of 14, stone construction began in Moscow. In 1367 the Kremlin was built in Moscow. The largest building of the century was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna. Ancient cathedrals were erected in Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Rostov. The architecture was dominated by the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. These are cross-domed single-domed churches with three apses. The decoration is modest, but having appeared. new motifs - arches in the portals. From the images of a single state - the rise in the second half of the 15th century. The scope of construction has increased, old buildings have been restored. Traditional white-stone construction is being replaced by brickwork. A powerful impetus to the shapers of the new style was given by the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin and the Assumption Cathedral. Now everything takes on an elegant look: frescoes, patterns. In 1516, the construction of the new walls of the Kremlin was completed, and the internal layout was also formed. The city itself grew and developed. Military facilities, loopholes, watchtowers began to be strengthened, powerful fortifications were built. The further development of architecture in the first half of the 16th century was in the gradual elimination of local features in architecture. Purely secular elements penetrated places of worship. The desire for some decorativeness. Monumental buildings were erected either under the influence of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (Dmitrov's Cathedral) or in the spirit of the early Moscow traditions of the 14th century (the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal). In the 16th century In Russian architecture, the tent style began to develop. These were stone hipped-roof churches without vnutr. Pillars and a single ext. space - Intercession Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow ("St. Basil's Cathedral"). The cathedral unites nine small churches symbolizing the unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.
Painting. In Novgorod in the 14th century. As in architecture, a new style has developed in painting. In frescoes, heavy, squat figures were replaced by narrow, elongated images of people, multi-layered compositions, and the color gamut was enriched. The largest artist of the late 14th century. There was Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium. He worked in Novgorod and Moscow. Novgorod iconography gradually freed itself from following the patterns of Russian fresco painting, and already at the end of the 14th century. It developed into an independent art direction. Novgorod icons are dedicated to saints popular among the people. The saints were depicted standing in a row, the hagiographic icons were made in the form of a large image of the saint in the center, surrounded on all sides by separate episodes from the life of the saint. Within the framework of archaic traditions, Moscow painting of the first half of the 14th century also developed. Moscow began to attract the best masters of pictorial art. In addition to the "Feofanovsky" direction in Moscow painting, there are also a number of works from the Byzantine and Young Slavic artistic traditions. The pinnacle of Russian painting of this time was the work of Andrei Rublev. (Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, in Zenigorod). His painting is distinguished by softness and deep humanity. His most famous work is the icon "Trinity" for the cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. From the end of the 15th century, the Moscow school occupied a leading position in painting. The greatest artist was Dionysius (paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery), Dionysius is characterized by the richness and festivity of decorative decoration. Further, the state begins to exert ever greater weight and influence on the development of painting. Artists had to work under the control of ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Painting became more closely associated with biblical subjects. Monument of the first half of the 16th century. - frescoes of the Moscow Annunciation Cathedral, made under the direction of Theodosius, son of Dionysius. Here, Byzantine emperors and Russian princes are depicted on the walls and pillars. State tendencies became especially strong during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. By the end of the 16th century A peculiar artistic direction was developed, focusing its main attention on painting technique. This direction is named after famous industrialists and merchants "Stroganov school". Major masters of the school: Procopius Chitin, Nikifor, Istoma, Nazarius. Along with the Stroganov school, the Godunov school also spread, striving to return to the monumental forms characteristic of the late 15th century.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and course of development of the ancient Russian people. Many thousands of people perished in the fire of the invasion. The surviving artisans were taken into slavery. There was a decline in the craft: the skills of making slate spindle whorls, carnelian beads, glass bracelets, amphorae-pots, polychrome (multicolor) ceramics disappeared. Stone construction stopped for half a century. The invaders destroyed many architectural structures, and above all the city cathedrals, which were, as a rule, the last fortifications where the defenders of Russian cities repelled the onslaught of enemy troops. Many literary monuments burned down. Chronicle writing became laconic and was interrupted in almost all Russian lands (except Novgorod).
