Russian culture of the 15th–17th centuries. Topic: Russian culture of the 9th-17th centuries Features of Russian culture of the 15th-16th centuries

According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it was the 14th-15th centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived. In the future, this process, despite numerous moments of crisis, was no longer interrupted, but only acquired new features.

FEATURES OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE MIDDLE XIV-XV CENTURIES.
From the middle of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke had a negative impact on the pace and course of the cultural development of the ancient Russian people.
The death of many thousands of people and the capture of the best craftsmen led not only to a decline in skill, but also to the complete disappearance of some complex types of craft technology. Massive destruction delayed the development of stone construction for almost half a century. The destruction of the main cultural centers led to a reduction in the historically established ties between the lands of North-Eastern Russia. During the conquest, many architectural and literary monuments, works of fine and applied art were destroyed.
The revival of Russian culture since the end of the XIV century. Successes in economic construction, the beginning of the process of unification of Russian lands and the first major victory over the Mongol-Tatar invaders contributed to the beginning of the revival of Russian culture.
The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 and later victories over the Tatar-Mongols contributed to the rise of national self-consciousness and played an important role in restoring ties interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar conquests with Byzantium and the South Slavic countries. The nationwide struggle against foreign invaders determined the dominant role of patriotic themes in the cultural tradition of Rus' of this period.
The rise of Moscow and the gathering of Russian lands around it contributed to the restoration of broken ties between Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, when Moscow had become the most important economic, military-political and spiritual center, the process of the formation of the Russian people intensified and the tendencies of the formation of a single national culture intensified.
After the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Rus' became a stronghold of world Orthodoxy. At the end of the XV century. this contributed to the growth of the international prestige of Rus' and gave a new impetus to cultural development.

LITERATURE AND ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY

1. Epic epic.
In the 14-15 centuries. Legends about the merchant Sadko (a rich Novgorod merchant).
Tales of the bogatyr Vasily Buslaev - the hero of the Novgorod epic epic
"The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh", a city that went to the bottom of the lake, but did not surrender to the Mongols.

2. Chronicle
Chronicle writing did not lose its significance during this period, despite the destruction of almost all of its centers, with the exception of Novgorod, where it was not interrupted.

Already at the end of the XIII-beginning. 14th century new chronicle centers arose (Tver, Moscow), a new rise in the chronicle genre began.
The rise of Moscow also predetermined the special role of Moscow chronicle writing. After the Battle of Kulikovo, its content is determined by the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian lands under the leadership of Moscow. This manifested itself both in the Trinity Chronicle (beginning of the 15th century) - the all-Russian chronicle of Moscow origin, and in the Moscow annals proper of the late 15th century, designed to substantiate the historical role of Moscow.

3. Historical stories
The most common literary genre of this period was historical stories. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. Often the stories became part of the annalistic text. The story "About the Battle of the Kalka", "The Story of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", the story about Alexander Nevsky, "The Story of Schelkan", which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327, is devoted to the fight against foreign conquerors before the Battle of Kulikovo. a cycle of historical stories: "On the Battle of the Don", "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev", "Zadonshchina" (author Sofony Ryazanets)

4. The heyday of hagiographic literature of that time is also largely associated with the process of unification of Russian lands and with the need to justify the God's chosenness of Moscow. Talented writers Pachomius Lagofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the greatest church leaders in Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow; Sergius of Radonezh, who supported the Grand Duke of Moscow in the struggle for the throne and in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.
Hagiographic literature during this period is represented not only by the lives of the ascetics of the church, but also by statesmen, which brings it closer to historical and heroic works.

5. Walking
Further development was received by the literature of travels - "walking". In the last quarter of the fifteenth century a new variety of this genre appeared - secular walks, the most striking example of which is the notes of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, describing his journey to India ("Journey Beyond the Three Seas"). It was the first European written work on the economy, customs and religion of India.

Interest in world history, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - a kind of world history of that time. All R. 15th century Pakhomiy Lagofet compiled the first Russian chronograph, in which the history of Rus' is presented in connection with the history of all Slavic peoples.

ARCHITECTURE
By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, there was not a single truly majestic building in Moscow.

Even Pskov, which by this time had 60 stone churches, looked more advantageous. Active construction of the Moscow principality begins.
Continuing the traditions of northeastern Rus'. BUT!!! It attracts Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari) Based on the traditions of Russian urban planning, old Russian architecture and Renaissance style features, talented Italians worked together with Russian masters to create Russian masterpieces

What temples and buildings were built during this period

Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. Built over the coffin of Sergei Radonezh.
The murals inside were created by Andrey Rublev. The main icon of the temple of the Trinity

Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery
The oldest building in Moscow. The Life of St. Nikon reports that Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny with their icon-painting artel went to Moscow to paint the new stone cathedral of the Spas-Andronikov Monastery after they had completed their icon-painting work in the cathedral of the Trinity Monastery in 1424.

MOSCOW KREMLIN
REMIND Kalita - oak Kremlin, Donskoy - white stone

In 1485-1495. the restructuring of the Kremlin begins, brick walls are erected. The Cathedrals of the Annunciation and the Archangel, the bell tower of Ivan the Great, and the Palace of Facets are under construction.

The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square. It is the historical and architectural center of the Moscow Kremlin. It is surrounded by the Faceted and Patriarchal Chambers, the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Annunciation, the Rizopolozhenskaya Church and the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great.
CAREFULLY CONSIDER THE PHOTO (then you will need to return again and understand - where and what)

The Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin is an Orthodox church located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. Built in 1475-1479 under the direction of the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti. The main temple of the Moscow state. The oldest fully preserved building in Moscow. It was in this temple that the coronations of Russian tsars and emperors later began to take place.

The Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin is an Orthodox church located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin.
The cathedral was built in 1505-1508. under the guidance of the Italian architect Aleviz the New on the site of the old cathedral of the XIV century and consecrated on November 8, 1508 by Metropolitan Simon. In October 1508, Grand Duke Vasily III "ordered to prepare places and transfer the relics of the ancestors of his Grand Dukes of Russia" to the new Archangel Cathedral, indicating the burial rules. Tomb of the rulers of Russia

The Faceted Chamber is an architectural monument in the Moscow Kremlin, one of the oldest civil buildings in Moscow. Built in 1487-1491 by decree of Ivan III by Italian architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari. The name is taken from the eastern facade, finished with faceted stone rust (diamond rust), characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture.

Bell tower of Ivan the Great - the common name of the church-bell tower of St.

John of the Ladder, located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. The bell tower is the tallest building in the Moscow Kremlin (81 m) and until the end of the 19th century (the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior) was the tallest building in Moscow.
In the old days, royal decrees were read at the bell tower - loudly, "in all Ivanovo", as they said then.

Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin
House temple of Russian princes (tsars) Served as the entrance to the royal palace

PAINTING
As in the previous period, the church had a decisive influence on the development of painting.
The main direction in the development of painting was still icon painting.
Of great importance in painting is the personality of the artist. The author's style of the most talented painters overcomes the influence of local traditions. The work of such icon painters as Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius (late 15th-early 16th century - about him in the next topic)

A huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the brilliant artist Theophan the Greek (c. 1340-after 1405), who came from Byzantium. His works (frescoes, icons) are notable for their monumentality, expressiveness of images, bold and free painting style. Worked in Veliky Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow
Some art historians consider him to be the author of Our Lady of the Don
There are two periods in the work of Theophan the Greek: rebellious Novgorod and more calm Moscow. In Novgorod, fragments of his painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin have been preserved. In Moscow, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin, and, together with Andrei Rublev and Elder Prokhor, the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (a part of the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Annunciation by Theophanes the Greek has been preserved).
1. Don Icon of the Mother of God 2. John the Baptist.

Andrei Rublev (his associate Daniil Cherny worked with him) canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity and sublime spirituality of images, combined with softness and lyricism. His most famous work, which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, is the icon "Trinity", painted for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra
(kept in the Tretyakov Gallery). Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in Zagorsk, the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin that have come down to us, and those that died in the 18th century. Frescoes of the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow

1. Holy Trinity
2. Saved in strength

RESULTS
The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars significantly slowed down the pace of the cultural and historical process, but did not interrupt it, did not violate the continuity in the development of Russian culture of the so-called pre-Mongol period and the period of its restoration and new flourishing.
Russian culture has retained its national character. An important role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by the lands that were not defeated, such as Novgorod and Pskov. The forcible intervention of an alien culture did not destroy the national identity and independence of Russian culture.
The end of the XIV-XV centuries. characterized by the beginning of a long process of merging local literary, architectural, art schools into a single national all-Russian school. The process of folding the Russian nationality continued.

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Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Vladimir State University"

Department of History and Museology

Features of the development of Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries.

Plan:

I. Introduction. Russian culture as an original and unique phenomenon

II. Main part. The development of Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries

1. Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion for Russian culture

2. The main trends in the development of culture in the XVI century

3.Accumulation of knowledge

4. Enlightenment and book business of the XIV-XV centuries

5. Russian literature of the XIV-XV centuries

6.Architecture in the XIV-XVI centuries

7. Applied art

8. Development of painting in the XVI-XVI centuries

9. Life

10. Folklore of the 16th century

11. Features of education and printing in the XVI century

12. Scientific knowledge

13. Socio-political thought and literature

14. Orthodoxy

15.Music and theater

III. Conclusion. Specific features of Russian culture

Russian culture as an original and unique phenomenon.

Culture is a historical and multifaceted concept. Every person living in his country should know its history, especially culture. Without knowledge of the culture of past years, it is impossible to understand what people felt at that time, what internal processes gave impetus to its development, what features in culture (architecture, literature, painting, education) were evident, and which were less noticeable, what influenced its formation and development (the influence of different countries on the life of Russia was enormous).

Our culture is multilayered and exists not only as a whole. In the history of Rus' there was a period of paganism with its everyday experience, which has come down to us thanks to preserved myths and some customs. There was a culture of the Russian peasant, which differed both territorially and spiritually. There was a culture of the Russian clergy, which is also heterogeneous. Both the merchant and the city dweller had their own way of life, their circle of reading, their life rituals, forms of leisure, clothing. Of course, the life of Russian tsars and queens, the culture and life of the Russian nobility, that great Russian culture that became national, was different from all of the above.

