The unity of the Russian lands could not but be reflected in the culture of liberated Rus' in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.
Architecture
In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were also applied in. Fortifications and fortresses were restored, and Kremlins were built in the cities of Rus'.
Architecture of Rus' of the 16th century. was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.
One of these structures are the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560). Many erected churches and temples belong to the tent style, which was common at that time (characteristic of the wooden temples of Ancient Rus').
Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress was erected (in Smolensk) and the White City in Moscow is surrounded by walls and towers.
Painting
To the painting of the 16th century. in Russia is mainly icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.
The brightest monument of icon painting was the “Militant Church”. The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory for Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.
Printing house
In the 16th century the first printing house appeared in Rus', book printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, although their cost exceeded handwritten work.
The first books were printed in 1553-1556. "anonymous" Moscow printing house. refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".
Literature
Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature of Rus' in the 16th century. includes "Stories about the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", the 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Minei", containing all works revered in Rus' for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection faded into the background) .
Fashion
In the 16th century in Rus', the clothes of the boyars, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes gave the image splendor and majesty.
Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Rus', so clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, the women's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions it consisted of a shirt, a kichka and a poneva skirt.
A general attire (averaged) can be considered a shirt length to the hem of a sundress, an open sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun cloth (mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.
"Russian culture at the end of the XV-XVI centuries"
At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian culture sums up the results of the outgoing Middle Ages, traditionally looks back at the past century, forms the basis for such innovations that will transform Russian culture in the 17th century and radically change at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.
The roots of many changes in culture by the 15th-16th centuries should be sought in the resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral, convened at the beginning of 1551. The tome of his decisions contains 100 chapters. Hence the name of the cathedral, as well as the book "Stoglav" itself. The cathedral legitimized many innovations that had appeared by that time in medieval traditional Russian culture, and announced a trend towards the unification of culture. The Council discussed issues of monastic land ownership, disorder in worship, violation of the ethics of behavior by clergy and monks in monasteries. The council raised the problem that "divine books are written by scribes from incorrect translations", i.e. imperfections of the handwritten method of reproduction of books, which led to distortions of the canonical text. There was a special chapter in it "On book schools in all cities." By the decision of the council, "Orthodox peasants" were to send "their children to learn to read and write and to learn book writing," and "set up a school" in the homes of "good priests and clerks." School education had to take on a broader character. In the chapter "On Divine Books," the Stoglavy Council emphasized two issues: the malfunction of existing books and the need to revise their content. He considered the cathedral and issues of icon painting, features of church decoration ("On Icon Painters and Honest Icons"). The resolutions of the council paid much attention to the unification of church rituals, resolutely advocated the eradication of pagan "demonic", "Hellenic" customs: mermaids, caroling, buffoons and the buzz of "guselniks", which in those days accompanied Christian holidays with their music.
So, on the one hand, the cathedral legitimized all the innovations of artistic culture, and on the other hand, it announced the obligatory adherence of artists, architects to the canons of the previous era: "paint icons for icon painters from ancient translations ... but from your own plan nothing can be done."
On the crest of new requirements for liturgical books, the need to "learn to read and write", there is a need for special printing printing of books.
The emergence of printing in Rus'
In the 50s of the 16th century, the first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, founded in the house of the priest Sylvester, a minister of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin and one of the leaders of the "Chosen Council" - the council under the young then 20-year-old Ivan IV the Terrible. The books of this printing house do not have an imprint that indicates the time and place of publication, the name of the owner and printer. Untitled books of seven titles are known: the narrow font "Four Gospels", the "Lenten Triodion", the medium font "Psalter", the "Colored Triodion", the wide font "Four Gospels" and the wide font "Psalter".
The Moscow origin of these books has been proved and beyond doubt. The text of the Four Gospels corresponds to the so-called fourth Slavic edition of the New Testament, and their Monthly Books include holidays of Russian origin - the Intercession of the Virgin, in memory of princes Vladimir, Boris and Gleb. The norms of spelling and language correspond to the Great Russian tradition. The fonts of the publications represent the features of the Moscow semi-ustav of the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century. Prints of headpieces and initials of this printing house are found in Moscow handwritten books.
All known folios were printed between 1553 and 1565. According to indirect documents, the names of the "masters of printed books" were established; Marushi Nefediev, Novgorodian Vasyuk Nikiforov, Andronik Timofeev Nevezhi. The activities of Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets can also be connected with the first Moscow printing house. Simon Budny writes about this in the preface to the Polish New Testament, published in Loska in 1574.
In 1560 - 1561 the question of organizing a state printing house was raised. At this time, intensive church construction was underway, and there were not enough books for the newly erected churches. Among the manuscripts, many manuscripts turned out to be dilapidated or defective from repeated scribal errors. The state of affairs was reported to the king, and he began to "think about how to present the printed book, as in the Greeks, and in Venice, and in Phrygia, and in other languages \u200b\u200b(peoples)." The tsar informed Metropolitan Macarius of his decision, who "greatly rejoiced" and blessed the tsar to found a printing house. This decree fully corresponded to the policy of centralization of the Muscovite state, which Ivan IV intensively pursued.
Ivan Fedorov was put at the head of the state printing house, who set about organizing the "drukarny" together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets. On April 19, 1563, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets "started printing the book of the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of the Council, and the Epistles of St. Paul." This edition went down in history as Ivan Fedorov's Apostle. The publication on March 11 (March 1 according to the old style), 1564, of the first accurately dated Moscow printed book was of great importance for Russian culture. Humanitarian knowledge is beginning to spread through qualitatively different channels of information. The uninterrupted typographic tradition in Rus' dates back to its existence from that time.
The first-born of the "sovereign's drukarny" seems to be a monument of art, scientific thought, literary and editorial work of the 16th century. The artistic decoration of the "Apostle" of 1564 includes a frontispiece, 48 headpieces printed from 20 boards, 22 letters from 5 boards, 54 frames of the same pattern, 24 lines of tie, one ending. Engraving technique - xylography - carving on wooden boards. The format of the book is sustained in the correct and clear multiple ratio of 3: 2 (maximum set height 21 cm, width 14 cm). The secret of the impression of amazing harmony and harmony lies not only in the perfection of printing technology, but also in the strict thoughtfulness of the proportions of its construction. The ornamental compositions of the headpieces are based on samples taken from the handwritten books of the school of Theodosius Isograph. The style of ornamentation of Fedorov's publications, which spread in printed and handwritten products of the 16th century, was called old printed (Fedorov's). Ivan Fedorov is distinguished in his work on this book by the versatility of his abilities and interests, his truly renaissance character is manifested - he is an editor, typographer, engraver in one person.
The Clockworker was the second book that Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets printed at the Moscow State Printing House. Two editions of The Clockwork were printed almost simultaneously. The imprint indicates: in the period from September 2 to October 29, 1565, and another date: August 7 - September 29, 1565. The artistic decoration of both editions includes 8 headpieces, 46 curly initials. The style of motifs has foreign origins, and a number of drawings go back to the arabesques of the Moscow art school.
The activities of Ivan Fedorov in Moscow ended with the publication of the "Apostle" and "The Clockworker", after which he was forced to leave the "first throne" - the capital city. Ivan Fedorov writes about the reasons for his departure in the afterword to the "Apostle" in 1574: in Moscow there were people who wanted to "turn good into evil and completely destroy God's work", "many heresies plotted against printers for the sake of envy."
Russian first printers moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where they were received by the great "zealot of Orthodoxy" hetman G.A. Khodkevich in Zabludovo (Belarus). In this small town with the family castle of the patron, two books were printed: "The Teaching Gospel" and "The Psalter with Chasoslavets". The work was carried out for 2 years. Date of publication of the first book: July 8, 1568 - March 17, 1569, the second: from September 26 to March 23, 1570. Books have titles - pages with imprint and the name of the edition. The first printer follows the Western tradition - this element was not in Russian manuscripts. I. Fedorov decorates the reverse of the title with a heraldic composition: the engraver's favorite arch is filled with lush acanthus foliage with a knight's plume helmet, in the center is a shield with signs and the monogram of G.A. Khodkevich. The artistic decoration of the book, in addition to the engraving mentioned above, includes a woodcut depicting the legendary author of the "Psalter" - King David on the throne. The picture is mirror-copied from the German Bible of 1560 or 1564. On March 23, 1570, the printing house in Zabludovo ceased to exist. G.A. Khodkevich suggested to I. Fedorov "to pass on the life of this world" by agriculture. The first printer replied to this that he wanted to sow spiritual seeds instead of "vital seeds."