The high level of Russian culture gave her the opportunity to survive in the most difficult period of her history. Despite the horrors of the Mongol conquest, Russian culture retained its traditional character. A large role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although they were subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod).
The Mongol invasion disrupted communications between separate parts of the country. A single ancient Russian nationality became the basis on which the Great Russian (Russian), Belarusian and Ukrainian nationalities and their cultures were formed.
The content and direction of its development in the XIII-XV centuries was determined by the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the creation of a single state. Cultural-historical process ser. XIII - ser. 14th century characterized by decline and stagnation, which were due to the Mongol invasion. Its results: death and captivity of thousands of people; destruction of cities, architectural structures; the disappearance of many crafts; the cessation of stone construction for half a century; the death of literary monuments, the interruption of chronicle writing.
Cultural-historical process 2nd floor. XIV-XV centuries - this is the rise of Russian culture, due to the success of economic development, the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, the leading role of Moscow. The golden age of ancient Russian culture is the rise of culture in the 15th century. The "golden age" of Russian icon painting - the heyday of icon painting of the late XIV-XV centuries, is associated with the work of Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. Andrei Rublev owns the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank - "Savior", "Archangel Michael", "Apostle Paul". For the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad, Andrei Rublev created the famous Trinity icon, which embodies the truth of the Christian understanding of the One God in three persons.
Russian culture of the XVI century. still defined by the Christian worldview. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 played an important role in this. He approved the patterns to be followed. In icon painting, it was the work of Andrei Rublev, in architecture - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius. The ideology “Moscow is the third Rome” is being formed. It presents the historical process as a succession of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" perished because of heresy, the second Rome - Constantinople - due to the conclusion of a union with the Catholics, the third Rome - Moscow - the true guardian of Christianity. These ideas were embodied in the murals of the Smolensk Cathedral of Moscow's Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530).
In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. Secular elements in culture are more tangible. Russian culture of the 17th century. completes the medieval period of history, elements of the culture of the New Age are emerging, which is characterized by the process of comprehensive "secularization".
16. Transformations in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century: contents, results, consequences.
In the 17th century, as a result of the activities of the first Romanovs, the socio-economic and political crisis of the Time of Troubles was overcome. At the end of the century, there were trends towards the Europeanization of the country. Russia pursued an active foreign policy and trade in Europe and Asia, the economy began to move from small-scale handicraft production to manufactories, Western European culture actively penetrated into the culture of Russia. For the further effective development of the country, it was necessary to provide access to the seas. The solution of this problem assumed the presence of a strong personality in power, the reorganization and rearmament of the army, the development of the economy for waging a long war. Due to the absence of the bourgeoisie, these tasks had to be solved by the autocratic power at the expense of the forces and means of the whole society. This reformer was Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725).
The activities of Peter can be divided into two periods: 1695–1715 and 1715–1725.
An important feature first period is to solve the problems of internal reorganization of the country because of the Seven Years' War. The reforms were carried out mainly by forceful methods and were accompanied by gross state intervention in the economy (regulation of trade, industry, taxes). The reforms did not have a clear plan and were carried out as a response to the needs of the current moment, the relevant people were not trained to carry out the reforms, there was a struggle with the old administrative cadres. Therefore, many reforms were unsuccessful and incomplete.
In second period reforms have become more systematic. The results of the reforms began to show, experienced people (chicks of Petrov's nest) began to appear.
On the whole, Peter's reforms were subordinated to the interests of the whole society. All the activities of Peter were based on this, although they were of a violent nature. Concerning pace of reform, then they depended on the urgency of solving a particular problem. At the same time, some reforms led to a radical breakdown of social relations and the reorganization of structures and institutions.
At the head of all reforms was the creation of a combat-ready army of the European model, all other reforms were subordinated to this main concern of Peter. At the initiative of Peter, a regular army and navy were created, military educational institutions (navigation, engineering and artillery schools) were opened, military legislation was adopted, and army and navy command and control bodies were created. The army was recruited on the basis of regular recruiting kits and was for life.