Culture is not only books or works of art, it is, first of all, the things that surround us, our habits, the way of life that determines the daily routine, the time of various activities, the nature of work and leisure, forms of recreation, games, love ritual and funeral ritual and creates a certain cultural context around itself. Despite its diversity, Russian culture is united thanks to common customs and habits. These norms belong to culture, are transmitted through everyday life and are in close contact with the sphere of folk poetry, merging into the memory of culture. It is in it that the features are revealed by which we usually recognize our own and others, a person of a particular era and nationality.

The oldest set of meanings of the Latin word “culture”: “processing, arranging the place where you live, honoring the gods of this place and receiving patronage from them” - has been preserved in all subsequent times, and today the concept of “culture” implies the assimilation of previous experience by a person, - morality, the whole range of ideas, creativity and many other things that belonged to history. Having ceased to recognize in the historical today, ours, we in a sense cease to recognize and understand ourselves. This is the difficulty of understanding the past and the need to understand the bygone culture: it always has what we need now, today.

The development of Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion for Russian culture.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion had disastrous consequences for ancient Russian culture, although it could not completely destroy it. The devastation of Russian lands, the ruin of cities, accompanied by the destruction and destruction of material and cultural values, the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the rural and urban population, frequent raids and the collection of heavy tribute interrupted the process of the country's cultural development for a long time. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Rus', the construction of stone buildings ceased for half a century. The art of a number of artistic crafts is being lost (making mosaics, making products with niello and grain, with cloisonne enamel), and many technical techniques and skills have been forgotten. A huge number of written monuments perished, chronicle writing, painting, and applied arts fell into decay. And although there were some signs of a revival from the end of the 13th century, a decline in various areas of culture was observed until the middle of the 14th century. The disunity of the Russian lands, which increased from the middle of the 12th century, negatively affected the pace of development of all-Russian cultural processes.

As a result of state and political changes that took place in the XIII-XV centuries, the once united ancient Russian nationality was divided. Entry into different state formations made it difficult to maintain and develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the Russian lands, deepened the differences in language and culture that existed earlier. This led to the emergence on the basis of the Old Russian nationality of three East Slavic nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. Against the background of common features based on the ancient Russian cultural tradition, specific features appeared in the culture of each of these peoples, reflecting the emerging ethnic characteristics of the people and the specific historical conditions of its development. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th century and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectical differences) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory. A huge role in erasing ethnic and cultural differences was played by the movement of significant masses of the population from one region to another, caused by the invasion, as well as the colonization of new lands in the north and northeast of the country.

Only from the second half of the 14th century did a new upsurge of culture begin in the Russian lands. The main content of the cultural process was determined by the tasks of liberation from the Horde dominion and the reunification of Russian lands. The leading role of Moscow in this process is determined and its importance as one of the main cultural centers is growing. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one. In the 15th century, the national revival and strengthening of the power of the unified Russian state gave an impetus to the development of a common Russian culture. The role and importance of the Russian language is growing, literary works are increasingly subject to the theme of state building, and interest in the history of the Fatherland is growing.

The fight against the Golden Horde yoke became the main topic oral folk art. Many folk poetic works on this topic - epics, songs, legends, military tales were included in a revised form in written literature. Among them are legends about the battle on the Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu, about the hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, about the Defender of Smolensk, the youth of Mercury, who saved the city from the Mongol army at the behest of the Virgin. During this period, the creation of the epic epic cycle about Kyiv and Prince Vladimir the Red Sun is being completed. Narrating the Mongol invasion, the composers of epics refer to the images of the Kyiv heroes who drive out the invaders. In the XIV century, the Novgorod epic cycle about the merchants Vasily Buslaevich and Sadko reached its peak, embodying the idea of ​​the power and greatness of Novgorod.

This period includes the emergence of a new genre of folklore - historical song. The characters and events in it are closer to reality than in the epic epic. The songs reflected the feat of ordinary people who tried to stop the hordes of Batu. The historical song about Avdotya Ryazanochka sings of a simple townswoman who saves the inhabitants of Ryazan from the crowd and revives the city anew. The song about Shchelkan Dudentevich became a response to the anti-Horde uprising against the Baskak Cholkhan in Tver in 1327.

The main trends in the development of culture in the XVI century.

At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries, the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from Mongol-Tatar domination and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people and a single Russian language, in which the Moscow dialect and Vladimir took the leading place, had an active impact on the spiritual life of the country and the development of its culture -Suzdal dialect, becoming the basis of colloquial and business language. The beneficial influence of these factors led in the 16th century to the transformation of Russian culture, diverse in its characteristics, into a single whole.

At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, the relationship between church and state began to play a special role in the development of Russian culture.

The theocratic aspirations of the hierarchs of Russian culture at the end of the 15th century came into sharp conflict with the Grand Duke's policy of strengthening secular power, including through the secularization of church possessions. The position of the church was weakened by the struggle of factions within the church itself, as well as the growth of heretical movements. From the beginning of the 16th century, a union of state power and the "Josephite" church, based on mutual concessions, gradually formed. The church abandoned its theocratic ambitions and put forward the theory of the divine origin of the grand duke's power, securing the support of the state in the fight against its ideological enemies. The state, having abandoned plans for secularization, received the necessary ideological support from the church. The further process of strengthening autocratic power was accompanied by an effort of church and religious influence on the spiritual life of the country. The Church led the fight against "Latinism" (the influence of the Western Catholic Church), the spread of secular knowledge, and established a new regulation of architecture, painting, and literature.

Serious political and socio-economic upheavals of the second half of the 16th century and the tragic events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century significantly slowed down the forward movement in the formation of a unified Russian cultural space. Introduced in the 16th century tendency towards secularization of culture - its liberation from the influence of the church, the destruction of the religious medieval worldview, the appeal to reason - in the 16th century became the main content of the cultural and historical process.

Accumulation of knowledge.

Rus' was by no means entirely illiterate. Knowledge of writing, counting was required in many branches of this or that activity. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written monuments (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicrafts
(coins, seals, bells, weapons, jewelry, artistic casting, etc.) indicate that literate people have never been translated into Rus', not only among monks, but also among artisans and merchants. There were also among the boyars and nobles. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the 16th century various types of accounting books, documents of spiritual cloisters - monasteries, copies from documents of earlier times have been preserved.

At the disposal of scientists, despite all the losses of the Batu era and later Horde "armies", there is still a lot of handwritten material for the XIV-XVI centuries. These are documents (spiritual letters, treaties of great, including Moscow, and specific princes, economic acts of the Russian metropolis, episcopal departments of monasteries), lives of saints, annals, and many others. There are manuals on grammar, arithmetic, herbal treatment (alphabetics, herbalists, etc.).

Practical observations were accumulated, knowledge of construction techniques (which were necessary for the construction of buildings), dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, cannonballs from wall-beating and other devices; from cannons that appeared at the end of the 14th century), applied physics (minting coins, casting cannons , assembly and repair of watch movements), applied chemistry
(making paints, inks), arithmetic and geometry (description of lands, trade, etc.).

Descriptions of natural phenomena (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) are quite frequent in chronicles. Translated works were popular - "Christian Topography" by Kozma Indikoplova (traveler of the 6th century), "Shestodnev" by John, Exarch of Bulgaria, "Gromnik", etc. Astronomical observations are given in Russian manuscript collections; medical - in the same annals (description of diseases). And the collection of the 15th century, which came out of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, included comments by Galen, a Roman scientist of the 2nd century. AD, to the work of Hippocrates, the ancient Greek "father of medicine" (V-IV centuries BC). Of outstanding importance for its time was the “Book of Coal Letters” (the middle of the 14th century) - it describes how to calculate land areas and taxes from them.

The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the Novgorodian Stefan, who visited Constantinople (the middle of the 14th century); Grigory Kalika (probably visited the same city in the 14th century; later, under the name of Vasily Kalika, he became the Novgorod archbishop); Deacon of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Zosima (Constantinople,
Palestine; 1420); Suzdal monk Simeon (Ferrara, Florence, 1439); the famous Athanasius Nikitin, merchant of Tver (India, 1466-1472); merchants V. Poznyakov, T. Korobeinikov (holy places, second half of the 16th century). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of the lands they saw; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states.
3.Accumulation of knowledge

4. Enlightenment and book business of the XIV-XV centuries

5. Russian literature of the XIV-XV centuries

6.Architecture in the XIV-XVI centuries

7. Applied art

8. Development of painting in the XVI-XVI centuries

10. Folklore of the 16th century

11. Features of education and printing in the XVI century

12. Scientific knowledge

13. Socio-political thought and literature

14. Orthodoxy

15.Music and theater

III. Conclusion. Specific features of Russian culture

The unity of the Russian lands could not but be reflected in the culture of liberated Rus' in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were also applied in. Fortifications and fortresses were restored, and Kremlins were built in the cities of Rus'.

Architecture of Rus' of the 16th century. was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures are the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560). Many erected churches and temples belong to the tent style, which was common at that time (characteristic of the wooden temples of Ancient Rus').

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress was erected (in Smolensk) and the White City in Moscow is surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To the painting of the 16th century. in Russia is mainly icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The brightest monument of icon painting was the “Militant Church”. The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory for Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th century the first printing house appeared in Rus', book printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, although their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556. "anonymous" Moscow printing house. refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature of Rus' in the 16th century. includes "Stories about the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", the 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Minei", containing all works revered in Rus' for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection faded into the background) .

Fashion

In the 16th century in Rus', the clothes of the boyars, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes gave the image splendor and majesty.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Rus', so clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, the women's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions it consisted of a shirt, a kichka and a poneva skirt.

A general attire (averaged) can be considered a shirt length to the hem of a sundress, an open sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun cloth (mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights brought the country to the brink of death.

Literature of the 13th century

characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. About fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land, chronicles tell about the battle on the river. Kalke "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Rus' was preserved in the works of a later time “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “Kitezhnaya Legend”.

The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which sank into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle was composed over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verbal chronicler” (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century.

the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are being revived and new ones are developing - centers of economic life and culture.

Moscow leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, Zadonshchina (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory at the Kulikovo field.

This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephanius in the 80s. 14th century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign.

The victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period (continuity of cultures).

They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). This feature of Novgorod art was noted by Academician I. E. Grabar: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352).

Samples of the new style are the Church of Theodore Stratilates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was also carried out.

The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers.

Pskov craftsmen won great fame in Rus' and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly built and expanded.