The first printer went to Lvov. In the acts of the Lviv archives, the name of Ivan Fedorov is mentioned for the first time on January 26, 1573, in the same city he died 11 years later, he died in 1584. At the beginning of 1575, Ivan Fedorov enters the service of the Volyn prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, a man of broad educational views , moves to Ostrog for four years. Before the creation of the fourth and last printing house in Ostroh, Ivan Fedorov managed to print in Lvov from February 25, 1573 to February 15, 1574, the edition of the book "Apostle". The composition of the "Apostle" of 1574 is close to the Moscow edition of this book. The typographer was also the compiler of the ABC, which was published a few months later.
From 1578 to 1581, five editions were published in the patrimony of the Ostrozhsky princes, and the most famous of them is the Ostroh Bible. Other titles: "ABC" of 1578, "The Psalter and the New Testament" of 1580, "The Book is a collection of the most necessary things" of 1580, "Chronology" of Andrei Rymsha of 1581. The set of these books confirms the educational tendencies of Ivan Fedorov. "ABC" is one of the first textbooks that represents the unity of Eastern European culture (for example, among the reading texts is the Bulgarian "Tale" by Chernorizets Brave about the invention of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril the Philosopher). In "The Book is a collection of the most necessary things" Ivan Fedorov prints the first alphabetical and subject index in the history of documentary filmmaking, which at the same time was the first collection of aphorisms. Andrey Rymsha's "Chronology" presents the first East Slavic calendar. This is a leaflet with a list of 12 months, whose names are given in Latin, Hebrew, Ukrainian and are accompanied by two-line "verses" - verses about the most important events of the month. In the "Ostrog Bible" a grandiose plan for those times was realized for the release of the first complete Slavic Bible. The role of this book in the development of natural science and technical knowledge is great - it contained information on astronomy and mathematics, chemistry and geography, biology and medicine. The design of the Bible is simple and strict, it does not have curly engravings. For the title page, a frame-arch familiar from Moscow and Lvov editions is used. On the reverse of the title is the coat of arms of Prince K. Ostrozhsky. The book ends with the typographical mark of Ivan Fedorov.
Almost twenty years of creative life of Ivan Fedorov turned out to be surprisingly fruitful, his followers continued the "Drukar right" in Rus', Ukraine, Belarus.
Education. Scientific and technical knowledge
At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Rus' grew intensively. The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - more than 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. Priests held the primacy, clerks were the most literate. Merchants needed education. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on his difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which, after his return, were included in the chronicle.
At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. For foreigners coming to Muscovy from various European and Eastern countries, there were appropriate "tlumachs" - translators.
The level of Russian culture is marked by the appearance of a large number of educated and inquisitive people: statesmen, engineers, specialists in "mining", "arithmometers", cartographers, etc. This is the governor V.M. Tuchkov, Prince I.V. Tokmakov, I.D. Saburov, Prince P.I. Shuisky, boyar F.I. Karpov, "decorated with many minds", the boyar Bersen-Beklemishev, V. Patrikeev, Joseph Volotsky, Misyur-Munekhin, D. Gerasimov and many others.
But in the ancient Russian schools of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, only primary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the "Psalter" "and other divine books." Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. The rest of the education was received not in schools, but in communication with knowledgeable people and "multiple" reading of books. The scribes of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries were not solitary hermits, but active active people. An example is Anika Stroganov and his sons - Semyon, Maxim and Nikita - the founders of the largest trading house, experienced organizers of various crafts, metalworking, icon painting, manuscript correspondence, who, according to indirect information, ordered printed books to Ivan Fedorov. They were active organizers of the development of Siberia and the organization of a complex and extremely necessary business for Rus' - salt production. The experience of salt production was first recorded in the technical instructions for drilling for the extraction of brine, the construction of drilling rigs and the technique of excavation. The book was called like this: "Paintings, how a new pipe is conceived in a new place ..."
Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and manuals on geometry dates back to the second half of the 16th century. The use of Russian terminology in them is interesting. In practical terms, tens of thousands were called "darkness", in theoretical terms - a million, a million was followed by a "legion", followed by a legion of legions - "leodr", a leodr of leodrov - "raven". Mathematical terminology extended to units of the 49th category. Arithmetic operations sounded as follows: sum - "lower large list", terms - "lists", difference - "remainders", reduced - "loan list", subtracted - "payment list", dividend - "large list", divisor - " business list", private - "foal list", the remainder - "residual shares". The handbook on geometry for scribes, "with the application of land surveying marks," contained information on the calculation of the areas of geometric figures. Calculations for measuring areas are included in the works of Yermolai-Erasmus "The Ruler and Agriculture for the Benevolent King".
The practical use of mathematical knowledge can be seen in the experience of cannon making, in church and fortification construction. Artillery was used in the military campaigns of the Russian army. Cannons with bright names "Flying Serpent" and "Coiled Serpent", "Falcon", "Lion's Head" have been known since the siege of Kazan. Among the foundry masters of the late 16th century, Andrey Chokhov stands out. His works are marked by their large size, beauty of form and technical perfection.
His most famous work is "Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin. Its weight is 40 tons, the barrel diameter is 89 centimeters. There were no more guns like this. The gun is richly decorated, and in the muzzle, where an image was usually placed, according to which an individual name was given (leopard, bear, etc.), there is a relief of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich galloping on a horse, which is why the work was called "Tsar Cannon".
Technical skill allowed the craftsmen to cast cannons without seams, making them with a muzzle bell, which increased the charge of gunpowder. Cannons (as well as bells) were cast on life-size wax models. Rifled guns were made, which were loaded not from the front, but from the back, "breech".
Complex engineering problems were also solved by Russian architects. Ivan Grigorievich Vyrodkov, in an unusually short time, in just four weeks, built the fortress of the city of Sviyazhsk, which was strategically important for the capture of Kazan. He also supervised the construction of the tour, encircling the Kazan fortress. Complex theoretical calculations required the construction of stone churches. For example, the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in 1532 surprises with the balance of the building, in which the architects were able to calculate the supporting structures, the thickness of the walls and the huge height of the temple.
Rice. 1. "Tsar Bell".
No less complex calculations were demonstrated by the gigantic hydraulic structures of the Solovetsky Monastery. A canal system connected several dozen lakes. Mills and a forge were built, the bellows and hammers of which were set in motion by water. A stone dam with bridges was laid across the sea strait between the two islands. Stone dams surrounded the fishponds.
The ethnographic and geographical ideas of the Russian people changed more and more decisively. The first Russian encyclopedias, the so-called "Azbukovniki", included information about the western and some eastern regions. Cartography developed: schemes were drawn up for many lands of the Russian kingdom - "Drawing of Smolensk and the boundary of Smolensk volosts", "Drawing of Lukas the Great and Pskov suburbs with the Lithuanian city of Polotsk", "Drawing of Livonian cities".
At the end of the XV-XVI century, agriculture acquires a rational-scientific character. Evidence of this is the "Naziratel" - a kind of translated practical encyclopedia on issues of agricultural labor and life. In the 16th century, a classification of soils according to rye yields was established. Domostroy testifies to the use of a number of agronomic practices.
An idea of the development of biological and medical knowledge is given by the books "herbalists" and "healers". Herbalists included a detailed description of plants, pointed out their medicinal qualities, reported how they were used. Several Russian translations of Polish medical books were made in the 16th century.
Rice. 2. "Tsar - cannon"
The state supported some applied sciences, the results of which were immediately visible in trade, military campaigns, construction, but in general, education and scientific knowledge developed within the boundaries of theological and theocratic ideas about the world and society.