In foreign trade actively pursued a policy mercantilism(encouraging the development of own production and exports, high taxes on imports). The industry was protected from foreign competition by high import duties ( protectionist policy).
But first of all, Peter took care of those industries that worked to supply the army. Peter allowed the owners of manufactories to buy peasants to work in manufactories ( sessional peasants).
Reform control systems country was carried out according to Western, mostly Protestant models. As a result of administrative reforms, a centralized bureaucratic apparatus was formed, which on the whole survived until 1917. This apparatus was headed by the tsar himself, who had full legislative, executive and judicial power. Thus, Russia entered period of absolutism. In 1711, the finally degraded Boyar Duma was replaced by Senate whose members are appointed by the king. The function of the Senate was the issuance of decrees, it had executive and judicial power. Oversaw the activities of the Senate since 1722 prosecutor general with the right of a personal report to the king and the prosecutor's office subordinate to him. In 1717–1718, Peter replaced the old system of orders with branch orders. colleges. Cities are subject magistrates, the patriarchate was abolished in the church and the Synod. Thus the church became part of the state apparatus. In 1708-1710 passed regional reform: the country is divided into 8 provinces headed by governors who had administrative, judicial and military power. Provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.
In 1718-1724, a census was conducted and the poll tax(tax on men). This led to a doubling of taxes and the spread of serfdom to the previously free sections of the population. As a result of the census, the peasants were divided into public and private. The urban population is divided into regular(merchants, industrialists, merchants, large artisans) and irregular(small artisans and the urban poor). This division made it possible to increase the economic activity of merchants and artisans by freeing regular people from many government duties.
The privileged classes remained aristocracy and nobility. However, their land ownership was made dependent on the state service. Thus, the aristocracy and the nobility were finally equalized in rights. Promotion on the social ladder was facilitated by the introduction Table of ranks, which allowed to expand the layer of the nobility. Career advancement was determined by the professional qualities of a person.
“For military ranks who rise to the rank of chief officer (VIII class) not from the nobility, then when someone receives the rank described above, he is a nobleman, and his children who are born in the chief officer, and if there are no children at that time, but eat before, and the father will beat with his forehead, then the nobility will be given to those, only to one son, about whom the father will ask.
In the second floor. 17th century several public schools were established.
1649 - School of F. Rtishchev (school in Andreevsky Monastery).
1640s - school of Epiphanius Slavinetsky in the Miracle Monastery,
1665 - the school of Simeon of Polotsk in the Zaikonospassky Monastery operated a school for the preparation of employees for central institutions, for the Printing House (Typographic School of 1681, headed by the Russian monk Timothy and the Greek Manuel), Apothecary order, etc. 1687 the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow -Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy,where they taught "from grammar, rhetoric, pietics, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology." The Academy was headed by the brothers Sophrony and Ioanniky Likhud (after Likhudov's exile in 1701, the Academy fell into decay), Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. MV Lomonosov also studied at this academy.
The sale in Moscow testifies to the interest of Russian people in literacy(1651) within one day"Primer" by V. F. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. were publishedGrammar by Meletius Smotrytsky(1648) and multiplication table"Convenient Counting" (1682). But: Psalter.
In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great success was achieved in the field of medicine (“Herbalists”, “Healers”, “Pharmacopoeia” by Ivan Venediktov, “On the structure of the human body” - translated by Epiphanius Slavinetsky) in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc.), in the observation of nature.
Age of great geographical discoveries. 1632 - the Cossacks reached Lena, founded Yakutsk; Elisey Buza discovered Yana, Indigirka, and Kopylov reached the Sea of Okhotsk ( 1639 ). In 1643 Kolesnikov reached Baikal, and Poyarkov discovered Amur, which was explored in 1650-1651. Khabarov. 1654 The Argun, Selenga and Ingoda rivers were discovered. 1675-1678 . - expedition to China O.N. Spafarius, compiled "Description of the first part of the Universe, called Asia", "The Legend of the great Amur River".