Construction was underway in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and create a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries.

as well as architecture, became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, a clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Rus' of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water.

In the XIV century. fresco painting takes shape compositionally, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c.

1360/70 - approx. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow.

Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourishes. The works of Andrey Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the icon "Trinity".

In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a single Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture.

Works appear in the literature that support the new state policy.

The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome".

The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on raising the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and deacons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the appearance typography. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553.

IN 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings".

These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

A monument of Russian historical literature is also the "Book of Powers", compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains " Domostroy».

He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal and so on.

Architecture of the period of the XV - XVI centuries. reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th centuries.

At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495. The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479. A new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489. Annunciation Cathedral was built - the home church of the Grand Dukes.

In 1505 - 1508.

The Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple, where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the XVI century.

Culture and life of Russia in the late XV - XVI centuries.

was the construction of the temple tent type, which most clearly expressed the national identity of Russian traditions. An example of a hipped temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555-1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. "fortification construction" gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then Bely Gorod).

These works were supervised by the famous master Fedor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

Gradually, the range of painting themes is expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.

S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it is precisely the XV - XVI centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived ... "

Russian culture at the end of the XV-XVI centuries.

Cultural development of Rus' in the 16th century. It was determined by factors common to all European peoples: the formation of national states, linguistic and ethnic consolidation, the formation of common national styles in art. The spiritual life of society was still determined by the Christian worldview.

1. Features of Russian culture of the XVI century.

1.1. Process activated association of local cultural traditions and formation on the basis of their synthesis of a single national Russian culture.

1.2. Formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture.

The need to strengthen the internal and external political position of the state led to an unprecedented growth of state needs in the development of the most diverse areas of material and spiritual culture.

1.3. He played an important role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church Stoglavy Cathedral 1551, who tried regulate art.

Creativity was proclaimed as a model in painting. Rublev, from the point of view of its iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - works Metropolitan Macarius and his mug.

By limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

1.4. Despite the preservation of the dominant position of the Church, from the XVI century.

in Russian culture more tangibly than before, they begin to manifest secular and democratic elements.

1.5. The formation of domestic culture in the context of the struggle against foreign invaders predetermined a high degree patriotism, dominance heroic theme and pronounced freedom-loving tendencies.

The formation of a single centralized state, linguistic and ethnic consolidation did not lead to the destruction of the cultural identity of numerous nationalities, on the basis of which a single Great Russian was formed.

The synthesis of cultures of different peoples was organically combined with the preservation of many features of the local material and spiritual culture. The culture of the new state bore a pronounced multinational character.

2. LITERACY AND EDUCATION. THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING.

1. The development of the apparatus of power and international relations in connection with the formation of a single centralized state, the strengthening of the church and the further development of handicrafts and trade caused the growing need for literate people.

2.2. On a nationwide scale education was still primary, had a church character and was available only to the elect. Literacy was spread primarily among the feudal lords, clergy and merchants.

2.2.1. The most common was training at monasteries.

2.2.2. People of the clergy usually taught at home and in private schools; secular literate masters were extremely rare.

Theological disciplines formed the basis of any educational process. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic.

2.2.4. Liturgical books were usually used as teaching aids, only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetics appear.

2.3. Development of writing was accompanied by a change in the very technique of writing, adapting to the increased demand for books and various kinds of documents.

Culture of Russia 15th - 16th centuries

2.3.1. The main material for writing was paper, which began to be used as early as the 14th century. They brought it from Italy, France, the German states, Poland.

2.3.2. The dominant type of writing finally becomes the one that appeared in the 15th century. cursive - fluent, speedy writing.

2.4. The expensive and lengthy process of producing handwritten books no longer satisfied the increased demand for them.

An important milestone in the development of Russian culture was the appearance typography, the beginning of which dates back to 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated. Therefore, the beginning of book printing is often considered to be 1563, when a printing house was established in Moscow at the expense of the tsar's treasury. Led it Ivan Fedorov And Peter Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian dated book was published - Apostle, and in 1565 - Book of hours- a collection of daily prayers. Along with religious books, the first Russian primer(in 1574

in Lvov), but only during the sixteenth century. 20 books have been published. The leading place was still occupied by a handwritten book.

3. LITERATURE AND SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT

New social and political conditions brought new problems to the fore. Great attention in Russian literature began to be paid to questions of autocratic power, the place and significance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres.

At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

3.1. Still continued to develop annals, subordinate from now on to a single center and a single goal - the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the authority of the royal and church authorities.

Chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'. power book contains portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, arranged in 17 degrees, from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. Front Chronicle Code (Nikon Chronicle) represents a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

Further development was historical stories, in which, as before, heroic themes prevailed: Capture of Kazan, On the march of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov and etc.

3.3. undergoing significant changes travel literature. Secular motifs are on the rise, and fictional stories are increasingly included in travel descriptions.

New genre varieties of travel notes are being formed - stories of Russian ambassadors (article lists, paintings), replies of explorers.

3.4. A characteristic feature of the development of literature of this period is the emergence and rapid development of journalism, which reflected the development of socio-political thought, the emergence of ideological and philosophical controversy.

The first literary and journalistic works supported and substantiated the new state policy. IN Legends about the princes of Vladimir And Tales of Vladimir Monomakh found its expression originated at the end of the XV century.

the concept of the hereditary connection of Russian sovereigns with the Byzantine and Roman emperors. This idea was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. In the letters of Abbot Philotheus to Grand Duke Vasily III, the thesis Moscow is the third Rome, which became the ideological doctrine of the Russian autocracy.

Talented Russian publicist Ivan Peresvetov in their works The Legend of Tsar Constantine, The Legend of Mohammed-Saltan and others outlined their program of reforms in the country. He saw the ideal state structure in a strong autocratic power based on the local nobility.

Peresvetov advocated the elevation of people according to merit, and not according to wealth and nobility.

3.4.3. An interesting journalistic legacy was left by an associate of Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrey Kurbsky. In his writings History of the Grand Duke of Moscow etc.) Kurbsky advocated limiting the power of the tsar.

The well-known correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, in which they argue about the development of Rus', about the relationship of the monarch with his subjects.

A kind of encyclopedia of household and moral norms of the XVI century. is compiled with the participation of the statesman of the times of Ivan the Terrible archpriest SylvesterDomostroy - textbook of morality, which determined the behavior of a person, his duties in the family and society.

These rules subsequently became a classic example of the patriarchal way of life in the family, but at that time it contained revolutionary norms, emphasizing the soul-saving work, giving a woman a very high assessment for those times, etc.

3.6. Among the literary monuments of the XVI century. it is impossible not to mention the 13-volume code of church literature Cheti-Minei(Readings monthly) - compiled Metropolitan Macarius and his students a list of all hagiographic literature and all works of Russian medieval literature approved by the Orthodox Church.

ARCHITECTURE

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growing international prestige of the Russian state. A new stage is coming in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of domestic and European architecture.

Many monuments of the late XV-XVI centuries. are outstanding achievements not only of Russian, but also of world architecture.

4.1. Completion of the construction of the ensemble Moscow Kremlin was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Not only the best domestic, but also Italian masters took part in its creation: Pietro Antonio Solari, Aristotle Fioravanti, Mark Fryazin, Aleviz Novy.

In 1485-1495. powerful brick walls and towers were erected around the Kremlin, decorated with dovetail-shaped teeth characteristic of Italian fortress architecture - merlons.

At the same time, an architectural ensemble was formed Cathedral Square.

- A classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century. became Assumption Cathedral(1475-1479) - a cathedral church built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, but much larger in size.

— During construction Archangel Cathedral(1506-1508), which was until the beginning of the eighteenth century.

the tomb of Moscow princes and tsars, the architect Aleviz Novy connected the traditional cross-domed structure of the five-domed six-pillar church with the rich architectural decoration of the Italian Renaissance.

— Pskov craftsmen built a nine-domed Blagoveshchensky cathedral(1484-1489) - house church of Russian grand dukes and tsars; And Church of the Deposition of the Robe(1484-1489) - house church of Russian metropolitans.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them Prince's Palace consisting of several interconnected buildings. From this palace survived Faceted Chamber(1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin.

The architectural center of the Kremlin ensemble is Ivan the Great belltower, built in 1505-1508.

and built on in 1600.

The Moscow Kremlin has become a symbol of the greatness and power of the capital of the centralized Russian state.

4.2. In the XVI century. five-domed cross-domed churches were built on the model of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in almost all Russian monasteries and the main cathedrals of a number of large Russian cities.

Most famous Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

4.3. The flowering of domestic architecture also manifested itself in the emergence of a new style - tented construction based on national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, painting.

Unlike the cross-domed temples, the tented ones do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation.

One of the first monuments of this style is Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye built in 1532

by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of tent architecture is Intercession Cathedral, named at the end of the century St Basil's Church named after the famous Moscow holy fool, who was buried under one of his aisles.

The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma And Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops .

Tent temples were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Widespread in the 16th century. received the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of craft settlements and were dedicated to the saint who patronized this craft.

These buildings have not come down to us.

4.5. IN XVI century there was a rise fortress (fortification) construction.

The construction of fortresses was on a huge scale. Kremlins were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities.

In Moscow, the brick walls of the Moscow Kremlin were built, which had 20 towers (1516). In 1535-1538. Italian architect Petrokom Maly the second line of fortifications was erected, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital, - China town. In 1585-1593.

under the guidance of the city affairs master Fedora Horse, the third line of stone fortifications of Moscow was built - White City(currently the Boulevard Ring). At the end of the XVI century.

in connection with the raids of the Crimean Tatars, the last line of external fortification of Moscow was built - wooden walls on Zemlyanoy Val(now the Garden Ring).

5. ART

Fine arts developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the erasure of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable increase in secular elements.

Iconography.

5.1.1. In iconography dominated Moscow school, formed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and which became the basis of the all-Russian national icon-painting school.

5.1.2. The icon painters of township towns are increasingly deviated from classical norms, there was a greater variety in plots and colors, elements of everyday life appear.

Icons are widely used cycle of the Mother of God rejoices in you, which testifies to the special role assigned by the people's consciousness to the Mother of God.

5.1.3. From the end of the XV century. fine arts are characterized by a growing interest in real historical persons and events, the range of painting themes is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this trend, the clergy tried to take its development under their control.

Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed to depict on the icons the faces of kings, princes, as well as life letter, those. historical stories. This decision contributed to the development of the genre historical portrait.

On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. Golden Chamber of the Royal Palace(the frescoes have not been preserved).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius , continuing the traditions of Andrei Rublev. His brushes belong to the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503).

5.2. Has undergone significant changes bookminiature. The replacement of parchment with paper was reflected in its technique and coloring. The new miniatures no longer resembled enamel or mosaics, but watercolors. The characteristic features of the book miniature are the depiction of everyday scenes, the versatility of the composition.

The development of art was regulated by the church and the state: workshops were organized, the canons of icon painting were established, and special decisions were made at Church Councils on the admissibility of depicting individual characters and historical events.

The growth of cities and urban settlements, the development of handicrafts contributed to the further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow.

The best craftsmen united in the royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were very diverse: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, chasing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel and others. Outstanding success was achieved by artistic sewing, in which gold and silver threads were used instead of silk, pearls and precious stones were widely used.

The best examples of gold and silver work are stored in the Kremlin in the Armory.

6. RESULTS

7.1. In the XVI century. despite the contradictory nature of the evolution of Russian statehood, culture continued its development, reflecting both the process of centralization and the problems of the second half of the century.

7.2. There is a formation of common styles in art and common trends in the cultural life of the country.

7.3. During this period laid foundation of multinational Russian culture.

There has been a trend towards secularization culture: realistic features appeared in works of art.

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Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries.

2. Folklore.

The theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies continued to be the leading theme of UNT. In this regard, the epics of the Kyiv cycle were reworked and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

One of the most common genres of oral folk art in the 16th century was historical songs.

Songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

One of the heroes of UNT was Ivan the Terrible. His image in folk art is very controversial.

There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character were noted. Malyuta Skuratov became the negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by a cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore an active active mass of the people is depicted.

Ermak became the embodiment of the people's ideal of fighting the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a realistically achievable ideal.

3. Education and printing.

With the development of the feudal economy, handicrafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased.

The church also needed them. Education was limited to the acquisition of elementary literacy. A great achievement of Russian culture in the middle of the 16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered science under the name anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown.

The quality of the print impresses with its strict artistic design and the absence of typographical errors.

In total, about 20 books were published until the end of the 16th century, all of church and religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries did the printed book replace the handwritten one.

Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real journalistic works appeared in the form of messages and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. Chronicle writing continued to develop in the 16th century. The writings of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle collection - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the annals, further development was given to historical stories that told about the events of that time - “Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov”, “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”.

The most striking example of the domestic genre of the 16th century was Domostroy, i.e.

e. home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, raising children. Its author was supposedly the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation Sylvester.

Culture of Rus' in the 15th–16th centuries

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4.Architecture and painting.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, a new stage in the development of Russian architecture begins. The innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects invented a new system of brick ceilings - a cross vault, based not on internal pillars, but on external walls.

Such small churches were built in suburbs (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

The painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-church topics from world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, the allegorical nature of the plots is a distinctive feature of the fine arts of the 16th century.

With the growing interest in historical topics, the development of the genre of historical portraits is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the "Stroganov school" appeared. She focused on the actual painting technique. Distinctive features were: the mastery of external performance (the desire to portray the special refined beauty of figures, clothes), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters for the first time begin to sign their works.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but be reflected in the culture of liberated Rus' in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly of wood, but its principles were also applied in stone architecture.

Fortifications and fortresses were restored, and Kremlins were built in the cities of Rus'.

Architecture of Rus' of the 16th century. was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures are the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560).

Many erected churches and temples belong to the tent style, which was common at that time (characteristic of the wooden temples of Ancient Rus').

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress was erected (in Smolensk) and the White City in Moscow is surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To the painting of the 16th century. in Russia is mainly icon painting.

The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The brightest monument of icon painting was the “Militant Church”.

The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory for Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th century the first printing house appeared in Rus', book printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, although their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556.

"anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism.

Literature of Rus' in the 16th century. includes "Stories about the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", the 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Minei", containing all works revered in Rus' for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection faded into the background) .

In the 16th century in Rus', the clothes of the boyars, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments.

Such costumes gave the image splendor and majesty.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Rus', so clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, the women's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions it consisted of a shirt, kichka and a poneva skirt.

Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun cloth (mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.

time of troubles russia at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries
Beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia, called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries.

Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian War And Tatar invasion, and oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

First period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fedor came to power, but he was unable to rule.

In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov. Ultimately, his policy caused discontent among the masses.

The turmoil began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry 1st (in reality, Grigory Otrepyev), who allegedly miraculously survived the son of Ivan the Terrible.

He lured a significant part of the Russian population to his side. In 1605 False Dmitry I was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. May 17, 1606 False Dmitry 1st was killed, V.I.

Shuisky with the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second Period of Troubles

an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the rebels included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium-sized feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Dissatisfaction with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd.

In January 1608, his army headed for Moscow. By June, False Dmitry II entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Commonwealth began aggressive hostilities.

False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. In Russia, an interregnum began - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars).

Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry 2nd, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third Period of Troubles

The third stage of the Time of Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders.

After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war took on a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The troubled times are over.

Zemsky Sobor appointed king Mikhail Romanov.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Time of Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries.

It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17. Russia after the Troubles, the first Romanovs on the throne.

Culture of Russia in the 16th century: main directions

Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler from the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor.

It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and Prince Karl-Philip of Sweden also claimed the throne of Russia.

After the liberation of Moscow by Minin and Pozharsky, Mikhail's mother and the future ruler himself stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch.

In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles sought to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Michael, who was in the monastery, by sending a whole detachment for this. But, all the Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the economic life of the country gradually began to improve.

In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of an agreement with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, Prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian Tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Approximately in the same period, in order to protect against the raids of the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of security features appeared in the South of Russia.

The Cossacks actively participated in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the contrary, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of townspeople noticeably increased.

This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.

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During the 9th - 10th centuries, Kievan Rus developed and grew stronger, becoming not only a political center, but also a major center of Russian culture. Kyiv was the center of Russian crafts and trade; oriental fabrics, Byzantine products, and luxury goods from Europe were brought there. Contemporaries enthusiastically write about the wealth and glory of this city. In Kievan Rus, the remnants of moribund communal and tribal relations and patriarchal slavery still coexisted with the new feudal relations. But the latter prevailed, they determined the general character of Kievan culture, which reached its peak under Prince Vladimir (980-1015) and Grand Duke Yaroslavl (1019-1054).

Under Vladimir, who expanded and strengthened the Kievan state, Rus' adopted Christianity. At first, Vladimir tried to reform the pagan religion, gathering Slavic, Eastern and Finnish gods into a single pantheon. But this reform did not give positive results: Rus' was already surrounded by countries that adopted a monotheistic religion - Christianity. The decisive impetus for the establishment of Christianity in Rus' was the baptism of Prince Vladimir. Note that, analyzing this period, historians express a variety of opinions about the place and time of the baptism of the prince. It can be assumed that this happened in 988 during the stay of the embassy of the Byzantine emperor in Kiev.

When “choosing faiths”, which the chronicler colorfully narrates, Vladimir did not accidentally give preference to the Greek faith - Orthodoxy. The chronicler, however, makes a special emphasis on the aesthetic ritualism of Christianity. The ambassadors of Vladimir, having familiarized themselves with the peculiarities of worship in various countries, were amazed at the splendor of the Byzantine church service. “We did not know whether we were on earth or in heaven,” they declared with delight to the prince. It seems, however, that the main reasons were of a political nature. First of all, Byzantium played an active role, which, with the help of Christianity, wanted to find in Kievan Rus not only a brother in faith, but also an ally in the struggle against other states. In turn, the Kyiv prince needed to form a new religious and ideological basis for strengthening statehood. Christianity has done this very well. The wise ruler of Kievan Rus Vladimir could not but see that the adoption of Christianity from the southern neighbor fundamentally changes the idea of ​​secular power, and above all - the supreme power. Vladimir could not help but be seduced by the position of the Byzantine emperor: he was considered a sacred person, standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder. Moreover, with the adoption of Christianity, Vladimir acts both "as the sovereign of his subjects on earth" and as "their patron and intercessor in heaven."

Christianity penetrates into Rus' in various ways, and not only from Constantinople. From Bulgaria, the closest neighbor in the southwest, Christian preaching went to the Eastern Slavs, from there the first liturgical books came to Rus'. But both under Vladimir, who strengthened the Kievan state, and under Yaroslav, who completed the state work of his predecessor, ancient Rus' established close ties with Byzantium. And it's not only about politics, but also about the level of culture. Why is the culture of Byzantium so attractive to Rus'? Academician D.S. Likhachev answers this question in the following way.

It is known that the transition from the communal-patriarchal formation to feudal Rus' took place very quickly over a vast territory. Rus' practically avoided the stage of slavery. The absence of one or another stage of historical development, according to D.S. Likhachev, requires “compensation”, replenishment. As a rule, this function is performed by culture, ideology, “drawing their strength under such circumstances from the experience of neighboring peoples” /9, p. 35/. Rus' found such an experience in the culture of Byzantium.

By the 10th century, the Byzantines managed to create the highest example of culture in the feudal world. About Byzantine churches, decorated with mosaics and paintings, about the splendor of the imperial court and Tsaregrad palaces, about the splendor and splendor of the Byzantine church service, about precious luxury items created by Byzantine craftsmen, there were legends known in Kiev. Princes and feudal lords adopted Byzantine court etiquette, features of life and customs. The strongest Byzantine influence on Ancient Rus' was in the field of church ideology, liturgical literature, church music, the construction of temples and cult fine arts. Byzantium introduced Rus' to the technique of mosaics, frescoes, and tempera painting.

History, however, shows that the influence of Byzantine culture on Ancient Rus' was not only significant, but also contradictory. On the one hand, the activities of the Greeks and Byzantine culture found wide support in Rus', on the other hand, they met with strong opposition, sometimes taking the form of an open and sharp conflict.

The most indicative for the development of Russian culture was the formation of the national church and the national religious worldview. It sounds unusual: we are talking about the national form of one of the world's religious cultures. But it is precisely this process that characterizes pre-Mongol Rus. What did he express?