Literature
Old Russian medieval literature of the late - XVI century shows a traditional subordination to a kind of etiquette: in the choice of topics, plots, means of depiction, images and characteristics. Appearance and ceremoniality form the basis of the literary genre that idealizes reality. The 16th century was marked by a desire to systematize and develop literary patterns. The edification and didacticity of the word is being strengthened, and measures are being taken for the encyclopedic orderliness of the literary heritage. ("Great Cheti-Minei", "Domostroy", "Facial Vault", "Book of Powers", etc.). Generalizing encyclopedic systems tend to close the circle of topics, thoughts of literary works being read.
The narrative of literature, the interest in factography, rhetoric, and etiquette official splendor are growing. In the general artistic process, the centripetal forces of the gradual formation of a single literary space begin to prevail. The state "discipline" and the unification of the "book business" intensify the identification and emergence of the national features of Russian literature.
The growth of national self-consciousness caused an increased interest in the historical past, as well as the desire to understand the history of the Russian state within the framework of world history. Since the end of the 15th century, a number of new chronicles appeared in Moscow, socially Russian in nature, the compilers of which sought to historically prove the succession of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kievan Rus. A new rise in Russian chronicle writing begins in the 30s of the 16th century, when grandiose multi-volume codes are gradually created one after another. The chronicle is becoming more and more a literary work, losing the significance of a historical document. She comprehends the events of Russian and world history, gives instructive patriotic reading, educating citizens in the appropriate spirit.
Rice. 3. Wooden mansions in Moscow. Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle. 16th century
Extensive "Nikon Chronicle" (XVI century), "Resurrection Chronicle", "Kazan Chronicler", "Royal Chronicler", "Book of Powers", "Face Book", "History of the Kazan Kingdom", etc. show examples of the work of a chronicler-historian commissioned, on a specific state topic. True, the image of a chronicler of earlier times also does not correspond to the standard idea of a solitary monk, who, moving away from worldly bustle, scrupulously records the events of history. This is, as a rule, a one-time task, often with a specific customer, patron.
One of the largest annals was the "Facial Vault". It received such a name because it was illustrated with "history in faces": it was decorated with 16,000 excellent composite miniatures. Reinforcement of the word with pictorial material is a traditional technique of medieval culture, but in this case, in ancient Russian art, a precedent is created for a departure from the canon and the creation of compositions independent of the image by the authors. The manner of working in light transparent watercolor once again emphasizes the possibility of unconventional solutions in the new genre of fine art. This work, which has survived to our time in 6 extensive volumes, covers world history from the "creation of the world" and Russian history from 1114 to 1567. The Facial Vault became a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century.
No less significant historical and literary work was the Power Book. It was written in 1560 - 1563 on behalf of Metropolitan Macarius by the royal confessor Athanasius (Andrei, later Metropolitan). Composition Represented the history of Russia in the form of a series of biographies of the rulers, starting with the princes of Kyiv. History was covered not by years, but in the form of an ascent through degrees (that is, great principalities). The top (17th step) was the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible, contemporary to the chronicler. In the construction of the book, the idea of progress is interpreted in a peculiar way, when all previous development is declared a preparation (step, degree) for the contemporary greatness of the state. The Power Book told about the life of the tsar, his "state exploits", about the role of the church and the highest church hierarchs in the construction of a new kingdom, about the deeds of the metropolitans, affirmed the idea of the unity of autocratic and spiritual power, their union in strengthening the state.
In 1564-1565, the "History of the Kazan Kingdom" was written. The last period of the existence of the khanate and the capture of Kazan by Russian troops are described in detail. The unknown author of the story spent about 20 years in captivity and was released in 1552. Sharp observation and literary talent allowed him to realistically tell about the battles and sufferings of Russian soldiers. Disagreements among the governors were mentioned in connection with the difficulties of the campaign. The life and customs of that time of distant lands are described through the eyes of an eyewitness. But basically this work is built as a panegyric in honor of the military exploits and victories of Ivan IV.
Chronographs are a kind of historical narratives of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. In these writings, the task was to consistently illuminate world history and emphasize the role of the Russian state in it. In the “Chronograph” of 1512 that has come down to us, the presentation of world history is conducted from the “creation of the world”. Then it is said about the Assyrian and Persian kingdoms, etc., i.e. the author follows traditional biblical historiography. What is new is the dedication of the chapter to "the beginning of the kingdom of Christian tsars", which, of course, is supplemented by the events of Russian history. The "Chronograph" of 1512 ends with a story about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, i.e. a description of the end of the "second Rome", after which the history of Rus' begins as the only Christian state, as the heir to Byzantine rule and the saving center of the Orthodox world.
Local chronicle narratives are also connected to the nationwide patriotic idea. An example is "The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov." It was written by a Pskovian author in hot pursuit of the heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582.
The literature of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries has a pronounced journalistic character. This is a time of reflection, reflection and debate about the future of the country. Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself manifests himself as a passionate publicist. He discovers different aspects of literary talent - sarcasm in letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and to Vasily Gryazny, who was languishing in captivity, eloquence and intemperance - in letters to Kurbsky, Ostrozhsky.
Public political thought found expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". This work, which concluded the political theory of the state, was used by Russian diplomacy in defending the prestige of the country. The themes of the "Tale" were depicted on the bas-reliefs of the royal throne in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Official state acts and the crowning of the kingdom were based on it. According to this myth, the Moscow sovereigns were direct descendants of the Roman Emperor Augustus through Prince Vladimir.
The desire to see oneself as the heirs of the "eternal Roman kingdom" and Moscow as the heir of Byzantium led to a special deification of the royal power and the announcement of the "throne city" of Moscow as the "third Rome". The importance of Moscow is emphasized: "there will never be a fourth Rome." "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" begins with a story about the division of the land between the descendants of Noah, continues with information about the great rulers, the central place among which is occupied by Emperor Augustus. Signs of royal dignity from Augustus through Emperor Constantine are received by Vladimir after a victorious campaign in Thrace. Constantine sent him gifts - a cross "from the very life-giving tree, on which the lord Christ will be crucified", "the royal crown", a necklace "like I splash my burden", etc. The stories about the Babylonian kingdom told a wonderful story of royal regalia. The story of the Novgorod white hood (headdress) spoke of the special role of Russia in the universal church life and, in particular, emphasized the significance of the Novgorod church shrine - the white hood, which the Novgorod archbishops allegedly received from Byzantium, where he was transferred from the first Rome.
The desire to substantiate the special church significance of the Russian land was reflected in the numerous compilations of the lives (biographies) of the saints and in the establishment of their cult. These collections are a kind of Russian encyclopedia, uniting disparate phenomena of Russian culture.
A large number of writers, artists, and scribes worked on the creation of an all-Russian cult of saints under the guidance of Metropolitan Macarius. The result of this colossal 20-year work was 12 large volumes (27 thousand pages).
The books included all the "whatever", i.e. church literature read in Rus', dedicated to the lives of saints, etc., and received the name "Great Menaion" (monthly readings).
Fig.4. Construction of the Intercession Cathedral. Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle. 16th century
Domostroy can be called an encyclopedia of Russian life, representing the moral foundations of the ancient Russian family with the emphasized primacy of the husband, the head of the family. This collection formulated the rules of housekeeping, was a kind of "cookbook" that explained the Recipes for cooking lean dishes (pancakes, pies with mushrooms, milk mushrooms, poppy seeds, porridge and cabbage, fish in various forms), fast food (from meat, ham, lard) , various drinks and sweet foods (lingonberry water, March beer, raspberry juice, apples and pears in kvass and molasses, marshmallows, etc.). The house in the interpretation of Domostroy became an important part of human life, the everyday, earthly life of a Christian of the 16th century claimed the right to exist.