1692-1695 . - The Dutchman Isbrant Edes compiled a description of the part of Russia in the border area with China. IN 1648 the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America, discovered the river. Anadyr. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev. E. P. Khabarov 1649 . made a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. In the very late 17th century . Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril islands. 1690 naval officer Dubrovin made a map of Turkestan. The first map of the Moscow state was drawn up at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries, 1640 - “Painting to Siberian cities and prisons”, and in 1672 - "Drawing of the Siberian land."
Literature. In the 17th century the last official annalistic compositions were created."New Chronicler"(30s) outlined the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.
The central place in historical literature was occupied by historical stories that hadpublicistic nature.For example, a group of such stories (“The Time of the Deacon Ivan Timofeev”, “The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn”, “Another Tale”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.
The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century.genre of satire, where already fictional characters act. The “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazinsky Petition” contained a parody of the church service, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, and “The Tale of Ruff Ershovich” contained judicial red tape and bribery. The new genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed work on history. The Kiev monk Innocent Gizel compiled a "Synopsis" (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint history of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian history.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, Novgorod art was the most advanced. Novgorod suffered least of all from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, retained the old foundations of age-old folk culture and its ties with Western Europe. Therefore, it was in Novgorod that wonderful works of architecture and painting were created during this period. The churches built in Novgorod in the 14th century were distinguished by their simplicity, almost square shape, while inside the large expanses of smooth walls were covered from top to bottom with frescoes.
Novgorod frescoes of the second half of the 14th century (the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, in Bolotovo, etc.) speak of the interest of artists in wildlife and man. The best artist of the 14th century was Theophan the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod, and then in Moscow. The fame of the Novgorod painters penetrated abroad, where they were invited to work.
In the 15th century, grandiose work was underway in Moscow to rebuild and create the Kremlin with its cathedrals, palaces and chambers. Masters of various Russian regions - Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Vladimir-Suzdal Principality take part in this work.
The activity of the brilliant Russian painter Andrei Rublev dates back to the beginning of the 15th century.
In his work, as in the painting of the Novgorodians of the 16th century, the same interest in man, in his spiritual life, in nature is reflected. According to Rublev, he surpasses the Novgorodians in the skill of execution. He paints faces (for example, the icon "Trinity") of a distinctly Russian type.
In the field of architecture, it was in the 16th century that a peculiar Moscow style arose. Without breaking the connection with antiquity, the construction of the 16th century intensively developed the so-called tent architecture (roof - tent), which transferred to stone architecture the type of wooden buildings characteristic of folk building art.
One of the first remarkable monuments of such stone tent buildings is the church built in 1532 in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow.
It is a huge height (about 62 m) tower, completed with a tent. In the architecture of the building, the builders tried to convey an irresistible desire to go up. This was characteristic of the growing and strengthening Moscow state.
Even more striking in beauty and picturesque creation of Russian architecture of the 16th century is St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555 - 1660) - the construction of Russian masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma The cathedral was built by order of Ivan the Terrible in memory of the conquest of Kazan. Like the church in the village of Kolomenskoye, this cathedral is a majestic monument of that time, striving to convey the power and strength of the Russian state. These were wonderful works of Russian folk art.
Interest in political topics is manifested in Painting. So, for example, the icon "Church Militant" depicted the return to Moscow of Ivan the Terrible at the head of the Moscow army from a victorious campaign against Kazan.
The art of the 17th century is characterized by a desire for decorativeness. Colored tiles, white stone, and shaped bricks are widely used in architecture. The walls of buildings are decorated with various patterns that give a play of colors.
The same variegation, a penchant for pomp, for a racing finish of details can be observed in painting. The main genre in painting is the portrait, “parsuna”, as they said then.
The greatest master of painting in the 17th century was Simon Ushakov (1626-1686). Ushakov painted icons and portraits, made drawings to decorate wooden benches for coins, painted the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin, drew maps, etc. , as in a mirror, life should be reflected
As you can see, art (architecture, painting) is getting closer to life.
Effective preparation for the exam (all subjects) -