We note a number of significant points. Christianity came to Rus' "from above" and was assimilated, first of all, by the political and class elite. "Lowers" were rebuilt very slowly. As N. M. Nikolsky, a remarkable connoisseur of Russian history, testifies, Christian dogma and cult were not suitable for the life of the Dnieper region. “Christianity arose as a religion of slaves with a predominant eschatological content, which was subsequently reworked by theologians into a “religion of redemption.” This was completely alien and incomprehensible to the Eastern Slavs, for in Rus' there was no ground for messianic expectations.

That is why the Russian Church, forced to reckon with the spontaneous processes of popular consciousness, supported the cult of the Intercessor Mother of God in the first place and only then - the cult of Christ the Savior.

We believe, however, that the matter is not only in the reasons indicated by N. M. Nikolsky. The Mother of God was closer to the recent pagan Slav. In his mind, the Mother of God intercessor merges with the Bereginya-Earth, which he worshiped for many centuries. Moreover, in the "lower classes" there was a struggle for the people's faith, "taking here both the form of active performances under the leadership of the Magi, and the form of preserving old beliefs in everyday life, despite all sorts of sermons and influences of the authorities"

Christianity in Rus' faced such strong pagan beliefs that it had to adapt to them, replace Volos with Vlasiy, Perun with Ilya, Mokosh with Pyatnitsa-Paraskeva, and actually recognize Shrovetide and other pagan calendar holidays.

We emphasize once again: the historical conditions for the formation of Christian culture in Rus' created fertile ground for dual faith, the long-term coexistence of paganism and Orthodoxy, which was never overcome by the church. Paganism remained in the ideological tradition of the people and received a certain expression in artistic creativity. Recall that paganism required obligatory observance of specific rules and rituals, the performance of rituals. The principle of ritual, for all the difference in its forms, is close to the newly baptized Inhabitants of Rus'. Transferred to artistic culture, it formed the basis of what D.S. Likhachev called "etiquette". Creating his work, the author, the creator, as it were, performs a certain rite, participates in the ritual, obeying the "etiquette" in the choice of topics, plots, means of depiction, in the construction of images and in their characteristics. “Fine arts and literature, in their constructions idealizing reality, proceed from unified ideas about the decorum and ceremoniality necessary in works of art.” These principles are followed by the creators of ancient Russian epics, chroniclers, unnamed authors of Sermons, Teachings, and Lives. Rituals and rules obey the builders of temples and ancient Russian icon painters. But each of the created works had its own "super task", conscious or unconscious by the author. Most often, the "super tasks" contained a moral and political meaning, and this characterizes most of the art forms of Ancient Rus'. Political conditions also determine the peculiarity of the development of Russian artistic culture, which in the 11th-12th centuries had two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod.

Let us try to imagine a historical time defined by two centuries. Feudal relations are being formed, the boundaries of the ancient Russian state, powerful, strong and, of course, rich, are gradually being determined. At the end of the 10th century, a wooden temple was built in Novgorod, as contemporaries wrote, “about thirteen peaks”, which has no analogues in Byzantine architecture. In Kyiv, the main temple, especially revered by Prince Vladimir, was the Church of the Tithes - a majestic building with five naves, decorated with mosaics and frescoes.

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the Kievan state gained international prestige. Ties are being strengthened with Germany, the Balkan and Scandinavian states, relations are being established with England, France, and many other countries. Of course, the capital of the Kievan state, according to the plan of the prince, should amaze foreign ambassadors with grandeur and splendor. And this idea is most fully expressed by the Cathedral of St. Sophia, built in the center of Kyiv. In terms of breadth of architectural design, Kyiv clearly competed with Tsargrad. Sophia Cathedral was created by Byzantine architects and local Russian craftsmen. And the result of their labor was the most beautiful and most majestic creation of the XI century.

The temple is striking in its enormous length. The feeling of grandiosity is especially noticeable when you enter the inside of the cathedral: St. Sophia of Kiev is a complex structure in terms of the composition of its internal space. “To a person inside the church, it appears either full of majestic solemnity, then mysterious, then clear and open. The powerful masses of the cathedral are characterized by a tense and sublime dynamics, which corresponded to the tasks of the builders of the temple, where solemn services were performed, where the worshiper entered into mystical communion with the deity.

The ensemble of St. Sophia of Kyiv embodied not only the idea of ​​political power, but also the ideas of a medieval person about the world. The painting of the temple is also subordinated to this. A peculiar expression of the worldview was the figure of Our Lady Oranta - a symbol of the "spiritualized City", the cosmic "House of Wisdom", which the Kyiv princes considered not only their church, but also the earthly city of Kiev. For people who are not initiated into theological subtleties, this is the Mother of God-intercessor, an image understandable and close to the people's consciousness, later received the Russian name "Indestructible Wall" .. She asks Christ to "forgive human sins" and prays for people.

In the paintings of St. Sophia of Kyiv there are also secular compositions: images of buffoons, musicians, games at the Constantinople Hippodrome. In the western part of the central nave there was a group portrait of Yaroslav's family. What do the paintings show? The masters pursued the goal that inspired all medieval artists: to show the "spark of the divine" that is in all people and personifies a high moral ideal.

Kiev Sophia is more grandiose and monumental compared to the Byzantine cathedrals of those years. It could not be otherwise: the young state claimed an outstanding role in the region.

After Kyiv, stone Sophia cathedrals were erected in Novgorod and Polotsk. Spassky Cathedral was built in Chernigov. These monuments of architecture are smaller and more modest, but for all their individuality, these stone structures were stylistically united, and this unity originally captured the idea of ​​greatness, power, and the triumph of the ancient Russian state.

This idea, so thoroughly affirmed by artistic culture, has another deep meaning. The early feudal state of the Eastern Slavs was huge and did not have sufficiently strong internal ties. Economic and trade relations were weak, and the military situation of the state, torn apart by princely civil strife, inspired fear. Under these conditions, the force that held back the feudal fragmentation of Rus' became the force of high public morality, a sense of duty and loyalty, and a developed patriotic self-consciousness. All this was formed by architecture and painting, but to a greater extent - by various literary genres. The help of the church in these conditions was especially important. Let's give just one example.

The Russian Church, striving for legal and ideological autonomy from the Byzantine Church, needed the canonization of Russian saints. An indispensable condition for this was the presence of "Life", a story about the life of a person who has achieved the Christian ideal - holiness. In ancient Russian religious literature, this genre was very common, but in this case we are interested in The Tale of Boris and Gleb.

Princes Boris and Gleb, villainously murdered by their older brother Svyatopolk (the rumor called him "cursed"), fighting for autocracy, are the most popular saints of Ancient Rus'. Historical sources testify that the princes were informed about the plan of Svyatopolk. They were faced with a choice: whether to accept death at the hands of a brother or, having entered into a confrontation with him, to violate the Christian commandment to honor the elder. Boris and Gleb choose death.

Episodes related to the circumstances of the villainous murder of princes are colorfully given both in religious "Tales" (lives) and in historical chronicles. But the same motive - obedience to the elder - is given in different ways in these sources. In his life, Boris explains his choice with the words: “I will not resist, for it is written: “God opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble” / 14, p. 197/. The chronicler cites another statement by Boris: “Can I raise my hand against my elder brother? He should be my second father...” /15, p.2/. It is not difficult to see that the church, by canonizing Saints Boris and Gleb, affirms the unity of two principles: religious and moral and ethical, creating the basis of a new state ideal. For Rus' of the XI-XIII centuries, the ideal of subordinating the "junior" princes to the "senior" was especially important.

The idea of ​​establishing a great state was pivotal in Russian culture. It received a certain expression in the first chronicle of Ancient Rus' - "The Tale of Bygone Years", which marked the beginning of Russian chronicle writing. It should be emphasized that as early as the 11th-13th centuries, materials are provided that make it possible to judge the authorship of a particular cultural creation. Extraordinary, original personalities, creators of remarkable monuments of artistic and philosophical culture are put forward. Among them is Metropolitan Hilarion, the first Rusich at the head of the Kievan Church and the first Russian thinker who turned to the problems of the history of national culture. In the well-known work "The Word of Law and Grace" (1051), he offers a religious-sociological concept, according to which the history of mankind moves through a change in the forms of religion. Metropolitan Hilarion believes that there are two different principles of social organization. The first - "Law" - the basis of the subordination of peoples to each other, the second - "Grace" - the basis of complete equality. Illarion seeks to theoretically substantiate the state independence of Rus', emphasizing the greatness of Russian Christian culture. He rejects the claims of Byzantium to seniority only because this state adopted Christianity much earlier than Kyiv. Defending national self-consciousness, asserting the high level of ancient Russian culture, Illarion substantiates this quite convincingly. He believes that everything new is more perfect than the old, which means that the peoples who have newly adopted Christianity can count on more promising development.

The significance of Metropolitan Hilarion's work for Russian culture is enormous. It is not limited to the theoretical principles discussed above. It is important to note that in the "Word of Law and Grace" is formed ideal of human being. True, this formation takes place within the boundaries of Christian doctrine, but the important fact is that Russian culture addresses the problem of man, the principles of his life. Of course, the answer to the question of what a person should be could not be unambiguous. Already the first centuries of Russian Christian history are characterized by a peculiar literary polemic between the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh and the abbot of the Caves Monastery Theodosius.

“Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” contains a bold statement for that time: the world created by God is diverse, people in it are not the same, and therefore there cannot be identical moral requirements. Everything that exists in the world, "God gave to the people, for fun." Is it possible, then, to see sin in the satisfaction of the flesh, in worldly affairs? Of course not. The main indicator of piety is useful work for society, civic activity. Those who endure loneliness, blueberry, hunger are superfluous people.

Of course, Theodosius, who urged “to seek God by sobbing, tears, fasting, and by all means repent of sins every day,” was an implacable opponent of the point of view of Vladimir Monomakh.