Rice. 5. Execution I.I. Kuvensky. Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle. 16th century
In fiction there is an interest in everyday life, history, personal relationships of people. Translated literature continues to spread, necessarily interpreted in the Russian way. About the people of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the story "About Peter and Fevronia" gracefully and leisurely told: the love story of the Murom prince Peter and the peasant girl Fevronia. Researchers compare it with the Western European medieval "poem about love" - a novel about Tristan and Isolde. The story "About Peter and Fevronia" is an ideal story about the ups and downs of two loving hearts, Fevronia does not seek love, but lives in loving harmony with herself and nature. When for the first time a princely messenger finds her in a peasant's hut for crosses, a hare gallops in front of her. Fevronia surprises the stranger with wise answers and promises to cure Prince Peter, who was poisoned by the poisonous blood of the snake he killed. A simple girl saves the prince, and he marries her. The swaggering and unkind wives of the boyars slander Fevronia before Prince: they report her disorderly behavior at the table, as if the princess, like a beggar, collects bread crumbs. But the words of the boyars turn out to be a lie: when Peter opens the palm of Fevronia, there she smells of incense and incense. Again, the boyars are dissatisfied with the princess. At the feast, "obsessed with fury," they ask Fevronia to leave Murom. The wise virgin does not object, but asks to fulfill her last request - to let Peter go with her. Leaving the princely power, he and his wife sail down the Oka. On the ship, Fevronia works wonders - with her blessing, sticks stuck in the ground grow into trees, etc. Desperate in the struggle for power, Murom boyars return the exiles. Prince Peter and the wise princess rule until old age in Murom, as "child-loving father and mother." Feeling the approach of death, they ask God to let them die at the same hour, take tonsure in different monasteries. Nun Fevroniya embroiders
spirit "(covering to the church), when she is informed about the last minutes of Peter. She asks the dying man to wait and let her complete the work. The second time Peter sends to her, telling her to say:" I will wait for you a little. "Finally, for the third time, Peter asks : "I already want to repose (die) and do not wait for you." Then Fevronia goes to this call, sticking a stick in the "air", sends to tell Peter that she is ready. So two loving hearts could not be separated neither by death nor by evil people.
folk culture
Along with the official regulated culture at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries there was a powerful stream of independent folk culture. The festive-playing, carnival-theatrical nature of this culture assumed its manifestation in the forms of oral improvisation, transmission "from mouth to mouth", from generation to generation. But in the 16th century people saw "pagan demonism" in folk traditional "games" and rituals. Significant efforts were made to eradicate "pogansky customs" - mermaids on Ivan's Day, buffoon games in "zhalniki" (cemeteries), etc. A detailed list of traditional folk customs is given by "Stoglav" and recommends the priesthood to resolutely resist them. This document, despite the exaggeration of some details, provides unique first-hand information about the culture of the 16th century. "Rusalia on Ivanov's days (Kupalye) and on the eve of the Nativity of Christ and on the eve of the Theophany of the Lord, the peoples, men and women and maidens, come together for nightly splashing and countless talk, for demonic songs and dancing, and when the night passes by, then they go to the river .. ... and with a great cry, the eyes of demons are washed with water ... ". "And on Maundy Thursday they burn straw and call for the dead ... priests on Maundy Thursday put salt under the throne and keep tacos until the seventh quarter of the day, and that salt is given to heal people and cattle." "On Trinity Saturday, men and women gather in villages and graveyards on the pity and cry over the coffin of the dead with a great cry, and when the buffoons learn to play all sorts of demonic games and they have ceased from weeping, they will begin to jump and dance, and in the arms of the beat, and songs of Sotonin peti".
Figure 6. V.N. Kazarin. Festive festivities in Little Russia.
At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, attempts were made to unify the norms of culture, to sanction many forms of its manifestation. From the diversity of Russian laughter carnival culture, only the cult of holy fools "For Christ's sake" remained. The habits of buffoons to accompany performances with sharp jokes and remarks about "those in power" have been preserved in the right of holy fools to speak out, "regardless of faces." Tradition ascribes to the Pskov holy fool Nikola the merit of saving Pskov. He sent the king a piece of raw meat, to which Grozny replied: "I am a Christian and do not eat meat during fasting." Nikola remarked: "Is it really a sin to eat a piece of animal meat during fasting, but is there no sin in eating so much human meat?" The holy fool stopped the executions with the words: "Ivashka, Ivashka, how long will you shed Christian blood without guilt? Think about it and leave at that very moment, or a great misfortune will befall you." Frightened by the words of Nikola, the Terrible quickly left Pskov.
The 16th century canonizes the great truth-seeker Basil the Blessed. The life of this holy fool was overgrown with legends, in which the people made him an accuser of the king's unrighteous deeds. According to legend, during the Novgorod campaign, Ivan the Terrible visited the saint's cave somewhere above the Volkhov. The holy fool treats the king with raw blood and meat. In response to Grozny's objections, he shows him the souls of innocent martyrs ascending to heaven. The king, horrified, orders the executions to be stopped.
Very common in ancient Rus' were historical legends, epics, songs. Echoes of this can be heard in chronicle narratives of the 15th-16th centuries and collections of historical songs recorded by ethnographers of the 19th-20th centuries. The Nikon chronicle provides interesting information about Alyoshka Popovich, his name is also found in other chronicles. The presentation of epic stories goes hand in hand with the development and growth of people's self-consciousness. The Russian epic gathers around Kyiv and Vladimir, the heroes crush the enemies of the Kyiv and Vladimir princes. Behind every epic image is a real historical person. For example, Tugarin Zmeevich, with whom Alyosha fights in the famous epic, is a historical figure of the time of Vladimir Monomakh - the Polovtsian prince Tugorkhan.
Fig 7. Fight with a bear.
Unlike the epic, epics, the main characters of which change in a fantastic idealized retelling from source to source, from mouth to mouth, historical itzas act in folk songs. Oral folk art of the 16th century raised this genre quite high. The songs are dedicated to specific historical events. They sing to Chara Ivan the Terrible about the conquest of Siberia and Kazan. The songs about the capture of Kazan emphasize the courage, resourcefulness, and skill of Russian gunners. In the chants about Yermak, the image of a brave chieftain, a freedom-loving patriot close to the people, who did not like arrogant boyars, is drawn. Song Ermak accomplishes a great feat - "takes" Siberia, joins this distant land to the Russian state. The folk hero is also sung in the song about Kastryuk. A simple Russian man "zaselytsina-village" enters into single combat with the boastful foreign prince Kastryuk and defeats him. The people's memory gratefully preserved the idea of the unparalleled feat of liberating prisoners in Kazan in the song "Well done calls the girl to Kazan":
Kazan proudly stands on the bones, The Kazanochka-river flows bloody, Small keys - burning tears, Through the meadows-meadows, all the hair, All the heads along the steep mountains, All valiant, archers.
The song about Vavil the buffoon depicts the king Dog, who ruled in the "inishypem" (another) kingdom. The peasant Vavila, who joined the buffoons, managed to overthrow the cruel tyrant, who surrounded his court with a tyn, the stakes of which were decorated with human heads.
The songs about Ivan the Terrible contain stories about real past and fictional events of his life. Popular consciousness puts forward many poetic reasons to explain the failures, the cruelty of the king. Songs were composed about the wrongful trial of Grozny in "The Capture of Kazan", "The Wrath of Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible on His Son", a sudden departure from the "city of Vologda", in which the sovereign launched a large stone construction. Song folklore sees the culprits of disasters and changes in the state either as the "thief and murderer", the tsar's satrap Malyuta Skuratov, or the hated Maria Temryukovna, the wife of Ivan the Terrible. In the song about leaving Vologda, poetic creativity focuses on the legend of the "red plinth", which "fell on the mudra head on the royal one" in the newly rebuilt St. Sophia Cathedral. Fearing this, seeing a bad sign in the fall of a brick fragment, the king seemed to urgently leave the city.
Rice. 8. Hawthorn clothing. 17th century
Oral folk art is the deepest historical source of information about the culture of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. Household items remain the richest storehouse of folk traditions: "beautifully decorated" carved details of wooden houses, benches, dishes, boxes (boxes), chests, spinning wheels, embroidered towels, woven patterns, etc. Due to the dilapidation of the material, they survived in small quantities. Due to the traditional nature of their manufacture, products similar in shape and ornament could be repeated by craftswomen and woodworkers and clay craftsmen without any changes over the next centuries.