In essence, we have two lines of culture in front of us: one takes into account the recent paganism of the Rus and assumes the priority of national-patriotic consciousness, the other, orthodox-religious, separates a person "from worldly concerns and state affairs." The history of the Russian state has confirmed the need for those religious values ​​that are based on everyday experience and are filled with "earthly content". "Earthly content" is both the unification of Rus', and the formation of principles that determine the viability of a centralized state, and the high moral ideal of those who defend the independence of the Russian land. These ideas crystallize in such monuments of ancient Russian culture as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land", in numerous chronicles of a later period associated with the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

The culture of pre-Mongol Rus, especially of the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, is characterized by the flourishing of the art of Novgorod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk. Remarkable masters of all kinds of art come forward from the people's milieu. Chronicles, princely and church, wrote a little about craftsmen. But history has preserved the names of some of them. These are the wonderful jewelers Kosta and Bratila from Novgorod, the Chernihiv foundry artist Konstantin, the Kiev mosaicist and painter Alimpiy, the architects - Novgorodians Peter and Korov Yakovlevich, Polochan John, Kievan Peter Miloneg. Their works were determined not only by Byzantine and European experience, they were based on popular tastes and features of local artistic traditions. The cultural monuments created in the most diverse corners of the Russian land testify that, by solving religious, political, moral and moral problems, Russian art forms aesthetic and artistic principles that are close and understandable to man. Let us dwell on just one example - the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), amazing in terms of craftsmanship and aesthetic significance. The construction of the church dates back to the time of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, who did a lot to ensure that Vladimir eclipsed Kyiv.

The Church of the Intercession is very poetic, it is “permeated” with a sense of lightness and light harmony. It is no coincidence that they talk about the musical associations that this temple gives rise to. The excavations of the walls showed that the creators of this masterpiece solved a very difficult task: they had to erect a temple at the confluence of the Nerl into the Klyazma as a kind of solemn monument, visible from afar. For ships sailing along the river, it meant the arrival at the princely residence. That is why the Nerlin temple was called "a stone word in praise of the prince."

But something else is more important. Firstly, "the poetry of the Church of the Intercession is an expression of deeply folk artistic ideas." Its creator "tried to evoke in the viewer a feeling of festivity, an inspiring rise in spiritual strength and warmth, which creates elegant embroidery, intricate wood carvings - in a word, folk art ..." Secondly, in the plasticity of the interiors of this church, the theme of man and the human world occupies a considerable place. And the very theme of intercession, patronage goes beyond the religious ideal, is filled with worldly, universal content. In other words, Russian artistic culture testifies to the establishment of not only theological, but also earthly, human values.

This process was lengthy and controversial, it is reflected in many monuments of ancient Russian culture. Let us turn to one of these monuments - a wonderful work of literature "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (approximately the 12th century). This is a message to the prince from a man who at one time was rich and happy, but fell into disfavor and was exiled, according to him, to Lake Lache. "Prayer" is considered the first satirical social accusatory work of ancient Russian literature.

Daniel bows before a strong princely power, recognizing its necessity for Rus', his satire is directed at the boyars and churchmen. He writes that the boyars are greedy and ready to ruin the poor, that the monks lie to God. The author talks a lot about his life, the oppression and oppression that he had to experience. For the first time in Russian literature, the theme of offended human dignity is heard in this author's confession.

"The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" testifies to a bright and bold attempt to penetrate the psychology of the character, to show the individuality and unique originality of the personality. The attempt was successful. Later, V. G. Belinsky writes about it this way: “Daniel Zatochnik ... was one of those personalities who, to their own misfortune, are too smart, too gifted, know too much and, not being able to hide their superiority from people, insult the proud mediocre; whose heart hurts where it would be better to be silent, and to be silent where it is profitable to speak ... "

In the future, the process of turning to specific, purely human characteristics of heroes in ancient Russian literature is growing. For example, the genre of historical songs is developing, in which the conventional figures of epic heroes are replaced by images of real people - heroes of ordinary height and ordinary physical strength.

The appeal to a person, the assertion of the significance of his merits and demerits, is already manifested in the culture of pre-Mongolian Rus'. But we emphasize once again: in the XII century, this process is just beginning. It could not be otherwise: the attitude towards a person is an element of a holistic “image of the world”, an idea of ​​the Universe. In the culture of pre-Mongol Rus', the image of the world is equated with the "divine cosmos". Despite the introduction of earthly human qualities and principles into this image, its essence remains deeply religious for a long time.

An indicative fact: already from the beginning of the XIV century, interesting evidence appeared in Russian chronicles. Chroniclers describe observations of natural phenomena without mentioning "God, retribution, repentance." In order to understand the origins of a new approach to the world, to imagine the process of formation new model of the universe in the ancient Russian culture of the XIV-XV centuries, we turn to such factors as education and the dissemination of natural knowledge.

In the spread of literacy, a wide variety of knowledge and enlightenment in medieval Rus', the church played a significant role. But this did not exhaust the originality of Russian culture. “The spread of knowledge and literacy went its own way in an unliterate Russian village or in a noisy trading city; special features were given to education by feudal administrative activity, which required accounting; enlightenment developed in its own way at princely courts or in distant forest monasteries”

The Russian medieval village had a significant stock of knowledge, which was primarily of practical value. They were passed down from generation to generation. Games and folklore played an important role in the upbringing of children. Proverbs and sayings were widespread - a kind of moral code, a collection of folk wisdom. Great pedagogical importance was attached in antiquity to riddles that accustomed the younger generation to "juxtapositions, allegories, and required quick wits, and often versatile knowledge" /17, p.160/. The Russian village of the XIII-XV centuries carefully treated the epic poetry of the times of Kievan Rus: epics and solemn songs about Russian heroes, victories over the enemy were a kind of oral history textbook. The desire for knowledge is one of the most characteristic features of epics. Curiosity is manifested in the epic for any reason, reflecting the period when knowledge and experience were at the initial stage of their development. To visit, to learn something hitherto unknown, to obtain new information is a characteristic feature of Ilya Muromets, forcing him to perform the most incredible feats and repeatedly expose himself to danger, which he neglected in the name of knowledge. The desire to achieve knowledge, wisdom is characteristic of many heroes of the epic. True, rational knowledge is intertwined here with irrationalism: along with exploring new lands and peoples and teaching the sciences, epic characters (like Volkh Vseslavievich) were engaged in sorcery, magic and werewolf. Experienced knowledge has not yet separated from occult ideas about the properties of nature and man.

Surprise in front of the outside world is a constant feature of the epic. It shines through in every epic, in every part of the epic story. Bylina does not want to surprise, does not engage in deliberate amusement in order to force the listener to listen with unflagging interest. This is a natural feeling, quite understandable for the time when man began to conquer the mighty forces of nature and at the same time become aware of himself. However, despite the giant step forward that mankind has taken in understanding the world, much still remained unknown, incomprehensible and terrible. Travel was dangerous, any trip outside the community, or even more so the country. Therefore, every departure was considered full of dangers from all sorts of real and imagined disasters.

The connection of village communities with the outside world was carried out through merchants, buffoons and wanderers, of whom there were so many in medieval Rus'. Literacy in the countryside was just emerging and, according to experts on ancient Russian culture, embraced village elders, clergymen, and servants of the feudal lord who lived in the village. But, despite the fact that “book education had not yet penetrated into the medieval village,” the Russian peasantry of that time “had its own culture, its own education, its own experience and skills, which created a stable foundation for all-Russian culture”

In cities and patrimonial castles, education was based largely on literacy, writing and books. Of course, in Rus', as in other countries of the medieval world, there were quite a few illiterate feudal lords, priests, and even princes: they either “barely wandered on the letter”, or “were not very well trained in books.” However, the literacy rate was quite high. Birch bark letters found in the middle of our century during excavations in Novgorod testify that many townspeople were taught to write. On parchment, on birch bark, bills of sale, wills are drawn up, chronicles, agreements with princes and neighboring states are written.

The needs of government, diplomacy, trade and worship necessitated not only literacy, but also "knowledge of book wisdom." Books were not only read, but also listened to. Reading aloud was then widespread in different strata of society. There were even special readers for whom reading aloud became a profession.

Recall that books came to Rus' with the adoption of Christianity /18, p.175/. They were brought from Byzantium, Greece, but mainly from Bulgaria. The Old Bulgarian and Old Russian languages ​​were similar, and Rus' used the Slavic alphabet created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius. The process of copying books was long and complicated, they were not written, but drawn, decorated with beautiful miniatures. Some of the books were real works of art. By the 15th century, there were already many libraries with a significant number of volumes and inventories of book wealth. Documentary materials were collected in the princely and monastic archives. It should be borne in mind that only an insignificant part of the book wealth of medieval Rus' has survived to this day. Books were plundered, burned in the fire of the Tatar pogroms, and subsequently destroyed by church censorship. And yet, the XIII-X centuries gave us 583 handwritten books. According to scientists, in the first three centuries of Christian history in Rus' there were at least 8,500 church books alone, and in subsequent centuries this number multiplies.

Books served as the main source of dissemination of natural knowledge in Rus'. Written monuments of the XIII-XIV centuries. include, firstly, a description of those natural phenomena that suddenly and powerfully violated the abnormal life of people (floods, droughts, thunderstorms, hurricanes), and secondly, reflections on the causes of phenomena and the system of the universe.

A simple description of the facts by an eyewitness, a witness of events was made either for Christian edification, or simply from the standpoint of an observer and participant in events, telling "for the memory of posterity."

Christian theological literature, dealing with questions of the structure of the universe, was diverse and full of internal contradictions. Basically, it can be divided into two groups: one of them consisted of works, the authors of which to some extent relied on ancient science, knew and appreciated Aristotle, Plato, Ptolemy, and tried only to reconcile "Hellenic philosophy" with the basic principles of Christianity. Kievan Rus drew cosmological knowledge from the works of this group. Russian scribes of the 12th century were reproached for being too familiar with the teachings of such pagans as Plato and Aristotle.

But in the XIII-XIV centuries in Rus', the works of another group began to enjoy particular popularity, and among them are such sources as The Book of Enoch and Christian Topography by Cosmas Indikoplova. The authors of the "Book of Enoch" did not try to explain the universe, they "sought to create a fantastic picture that would rule out any attempts at further questions and searches" /17, p.139/. Views on the structure of the world, the characteristics of the universe Cosmas Indikoplova obeyed Christian theology. His book contained a sharp criticism of ancient ideas about the sphericity of the earth, about the origin of rain from evaporation. In other words, the author did everything possible to destroy the "pagan" ancient picture of the world.

Such books, as the researchers write, satisfied the needs of people striving for enlightenment only "in the darkest time of the Middle Ages." Already at the beginning of the 15th century, ancient views on the shape of the earth, its position in world space, and ideas about the colossal dimensions of the Universe were reviving in Rus'. This is evidenced by a wonderful handwritten collection of the Kirillovo-Belozersky Monastery, according to legend, written by the founder of the monastery Kirill. The collection is called "The Wanderer with Other Things" and includes a number of geographical and cosmographic articles. Of particular interest are three articles on the earth, its extent, shape and position in the universe. Comparing the earth with an egg, trying to determine the "distance of heaven from earth", the compiler of the collection is not based on theological traditions. He uses, according to his own statements, the calculations of "star-watchers and surveyors."

Let us pay attention to these concepts, new for Old Russian culture. They meant that for knowledge about nature, about the earth, a simple description of the facts is no longer enough. Information based on observation and measurement is needed. And in Rus' such information appears. One of the sources of new knowledge was the works of Russian travel writers.

Travel significantly expanded the geographical horizons of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus', or, in other words, changed the spatial ideas about the world. Travel multiplied due to the expansion of trade, diplomatic relations, religious pilgrimage, and simply because interest in foreign lands and peoples is formed. Russian travelers, whose works have come down to our time, went to different parts of the world from Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Suzdal, Tver. The interest in the descriptions of Palestine, Constantinople, the countries of Western Europe was so great that geographical collections were compiled from them, repeatedly copied. One description complemented another. Merchants and pilgrims heading to the East were provided with a detailed description of the routes, indicating distances and places of interest.

The 14th-15th centuries gave the world a large number of manuscripts, testifying to the wide interest of Russian readers in distant "far-away kingdoms, far-away states." The greatest detail, accuracy of observations, and brilliance of presentation is characterized by "The Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin, a merchant from Tver. The author gives a description of the socio-economic life of India in the 15th century, which far exceeds the brief notes of Vasco da Gama.

What does the development of knowledge about the earth and about nature bring to Russian culture of the XIV-XV centuries? First of all, the basis of a new "image of the world" is being created. Its features are determined by the interaction of two gradually growing processes of Russian culture: one that began in the 12th century addressing a person with its advantages and disadvantages and going beyond the theological concept of the universe. As a result of the interaction of these processes, a new anthropomorphic "image of the world" is formed, in the center of which is a person. This meant that Ancient Rus' was moving to a new type of culture, which will be discussed in more detail later.

It moves towards a person, reflects his interests and religious consciousness. Even the problems put forward by Russian Orthodoxy in the 14th century are becoming “more humane”, they are looking for a new support in the emotional experiences of the individual. Individualism is born in the depths of religion itself, and this causes an increase in internal contradictions in ancient Russian culture as a whole. The struggle of opinions, the clash of interests, is still going on in the form of religious disputes, but the scale of this struggle is much more significant. The emerging opposition trends contain elements of free thought and even rationalist criticism of religion. In this direction, the philosophical culture of Rus' arises and is being formed.

A vivid example of the "personal" nature of theological discussions is provided by the clash around, at first glance, the purely economic question of monastic possessions. His discussion very quickly went beyond religious disputes, revealed moral overtones, put forward outstanding personalities in spiritual culture. Among them is Nil Sorsky (1433-1508). He is the first to formulate the demand of the movement he started, eloquently called "non-possessors": "so that the monasteries do not have villages, but the blacks live in the deserts, and feed on needlework."

Vassian was a student and follower of Nil Sorsky, in worldly life he was a rich and noble governor and diplomat. Vassian fought so actively for the principles of “non-possessiveness” that the authorities imprisoned him in a monastery. A sufficiently educated man, he, judging by the accusations of his opponents, knew and used the writings of Aristotle and Plato. The oblivion of the commandments of Christ, which forbid the clergy to make themselves dependent on material values, Vassian declared a direct sin and apostasy from the faith. He urged the monks to be more tolerant of the poor, to take care of their neighbors, to help the poor and the poor.

The nonpossessors criticized the important principles of the existence of the Russian church. Criticism was dangerous only because it found support among the masses. The official church, defending its own interests, declares “non-possessiveness” a heresy and supports the direction, whose representatives were called “Josephites”. The goal of the "Josephites" is to fight the "non-possessors" and destroy the followers of Nil Sorsky as heretics threatening the unity of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The forces were unequal, and the "non-possessors" were brutally dealt with. But an important question arises, which the church cannot leave unanswered: why did trends appear in Russian spiritual culture in the second half of the 15th century that were declared heretical? The "Josephites" declare: the source of "non-possessiveness" and other heresies is "ignorance" - ignorance and isolation. What is the way out? It is proposed by Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod. It is necessary, he believes, to create a network of schools that promote the spread of literacy "for the honor and glory of the sovereign and space for the clergy" /18, p.52/. Thus, the ideological struggle that unfolded, at first glance, within the framework of religion, leads to the formulation of such questions that determine the formation of ancient Russian culture as a whole: the need for a new level of education, the presence of elements of philosophical culture, a new approach to moral and ethical principles and norms . In this regard, the work of Joseph Volotsky "The Enlightener" is indicative, in which the theoretical principles of the opponents of the "non-possessors" are formulated. Interpreting biblical and gospel myths, the author goes beyond theology, trying to determine what is good and what is evil in human life.

The development of an anthropomorphic "image of the world", the appeal of ideology to man, an attempt to determine the characteristics of human relations give grounds to talk about the formation of a new type of culture in Rus'. Usually, Russian culture of the late XIV - early XV centuries is compared with the Western European Renaissance. This comparison is natural, but the fact that up to the 17th century religion occupied a priority position in the spiritual culture of Rus' allows us to speak only about individual elements of the Renaissance, about individual phenomena of a humanistic nature. This period, however, can be fully called the Pre-Renaissance - the beginning of the movement, the first stage of a new culture, not yet freed from the dominance of religion. “The pre-revival was able to embrace the entire spiritual culture in its highest manifestations without a radical break in the very relationship of spiritual culture to religion”

What is the process of rebirth connected with and what exactly is “reborn” in the culture of Ancient Rus' of the period under review? The facts testify that the appeal to a person is connected with the awakening of historical consciousness. History is no longer viewed only as a mere change of events. In the minds of people at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, the idea of ​​the nature of the era, its values ​​and ideals changed. The time has come for the idealization of the era of independence of Rus'. In ideology, the main role is played by the idea of ​​the independence of a strong and powerful Russian state, and the foundations of this ideology are found in Kievan Rus. Architects and builders draw inspiration from the cathedrals of pre-Mongolian Rus', chroniclers and writers - from such works of the 11th-13th centuries as "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In other words, for the Russian Pre-Renaissance, pre-Mongol Rus became the same as antiquity was for Western Europe.

Pre-Renaissance tendencies in Rus' already appeared at the end of the 14th century, but they gained particular strength at the beginning of the 15th century. This is associated with at least two important factors: the rise of national self-consciousness, the powerful impetus of which was the famous Battle of Kulikovo, and the strengthening of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands.

As you know, from the middle of the XIV century, the rulers of Moscow received the title of "Grand Dukes of Moscow", and under Ivan Kalita, the chair of the Metropolitan of "All Rus'" was transferred from Vladimir to Moscow. Moscow becomes a religious center, emerges victorious in the struggle against other great principalities - Tver and Ryazan, as well as Novgorod. And although it took a lot of time, the Russian people felt a single force that could resist the aggressors after the victory on the Kulikovo field.

The spiritual life of Rus' of this era was reflected in such literary works as “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev”, “The Life of Dimitri Ivanovich”, “The Tale of the Tokhtamyshev Invasion”. In them, concern for the Russian land, a great sense of patriotism are associated with an interest in human feelings and passions. But an indicator of the flourishing of Russian culture of the 15th century is the fine arts and its most striking expression - icon painting.

The icon was a classic form of medieval Russian art. It is known that she came to Rus' along with Christianity, but only a small number of icons of the pre-Mongolian period have survived to our time. One can only assume that during this period the ancient Russian icon painting strictly followed the Byzantine and Bulgarian models. Christian iconography is diverse: here are various images of the Mother of God, Christ, saints, prophets, archangels, numerous scenes, images of miracles. Sacred scenes were depicted in strict accordance with iconographic schemes, deviations from which are unacceptable.

The icon that came from foreign countries has taken a special place in Russian culture. In no other country were so many icons painted, in no other country did they receive such recognition as in Rus'. This is partly due to the conditions favorable for the development of icon painting. Forests, of which there were many in Rus', provided the necessary material, easily amenable to processing - linden and pine. Merchants imported rare paints, but very soon domestic dyes were obtained.

These are important reasons, but there were suitable conditions both in Byzantium and in the Balkans, however, icon painting did not have such a wide scope as in Rus'. In Byzantium, the icon was replaced by mosaics; in Bulgaria, during the construction of churches, special attention was paid to frescoes. And this is understandable: stone temples were built in these countries. In Rus', the most common building material was wood. Wooden churches could not be decorated with mosaics or frescoes, but the wooden icon-painting board was natural and familiar here.

Let us recall, however, that, while performing an aesthetic function, the icon had a deeply religious meaning. In the Christian cult, she became the reification of the unreal, "a manifestation of the divine essence." Therefore, the icon itself was perceived as a shrine, in it, according to the Russian philosopher E. N. Trubetskoy, we feel “embodied in images and colors, a vision of a different truth of life and a different meaning of life” / 19, p. 23 /. These “images and colors”, says the well-known researcher of Russian culture A.V. Kartashov, correspond to the psychology of a Russian person. He writes: “Russian people do not think abstractly, but in images, plastically. He is an artist, an esthete and in religion. The icon in his eyes takes on a special meaning ... the easiest way to make the invisible Church visible. And it is not surprising that the Eastern Greek icon, in itself a high creation of art in Russia ... has reached such perfection and beauty, which is still the limit in iconography.

These are the objective reasons for the wide distribution of the icon in Rus'. But its role in the national culture will not be fully disclosed if we do not single out one more, very important function of the icon. According to the aesthetic ideas of the Middle Ages, a work of art (and an icon, as mentioned above, is such) could be comprehended by a person only if “its very soul, its inner “I” was built according to the same laws as the contemplated image And this meant: if an icon is a spokesman for the highest aesthetic and moral ideals, then the same ideals characterize a person. So he was created by God. But in the soul and life of man, these ideals can be replaced by gross biological instincts. The task of the icon is to return the best spiritual qualities that were originally inherent in a person. How? Through contemplation and perception.

In other words, the Russian icon, as an element of culture, performed the function that the ancient Greeks called "catharsis" - purification through empathy and, as a result, elevation above the "physiological flesh".