Music
For a very long time, the culture of Ancient Rus' was called the "culture of deep silence." Gradually, numerous monuments of literature, icon painting, arts and crafts became known, and last but not least, records of Russian cult (church) music. Of course, at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, musical practice knew a folk song, the origins of which go back to the depths of centuries. But due to the fact that this heritage was recorded in relatively recent times by ear recordings or by means of a phonograph, it is impossible to say with complete certainty what the song could have been four hundred years ago, one can only make more or less correct assumptions based on what has come down to us. us material. Therefore, the monuments of cult music, as the only type of recorded ancient Russian music, are so valuable to us. In ancient Russian singing manuscripts, the melody is expressed through various types of musical notations (notations). Among the non-linear notations, the dominant type is the znamenny (from the old Russian "banners" - a sign). In the 16th century, other notations became widespread - demestvennaya and travel - they are also represented by a number of independent manuscripts and individual chants in znamenny manuscripts.
Znamenny notation required original theoretical guidelines for reading hook (music) records. Such manuals were called "alphabet". The first alphabets date back to the XV-XVI centuries.
Znamenny liturgical tunes are exceptionally diverse in terms of melodies. They are built from separate more or less long independent turns of chants. Chants have their own names. These titles reflected the subtle understanding of Znamenny singing by Russian chanters and the poetic ability to give figurative and colorful characteristics to the melodic turns that make it up.
Particularly complex designations were "fits" - conditional combinations of musical signs, among which was the letter "fita". The presence of this letter in the recording indicated a special musical meaning or chant of this combination. This was the "mystery" of the musical recording - it was necessary to know the essence of the fit chant, since it was reduced to the sequential reading of individual banners - the icons that make up the fit combination. Therefore, the internal structure of fitniks required special keys for reading them, since it was not easy to keep these tunes in memory, despite the experience of church singers. The keys of the chants were in special books-fitniks. "Secret closure" is also characteristic of "persons" and "kokizniks" - another kind of combinations of banners that do not contain the fita sign, and many styles of chants. These records corresponded to their "decryption" keys.
By the 16th century, the appearance of a travel banner and demeststvo dates back. These two notations may seem close to the Znamenny notation: there is much in common between them, because both the "path" and the "demestvo" are subordinate to it - their musical signs consist of separate graphic elements of the Znamenny notation. Quite a lot of monuments of the "travel and local banner" have been preserved.
A very rare notation of the 16th century "Kazan banner", created to commemorate the conquest of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible, is interesting. In church cult singing, tradition did not allow polyphony. In Russian folk songs of a wide variety of forms - dance, wedding, etc. - it has been around since time immemorial. But in the 16th century, polyphony penetrated into church singing. There are a number of singing manuscripts, which are represented by non-linear notation with polyphony. These are examples of "linear" singing of znamenny and demest scores.
Singing hook manuscripts testify to the high artistic and technical level of ancient Russian music of the late 15th-16th centuries.
Among the ancient Russian singers and chanters in the 16th century, the name of the Moscow priest Fyodor, nicknamed Peasant (Christian), was very famous. He is "glorious and sings much" and "many will learn from him" - ancient documents say about the composer and performer. His name was a kind of legend of the musical world of Rus': "the banner of his (works) and glorious to this day." Fyodor Krestyanin's "Gospel stichera" were found in manuscripts of the 17th century. The gospel stichera have highly artistic texts and melodies that amaze with their development and beauty; they are the pinnacle of znamenny chant.
Old Russian hook records competed with European musical notation until they were finally replaced and forgotten in the 18th century.
Architecture
The main building material for architects of the late 15th-16th centuries was wood and stone. The forms and designs of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purpose.
Least of all the monuments of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries were preserved by wooden architecture. Most of them are located in regions of Russia remote from the center, for example, on the coast of the White Sea, the shores of Lake Onega and the Northern Dvina. A number of monuments are restored by historians according to the descriptions of contemporaries and travelers, paintings and engravings depicting them. The temples of the Stroganovs in Solvychegodsk were very famous. They were built in 1565 and existed until 1798. It was a three-storey palace, the majestic appearance and size of which amazed those who saw it. The mansions consisted of a number of log cabins with two quadrangular towers. The largest of the towers was six-storeyed and crowned with a barrel-shaped roof, the smaller one had an open top and a hipped roof. In the hallway (to the second floor) a two-flight staircase led, the upper platform of which was covered with a barrel, and the lower platform with a low hipped roof. The height of the building is 14 sazhens. This vertical was complemented by huge towers with barrel and tent tops. A picturesque asymmetrical porch completed the ensemble of mansion splendor.
But the most clear idea of wooden architecture is given by the surviving temples. Two buildings - the temples of the Deposition of the Robe in the village of Borodava (Vologda region) in 1486 and Georgievsky in the village of Yuksovichi (Leningrad region) in 1493 - characterize the main trend of this type of architecture: the transformation of the original church-hut into a more complex church building. The monumentality of the building is achieved by increasing the height of the roof, changing its silhouette and proportions, including prirubs commensurate with the main volume: western and altar (eastern).
Both churches are proportionately harmonious and chopped "as measure and beauty will say." They belong to the type of kletsk buildings.
Another type is hipped temples. They end with pyramidal tents. At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavle (1589) and the Ilyinsky Church in the Vyisky churchyard (consecrated in 1600) were built. Both temples were distinguished by the perfection of their proportions and silhouette, the expressiveness of the tent going up.
The third type of wooden temples is "baptized", i.e. building a cross in their plan and volumes. An example of a building of this type is the Bogoroditskaya Church in the village of Verkhovye (Vologda Oblast). The cross-shaped log cabin of the church stands on the basement. It ends with an octagon with a tent, open to the very top. Low gable roofs on the sides of the cross have small tetrahedral tents. From the west, a porch adjoined the main volume, a symmetrical porch with two exits led to the second floor.
More complex spatial solutions marked the groin tent churches of the middle of the 16th century, for example, the Assumption Church of the Kusht Monastery (Vologda Region). The side branches of the cross are covered with barrel-shaped roofs.
Hip roofs of wooden temples had a great influence on stone architecture, determining the appearance of stone hipped churches, bell towers, fortress towers. An indirect confirmation of this is the text of the "Chronicler ..." of the 16th century that the stone tent church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye was built "upwards with a tent on a wooden case."
In addition to high tent churches, another type of tower churches is also known, where log cabins, gradually decreasing in size, were placed one on top of the other in several tiers. At the end of the 16th century, a similar church was built in the Nilova Stolbenskaya hermitage (an island of Lake Seliger in the Tver region).
The brilliant skills of 16th-century woodworkers were used to solve a complex engineering problem. In a short time it was necessary to build the Sviyazhsk wooden fortress, which created the most important springboard for the defeat
Kazan Khanate. The strategic plan of Tsar Ivan the Terrible assumed the unexpectedness of her appearance in front of the enemy. Therefore, in one winter of 1550-1551, far from Kazan, in the estate of the Ushatykhs in the Uglich district, a city was built with eighteen towers, with double "taras" and all the necessary buildings. In size, it was larger than the Novgorod and Moscow Kremlins. Separate elements of the buildings were assembled and numbered, and then, disassembled, floated on barges to the mouth of the Sviyaga River. On May 24, 1551, the delivery of the material ended, and at the end of June of the same year, the fortress was ready. The high hill above the Sviyaga River was cleared of the forest, and the Sviyazhsk fortress embraced it with its mighty walls. It united the government and military buildings located inside. Conceived as a military-strategic point on the way to Kazan, the fortress turned out to be a remarkable work of architectural art.
Stone architecture by the XV-XVI centuries enters a new period of its development. By the end of the 15th century, the trend of technical and technological complication of construction was reinforced by new cadres of architects and samples of temples, secular buildings that correspond to new standards and tasks. The restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin became a turning point in the history of architecture of that time. The difficulties that arose during the construction of the main temple of the Kremlin - the Assumption Cathedral - show in what ways the new Moscow architectural school is gaining experience. The temple was conceived as a solemn, large building, which demonstrates the succession of the throne of the Moscow Grand Dukes from the power of the Vladimir princes. The architects had to rely on the traditions of the white-stone, ornate Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Construction lasted two years, but in the spring of 1474, the temple, close to completion, collapsed. The Pskov craftsmen, invited as experts, pointed to the low technical quality of the building: the weakness of the structure and the liquid mortar. They themselves refused to continue construction. Tsar Ivan III, apparently at the suggestion of his wife Sophia Paleolog, invited an experienced foreign architect A. Fioravanti to work. This marked the beginning of the tradition of inviting foreign architects to Moscow. During the years 1475 - 1479 Assumption Church was rebuilt. A. Fioravanti "begin to do according to your cunning", i.e. in a way that had never been done in Rus' before, he did the job brilliantly. The measure was observed in the use of the Russian architectural tradition (he also got acquainted with the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir) and complex engineering and technical tasks of the European level. He made no secret of his work. Construction has become a kind of school of architectural and technical skills.
The Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin is built of white stone. This is a large six-pillared rectangular building with five powerful domes at the top. The architect needed to reveal the traditional roundness of Russian architecture in the form of a roof topping and a semicircle of apses from the east of the building. To facilitate the laying of walls and vaults, domes, A. Fioravanti uses a new material for that time - brick. The motif of a semicircle is consistently carried out throughout the temple - in portals, wall frieze, zakomaras, domes, windows. The precisely calculated radius of the zakomar and the "step" (the size of the gap) between the pylons allows the ceilings to bear the emphasis of five closely standing drums and domes of the temple. Since that time, the five domes will become a hallmark of Moscow architecture.
Rice. 9. A fragment of the "Kremlin-city" plan: 14 - treasury; 16 - royal court; 19 - patriarchal court. Late 16th - early 17th century
A. Fioravanti shows the semicircles of the apses from only one frontal point of view; the architect hides their profile silhouette with the protrusions of the corner pilasters-buttresses. Thanks to this peculiar solution, the compactness of the volume of the cathedral is increased. The architect very successfully finds the ratio of the width of each division of the walls to their height, the ratio of the height of the temple and the crowning five domes. The cathedral gives the impression of calm grandeur and monumentality. Contemporaries called the creation of the "master Aristotle" "the earthly sky, shining like a great sun in the middle of the Russian land."
Following Fioravanti, a whole group of Italian masters came to Moscow. These were gifted specialists in defensive and fortifications: Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, two architects known as Aleviz and others. Their work in the Kremlin is mainly known: fortress towers and walls, the Faceted Chamber. Cathedral of the Archangel.
By the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the Moscow Kremlin acquired the character of not only a military fortress, but also a symbol of the "royal city", the center of the capital and Russian lands. The architects solved not only complex engineering, but also artistic and figurative tasks.
The straight clear lines of the fortress walls, the number and height of the towers, the red brick from which they were built - all this, through the efforts of the architects, created the image of an impregnable stronghold and a "heavenly, holy city."
Marco Ruffo built the southeastern round Beklemishevskaya tower, Fryazin - Taininskaya and Sviblova, Pietro Solari - Borovitskaya and Konstantin-Eleninskaya. Solari and Ruffo erected in 1491 the Spasskaya (Frolovskaya) tower, Nikolskaya and the corner Arsenalnaya (Sobakina). Thanks to the towers, the necessary high-rise "accents" of development arose, in addition, the step of their location met the requirements of the Kremlin's defense.
During the construction of the fortress, the composition of the city center was finally developed and developed in detail. The central, Cathedral Square of the Kremlin was surrounded by cathedrals and chambers of the tsar and boyars: the Annunciation (1484 - 1489), the Archangel (1505-1508) churches, the Faceted Chamber (1487 - 1491). The pillar (bell tower) of Ivan the Great grew as a vertical dominant.
The planning, volumetric and silhouette composition of the Moscow Kremlin combined all the most valuable things that were created by the labors of many generations of Russian architects with the architectural talent of foreign masters. New architectural forms and materials speak of the formation of a special Moscow tradition of architecture by the beginning of the 16th century. At this time, buildings that were completely new in their architectural appearance were created. The architects received the loud name of "sovereign masters", they are now mentioned not only in chronicles, but also inset boards on the walls of the buildings they built. The work of architects has acquired considerable independence. A drawing appeared in construction practice. The grandeur of forms, grandiosity of scale, decorative scope - that is what determined the character of the monuments of the XVI century.
Rice. 10. A.M. Vasnetsov. Red Square under Ivan N.
The intensity of construction work made it possible over the course of a century to acquire stone centers and settlements both in the capital itself and in other Russian cities: Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Vologda, etc., numerous monasteries: Vladimir, Suzdal, Vologda, Kirillov, Ferapontov, etc. All of them interpreted in the forms of temples the system of five domes, three domes, one domes, reliance on one, four, six pillars. A special type of township temple is developing. The role of the settlement increased in the architectural appearance of cities, they also began to be surrounded by a fortress wall.
In the years 1534-1538, the architect Petrok Maly was surrounded by stone walls and towers Kitai-Gorod, a settlement adjacent directly to the Kremlin. The Kremlin received the significance of a kind of acropolis, and the center of public life moved to Red Square. There, in 1555 - 1560, the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed was erected by architects Barma and Postnik. The temple of a complex nine-part construction was made by the builders "as the mind was given to them in the dimension of the foundation" with significant deviations from the usual eight-altar plan. By location, by the originality of architecture, by the picturesque silhouette, so reminiscent of the cells and the roofs of the choir, this cathedral is unparalleled and fully represents the achievements of the architecture of the 16th century.
In 1586-1593, work was completed on the construction of the White City, another system of defensive fortifications in Moscow, including the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod. In 1591, "Tsar Fyodor commanded to build a wooden city around Moscow near all the settlements." So a new defensive line appeared - "Skorodom".
The monasteries located in a ring around Moscow: Simonov, Novodevichy, as the most important in the defense system of Moscow, received stone walls and towers in the 16th century.
The town planning plans of the 16th century ended in 1596-1600 with the erection of walls around the city of Smolensk. The "Smolensk case" was an event of great importance for the country: while it was being carried out, all stone buildings in the country were prohibited.
Rice. 11. Arm of the Suzdal Bishop in Kitai-Gorod. Engraving from the book by A. Olearius "Description of the Journey to Muscovy". 30s 17th century
Tsar Boris Godunov called this city "the necklace of Muscovite Rus'". The technical and architectural perfection of the Smolensk walls and towers, decorated with architraves, decorative belts, spoke not only of the skill of their architect, Fyodor Kon, but also of the high level of stone construction of the 16th century.
Picturesque asymmetry prevailed in the planning decision of Russian cities and monasteries. From different points of view, the buildings always presented a new aspect to the eye, striking with unexpected combinations, the dynamism of architectural lines, the sudden appearance of previously invisible buildings and details. To the asymmetry of urban plans, one should add the impression of the polychromy of buildings of the 16th century. One of the contemporaries described the multicoloredness of the Alexander Sloboda Cathedral as follows: "... the stones (churches) are painted with different colors, so that one is black, the other is white, the third is yellow and gilded; a cross is painted on each; all this presents a beautiful view for road people passing by ".
One of the highest points in the development of ancient Russian architecture is marked by hipped temples of the 16th century. This is a unique phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world architecture. The origin of the forms of the tent itself has many explanations, sometimes of a presumptive (hypothetical) property. The tent is a repetition of a similar form of a wooden temple. A tent is a feature of Western European Romanesque or Gothic architecture, modified on Russian soil. The tent structure is a kind of symbol of the military power of Rus', the result of the extensive development of urban planning at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, closely connected with the construction of numerous fortress towers. The tent structure was used in the most important architectural structures, most of which were erected in connection with military victories.
The first most famous tent-shaped, pillar-shaped monument is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1530-1532). The chronicler accompanied the news of its construction with inspired words: "... but that church was wonderful in height and beauty and lordship, such was not the case before in Rus'." The construction of the temple was celebrated as a great event by Moscow Grand Duke Vasily III and Metropolitan Daniel with three days of celebrations and feasts. The Temple of the Ascension is like an obelisk built over the steep bank of the Moskva River. Despite the extraordinary monumentality, he easily and swiftly rushes up with his gigantic tent.