The heyday of the Russian icon is associated with the work of the great masters - Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev and Dionisy. At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, Theophanes the Greek was the central figure among Moscow artists. He attracted everyone's attention with his highest professionalism and breadth of views. No wonder Epiphanius the Wise calls him "a very cunning philosopher" /22, p.113/. Theophan's Moscow workshop, where visiting Greeks collaborated with local craftsmen, produced many icons to decorate the rapidly growing iconostases. It is believed that Theophanes was the first to introduce a full-figure Deesis tier into the iconostasis composition, which immediately led to an increase in the iconostasis. Starting from the 15th century, the latter becomes an obligatory part of the interior decoration of every temple. Byzantine art did not know a high iconostasis, it should be considered an achievement of Russian culture.

In the summer of 1405, Feofan, together with two Russian masters, painted the Cathedral of the Annunciation. One of these masters is Andrei Rublev, who left such a deep mark on Russian culture that the first half of the 15th century is called the “Rublev era”.

About the biography of Andrei Rublev, one cannot say definitely, based on clear dates. It is assumed that he was born around 1360 and died in 1430 at an advanced age, "having honest gray hair." Nothing is known about the early period of the icon painter's work. Only recognized masters who carried out especially important orders were occasionally mentioned by chroniclers, and only in 1405 does the chronicle report that a simple monk Andrei Rublev takes part in the painting of the Grand Duke's Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Moscow Kremlin.

In subsequent years, Rublev created the most beautiful manuscript with miniatures - the Gospel of Khitrovo, named after its owner in the 17th century. In 1408, Andrei Rublev, together with master Daniil Cherny, painted and painted the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Soon the famous "Zvenigorod rank" was created. Only three icons have survived from him - "Savior", "Archangel Michael", "Apostle Paul". Beautiful image of the Savior. There is nothing of “Byzantine severity and dogmatism” in it, it is national Russian. In the eyes of Christ, fixed on the viewer, one senses both wisdom and kindness, he is full of attention to a person, is able to understand his soul, and therefore save it. Rublevsky Spas is not a punishing judge, he is the embodiment of benevolence and justice.

"Zvenigorod rank" testifies to the great talent and skill of the artist. However, the pinnacle of creativity
Rublev, the most perfect and famous work
became the "Trinity", written in honor of St. Sergius of Radonezh. Sergius himself especially revered the Trinity, wishing that “by the contemplation of this unity, the hated strife of this world would be overcome”

Rublev's icon depicts three angels. Which of them is the hypostasis of God the Father? There is no consensus on this matter, and for the artist this was not the main thing. Following the precepts of Sergius of Radonezh, Rublev wanted to express the idea of ​​the unity of all Russian people, to embody in the icon the ideal of self-sacrifice, love, justice, kindness and beauty. Everything is subordinated to this main idea in Rublev's "Trinity" - composition, linear rhythm, and color.

The remarkable researcher of the Russian icon, V. N. Lazarev, writes about Andrey Rublev’s “Trinity” as follows: “There is something soothing, affectionate, conducive to long-term contemplation in the icon. It makes our imagination work hard, it evokes many poetic and musical associations that endlessly enrich the process of aesthetic perception. ... The most remarkable thing in Rublev's icon is its coloring. First of all, it affects the viewer with its colors, in which there is an incomparable melodiousness. It is the colors in combination with the lines that determine the artistic appearance of the icon, clear, pure and harmonious. The color scheme of the Trinity could be called friendly, because it expresses with rare persuasiveness the friendly consent of the three angels.

Rublev's "Trinity" was the most beloved icon of ancient Russian artists, many tried to imitate her. But none of the imitators managed to create a work even close to the "Trinity". Rublev painted the icon in one of those happy moments of inspiration that only geniuses have. And he "managed to create such a work, which we rightfully consider as the most beautiful Russian icon and as one of the most perfect creations of Russian painting"

From the 70s of the XV century, Dionysius, the most famous master of that period, began to work. It is difficult to single out Dionisy's works of authorship: he never worked alone, but was a member of a squad, the composition of which changed from order to order. Together "with Mitrofan and accomplices" Dionysius paints the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Pafnutiev Monastery. Later, Dionysius painted icons for the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. The last mention of Dionysius refers to 1502-1503, when he, together with his sons, painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery.

In the art of Dionysius, the ideological currents of his time are peculiarly intertwined. He, just like Andrei Rublev, strives to embody "unearthly beauty", to depict in the images of saints such people, whose whole appearance would call for purification and moral perfection. Dionysius "preferred a state of inner concentration, he liked to convey in his works the power of wisdom, kindness, humility" To a certain extent, all this brings Dionysius's painting closer to the art of Rublev. But there are also new trends in his works. “In the faces of the saints, something monotonous appears, reducing their psychological expressiveness, in the proportions and outlines of the figures, a fragility unknown to Rublev is revealed, sometimes wearing a somewhat deliberate character. Rublev's "lordship" goes from Dionysius to “festivity”, which in itself means a decrease in the high spirituality of the image” In the 16th century, the Rublev and Dionysian traditions began to wane. The icon palette fades, the rhythm of the composition decreases. The pace of development of art, iconography in particular, is slowing down, the church jealously ensures that no bold innovations penetrate into painting. And although the theologians of the 16th century called for writing “from ancient translations, as Greek icon painters wrote and as Andrei Rublev wrote ...”, the former high level of art was no longer achieved.

The Russian icon, carrying a huge semantic load from the first centuries of Christianity to the culmination of icon painting, became a phenomenon of world culture at the beginning of the 20th century.

Developing along its own cultural path, sometimes incomprehensible to the West, ancient Rus' was long perceived by historians as a country of “semi-pagan standing in everyday life”, crushed by the state and cut off from Europe. There was a point of view according to which medieval Rus' did not have a culture worthy of attention at all. And only the discovery of the Russian icon at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century made it possible “to see in Rus',” according to G. Fedotov, “a quiet and dumb girl who saw so many secrets with her unearthly eyes and can only tell about them with signs. And for a long time she was considered a fool just because she was dumb.

In the second half of the 15th century, the Russian state was further strengthened. By the beginning of the 16th century, Moscow became the capital of a mighty Russian state, a symbol of its strength and greatness. The period of formation of the centralized Russian state (as the end of the 15th - 16th centuries is usually called) is also characterized by new processes in Russian culture. We note, first of all, that the influence of the central government extends to all spheres of life - military affairs, judicial practice, and artistic culture. Political processes find a certain expression in literature, architecture and painting, in the development of social thought and religious ideology. In the 20s of the 16th century, two most important ideological monuments appeared: the “Message on the Monomakh’s Crown” by Spiridon-Sava and the “Message to the Astrologers” by the Pskov elder Philotheus. The “Message about the Monomakh’s Crown” set forth a legend, fundamentally important for the official ideologies of the Russian autocratic state, about the origin of the grand ducal dynasty ruling in Rus' from the Roman emperor “August Caesar” and about the confirmation of its dynastic rights by the “Monomakh’s Crown”, allegedly received by Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Byzantine emperor. One of the popular literary monuments of the 16th century, The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir, was created on the basis of the “Message about the Monomakh’s Crown”, and scenes from the “Tale ...” were carved on the doors of the royal place (the fence for the throne of Ivan the Terrible) in the Assumption Cathedral .

Around 1524, Elder Philotheus, in his “Epistle to the Astrologers,” expressed an opinion that received a wide historical response: since the entire Latin (Catholic) world is sinful, both the “first Rome” and the “second Rome” (Constantinople) fell into heresy, ceased to be the centers of the Christian world. The Russian state became such a center, Moscow was proclaimed the “third Rome”, “and there will be no fourth”

Most literary monuments of the 16th century affirm the unshakable idea of ​​the special role of Russia as the only Orthodox country that has not lost its true face in the Christian world. And in the culture of that time, an attempt is made to strictly obey religious dogmas. In 1551, a Church Council was held in Moscow, the decisions of which were published in a special book, consisting of 100 chapters. Hence the name of the Cathedral - Stoglavy, and the books - Stoglav. The Council approved the church cult that had developed in Rus' as "immutable and final", its decisions are directed against any reformation-heretical teachings. For the development of Russian culture, the condemnation by the Council of the reading and distribution of "blasphemous" and "heretical repudiated books", and the speech against buffoons, "fool-makers", "guselniks" and "laughers" was of particular importance for the development of Russian culture. Strict supervision was introduced not only over icon painting, but also over the icon painters themselves. This task was also served by the organization of art workshops, in which the private life of artists and their behavior were regulated. Under circumstances that are not entirely clear, book printing, which began in the 50s and 60s of the 16th century, ceased, and the first printer Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Western Rus'. In other words, it was “about the excitation of protective principles in the mental movement of Muscovite Rus' of the 16th century”, and these “protective principles”, which resulted in tight control over culture as a whole, acquired a particularly sharp form during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

Culture (in any historical period) can be limited, its development can be slowed down, but it is impossible to stop. The 16th century was unfavorable for fiction and some forms of folk art - that, from the point of view of official authorities, was "unprofitable". But what was considered "useful" continued to evolve. The vacuum formed by the prohibition of folk art forms is gradually filled with a new kind of artistic creativity - the Russian theater is being born. Metropolitan Macarius creates "Great Menaion", in which he collects stories about all the saints revered in Rus'. Historical and literary works glorifying the policy of the Moscow Princes are being circulated. Historical works - chronographs - are created. A new type of literature, characteristic of the 16th century, emerged - secular journalism, which discussed the most important issues of public administration. In connection with the flow of “non-possessors”, “the first sprouts of the so-called “natural law” are breaking through in journalism, which began to develop especially in Russia in the second half of the 18th century and then moved into the 19th century. granted by God to all people. Prince A. M. Kurbsky, a talented publicist of the 16th century, in his polemic with Ivan the Terrible, accuses him of "closing the Russian land, that is, free human nature, like in a hellish stronghold" One of the first Russian "freethinkers" Matvey Bashkin, rebelling against slavery, he refers to the Gospel: “Christ calls everyone brothers, but we have bondage (that is, we keep slaves).” Publicist Ivan Peresvetov writes: “God created man to be autocratic and commanded himself to be master”

The spiritual culture of the 16th century, as the above examples testify, prepared the basis for ideological processes not only in the 17th century. She expressed the need for fundamental reforms, which were later carried out by Peter I.