The temple is surrounded by galleries with staircases-entrances curved in different directions. A clear, crystalline mass of the building rises above the gallery terrace, rich in a variety of forms, at the same time surprisingly simple in its general construction and in its meager details. The unity of the whole and the mutual subordination of all parts (elongated pilasters, the shape of the windows, the processing of the tent) achieved a rare harmony in this building. The picturesque plasticity of the Kolomna church is great. All the possible richness of impressions opens up to the viewer from different angles of viewing the white-stone masterpiece.
The building is completely centric: there is an octagon on the quadrangle of the base, as if representing a giant drum of the head of the temple. The facades are built in the same way, the altar apse is missing. The tier of "kokoshniks" (decorative ornaments), which serves as a transition from one form to another, is repeated at the top, when the octagon passes into the tent and sequentially into the head.
The solemn recognition of the consecration of the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye legitimized the new architectural form of the building. Russian architects later widely used it, until it was banned by Patriarch Nikon in the second half of the 17th century.
An outstanding pillar-like structure is the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo (1553-1554). It became an example of new original compositional and decorative techniques of Russian architecture of the 16th century.
The temple consists of five closely placed tiered octahedrons. The central pillar stands out for its solidity, to which the tiered aisles adjoin. Heavy, low domes give the Dyakovo temple a static appearance that gives the impression of solemn, proud majesty.
Both temples - the Ascension in Kolomenskoye and St. John the Baptist in Dyakovo - paved the way for the emergence of an amazing building of the 16th century - the Cathedral of the Intercession "that on the moat", known as St. Basil the Blessed (1554 - 1560). Its erection established victory over the Kazan Khanate. Simultaneously with the memorial temple on Red Square, other hipped temples were erected in Rus'. Church of Peter the Metropolitan in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky in 1584, churches in the Buttercup Monastery (1559), in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna (1578 - 1579), the village of Elizarievo near Pereslavl, the Church of Cosmas and Dominian in Murom (1565), etc.
Rice. 12. Plan of the Novodevichy Convent.
The hipped stone temples had a significant impact on the architecture of the 17th century. They marked the greatest rise of ancient Russian architecture.
The architecture of the end of the 16th century is guided by the samples of the capital's five-domed temples, but enhances their monumentality to severe massive conciseness. Examples are the St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda (1568 - 1570) and the Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1554-1585).
At the same time, a new type of temple was being created - two-standing in plan. Such are the Annunciation Cathedral in Solvychegodsk, built by the Stroganovs in 1560-1579, the gate church of the Prilutsky Monastery, etc.
Painting
In the center of the pictorial visual culture of the late XV - XVI century is the work of the greatest icon painter of that time, Dionysius. "Deep maturity and artistic perfection" of this master represent the centuries-old tradition of Russian icon painting. Together with Andrei Rublev, Dionysius is the legendary glory of the culture of Ancient Rus'.
Relatively much is known about Dionysius against the background of the namelessness of medieval iconography. He was probably born in the 1440s and was a secular person, a layman, and not a monk, like Andrei Rublev. The apogee of Dionysius's work reaches the 60s of the XV century, at that time he already became a famous master. His work in 1467 - 1477 in the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God of the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky Monastery, which he performed together with his student Mitrofan, is spoken of with great respect. The performers of the church painting are called "the most notorious (famous) above all."
In 1481 - 1482, Dionysius supervised the work on the creation of the iconostasis and painting in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In the middle of 1480 he headed a new icon-painting artel. On behalf of the Rostov Archbishop Rossian, he worked in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. Artel painted the Assumption Church and made many icons for the monastery. Dionisy's assistants were two sons - Theodosius and Vladimir, the elder Paisios. Reporting on this work, the author of the life of Joseph Volotsky calls Dionysius and his associates "elegant and cunning icon painters in the Russian land, why are they painters." In the inventory of the monastery church, sacristy and library, compiled in 1545 by the elder Zosima and the book keeper Paisius, 87 icons of Dionysius, 20 icons of Paisius, 17 icons of Vladimir, 20 icons of Theodosius are mentioned.
There is no documentary information about the activities of Dionysius and his sons during the 90s of the 15th century. But, apparently, it was concentrated mainly in Moscow, where a large construction of churches was carried out, which had to be decorated with murals and icons.
The last work known from the signature of Dionysius dates back to the beginning of the 16th century. The isographer with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, with the participation of the artists of his workshop, created an ensemble of murals in the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery. At the end of the 15th century, the northern monasteries of Ferapontov and Kirillov, located on the outskirts of the state, reached their greatest power. It is possible that the masters of the artel of Dionysius took part in the creation of the iconostasis (1497) of the Dormition Cathedral of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. Dionysius died at the beginning of the 16th century, before 1508, since it is known that the son of the artist Theodosius "with the brethren" was put in charge of painting the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
Dionysius was one of the foremost people of his time, his circle of friends included the most educated people of Muscovite Rus'. About Dionysius, Joseph Volotsky writes that the artist philosophized with a brush. A deeply philosophical worldview allowed the master to most fully express the national characteristics of the Russian artistic culture of that time. The work of Dionysius was leading in contemporary trends in Moscow painting. Despite the pronounced innovation, Dionysius is firmly connected with the best traditions of his brilliant predecessor Andrei Rublev, but is not his follower. The works of Dionysius were valued as highly by contemporaries and descendants as the works of Andrei Rublev. Of the huge number of icons created by the master, only a few monuments have survived. Of the 87 works listed in the inventories of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, not a single one has come down to us.
The list of authentic creations of the master is as follows: "The Mother of God Hodegetria" of 1482 from the Resurrection Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin; "The Savior in the Force" and "Crucifixion" from the Trinity Cathedral of the Pavlo-Obnorsky Monastery, dated 1500 according to the inscription on the back of the "Savior". The style of Dionysius is revealed by the icons "Metropolitan Peter", "Metropolitan Alexei" from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and "Trinity" from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery. The icons "Dmitry of Prilutsky in Life" from the Vologda Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery, "Assumption" from the Assumption Cathedral in Dmitrov, "John the Baptist Angel of the Desert" from the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna are associated with the name of Dionysius.
The earliest icon is "Hodegetria the Mother of God". The iconographic type of the Mother of God Hodegetria, i.e. guidebooks, very revered in Rus'. When an icon of the Mother of God in Greek writing lost its image during a fire, Dionysius was instructed to write an icon "in the same image" on the same board. The master was associated with a sample that was ordered to be repeated. But the manner of Dionysius is visible in this work. Dick of Our Lady is written very softly, without sharp transitions from light to shadow. There is no relief in the image. Half-figures of angels in turquoise-blue, green and yellow clothes are painted in fine miniature technique.
The hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei were created in the 80s of the 15th century, when Moscow society showed interest in the personalities of these peacekeepers. Hagiographic icons, i.e. works, in the hallmarks of which the life (life) of this or that saint is told, gained distribution and final artistic polishing only in the time of Dionysius. In the middle field of the icon is an image of the saint, and along the perimeter of the stamp - his life. Dionysius has an impeccable skill in solving complex compositional problems: he feels the architectonics of the icon board - the exact proportions of the middle field and stamps, the height and width of each rectangle, figures, background. Architectural backgrounds become more complex in stamps, but the image still obeys the plane. The metropolitans are represented on the centerpieces in height, frontally, as ideal high priests and statesmen who took part in the construction of the state. In the hallmarks - the main events of their lives and miracles.
The coloring of both icons is designed in the same color scheme, light and festive in nature. Snow-white colors predominate, which is a great innovation in Russian icon painting. White is a luminous color, it affects other colors, as if transferring its own shade to them. It brightens the color of the icon, gives it additional transparency. That is why there is no local red, green, yellow, but there are their shades - pink, pale raspberry, pistachio, golden brown, straw yellow, turquoise. The luminosity of the Dionysian color deprives the form of weight and density.
In the hallmarks, Dionysius prefers the slow unfolding of events, turning them into an endlessly lasting action. The motif of a calmly seated figure, either immersed in thought or conducting a quiet conversation, is common. Color, posture, gestures, details of decoration in the icon narrative are always symbolic.
Dionysius and his team painted a lot of icons for iconostases. With one of these iconostases, which stood in the cathedral of the Pavlo-Obnorsky Monastery, the icons "The Savior in Strength" and "The Crucifixion" are associated. In the composition of The Crucifixion, the master consciously relies on the canons of the Rublev era. But it significantly changes the proportions of the figures, reduces the size of the heads, arms and legs. The stylistically modified tradition of the previous era is marked by a special sophistication. Elongated, fragile figures, brightened color - these are the most characteristic features of the artistic language of Dionysius.
Iconostasis works from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Theotokos of the Ferapont Monastery also testify to the richest palette of Dionysian pictorial means. Mobile, light drawing, restrained-smooth lines of silhouettes, luminous coloring of golden, turquoise, blue, violet, pink tones.
The main and indisputable creation of Dionysius is the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery. An ancient inscription above the northern door of the temple reports that "the scribes Dionysius the Icon with their children" completed the work in "2 years" from August 6, 1502 to September 8, 1503. The decoration of the Ferapontov temple is striking in its lordship, the joy of color. The artists used in the manufacture of paints chalk stones of different shades, which they found nearby, on the shores of the local lake. Delicate blue tones are combined with pale green, golden yellow with pink, light purple with turquoise, white with cherry, silver gray with lilac.
The main theme of the paintings is the glorification of the Mother of God, to whom the temple is dedicated. The main texts of the Theotokos are illustrated: "Akathist to the Mother of God", "Praise of the Virgin", "Rejoices in You", "Protection of the Virgin", multiple "Annunciations".
The proportions of the figures in the Ferapontov frescoes are graceful and slender, the movements are restrained and slowed down, the motif of anticipation prevails, as in hagiographic icons. The authors of the temple painting actively use architectural and landscape backgrounds, but do not emphasize their perspective extent. Flatness still remains the basis of their artistic thinking. Buildings and figures in Dionysian compositions seem to be floating in the air, devoid of volume and heaviness.
Researchers identify several stylistic groups, the handwriting of the masters who performed the wall painting of the temple.
The most subtle and powerful author was the creator of the frescoes of the western portal. His compositions are the most rhythmic, slender figures are distinguished by grace, the palette is soft and harmonious. The head of the Ferapontov artel himself worked on the painting of the portal. The iconography of the main entrance to the temple determines the system of murals of the temple itself. This is a carpet, tiered arrangement of plots according to a given program of the Mother of God cycle, the theme of the akathist is the glorification of the Mother of God, the cult of martyrs, saints, and Christ. The western portal itself includes an image of the "Deesis", in the scene of which the Mother of God appears praying for the whole world before the throne of her son. Below are the "Nativity of the Virgin", "Scenes from the childhood of Mary", on the sides of the portal there are figures of the archangels: Michael on the left and Gabriel on the right. In the painting of the portal, the distance of its foreshortening is taken into account, since the temple opens to travelers from the road.
Dionysius is a virtuoso master of fresco painting. His work is a whole era in Russian artistic culture. The art of Dionysius had a strong influence on painting, sewing and even sculpture in Moscow and other centers of Ancient Rus'.
In the 16th century, two new aspirations began to appear in icon painting: on the one hand, the realistic direction was strengthened, on the other hand, theological problems became much more complicated, which made it possible to introduce completely new themes into painting.
The artists are happy to dwell on numerous everyday details, genre scenes, but at the same time saturate their compositions with didactic edification, symbols and allegories.
The most significant monument of monumental painting of the first half of the 16th century is the murals of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In 1508 it was decorated with murals by the son of Dionysius - Theodosius "with the brethren". The content of the Annunciation paintings reflects the theme of the succession of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kyiv, and through them from Byzantium.
The murals of the cathedral, compositionally close to the frescoes of the Ferapont Monastery, are more decorative. It notes the features of the Feodosiev ornament of grasses, branches, curls, known from a handwritten book of the first half of the 16th century. The author of the murals himself, the son of Dionisy Theodosius, completed the design of the "Gospel" (1507) for the treasurer of the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan Ivanovich Tretyakov.
The most interesting in terms of content were the paintings of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547 - 1552), lost in the 18th century. All the "encyclopedic" compediums of Rus' of that time were involved in compiling the ideological problem of decorating the chamber. The main idea about Rus' - the "Third Rome" determined the appeal to the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir", to "Christian Topography" by Kuzma Indikoplova, "Explanatory Psalter". The inventory of the frescoes of the Golden Chamber was compiled by the outstanding artist of the 17th century Simon Ushakov.
The monumental art of the 16th century, which stepped over the thresholds of the temple to decorate secular buildings, decisively acquired a narrative, everyday, non-religious character. Love for the story, for moralizing plots, for allegory led to innovations in icon painting.
In the middle of the 16th century, a famous work was created in the Kremlin - the icon-picture "The Militant Church". According to its purpose, it is the decoration of the palace, not the temple. It publicistically affirms the state idea, the idea of its unity and military power. The icon was painted after 1552, i.e. after the conquest of Kazan. The plot of the icon allegorically represents the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible and the triumph of the church, which managed to neglect earthly glory and was rewarded with heavenly glory. The composition of a huge icon is divided into three parts. Each third shows the movement of the army, led by one or another saint. The color scheme of the icon is light, festive, elegant, it rhythmically alternates pale, blue, pink, mother-of-pearl gray and light green tones.
Another famous icon of the 16th century, the so-called "Four Parts" of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, is distinguished by plot theological and dogmatic allegories. The "four-part" icon, together with three other icons ("The Last Judgment", "Foundation of the Church of the Resurrection", "The Passion of the Lord in the Gospel Parables") was painted by Pskov artists: Ostanya, Yakov, Mikhail, Yakushka and Semyon Vysokyi Glagol. These masters, together with other craftsmen from different cities, were summoned to Moscow "for sovereign affairs" after a fire in 1547. Samples for the preparation of icons were indicated in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the Moscow Simonov Monastery. The priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin, Sylvester, who at that time was close to Tsar Ivan the Terrible, oversaw the creation of icons. These icons and murals gave rise to a kind of aesthetic dispute-conflict of the 16th century. The opponent was the clerk Viskovaty, who expressed doubts about the legitimacy of writing "at the human discretion of the image of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ," and next to the Savior, the image of a woman who "dances in her sleeves," etc.
At the council assembled on this occasion, the theological and aesthetic views of Metropolitan Macarius triumphed. Viskovaty was condemned as a heretic, who "does not fit" to ask "about the deity and God's affairs." At the same time, at the council of 1554, the division of painting into existential (historical) writing and parables was recognized.
By the 16th century, Moscow art acquired the character of a nationwide affair. As needed, provincial craftsmen are called to the capital. But even in these remote centers, icon-painting workshops are undergoing significant stylistic changes. Researchers talk about the emergence of new schools in Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. By the end of the 16th century, the original "Godunov" and "Stroganov" schools of painting were formed.
Sculpture and carving at the end of the 15th-16th centuries
Sculpture of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries is characterized by two trends: one is traditional, associated with the art of the 15th century; another innovative - realistic. The first is represented by a monument with a large number of bone icons - the Cilician Cross of Vologda. This is a flat relief of exquisite fine workmanship. The second direction consists of reliefs that came out of the workshop of Vasily Vasilyevich Yermolin: Our Lady Hodegetria from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1462) and a fragment of the relief of St. George the Victorious from the Spassky Gates of the Kremlin (1464). This is a plastic carving, in which the author reveals a desire for three-dimensional volume and bold foreshortenings of figures. The high relief of the sculpture of Our Lady and George is polychromed. The technique of polychromy connects the master with the traditions of icon painting.
The "Yermolinsky" style was reflected only in individual monuments; the first, traditional direction turned out to be officially recognized. The "Royal Place" or "Monomakh's Throne" of 1551 from the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin stylistically corresponds to a long tradition of low relief. The architectural form of the throne is a cube covered with a tent. The legs of the royal place are the figures of four lying animals. The hipped top is decorated with welt kokoshniks. According to the valance of the cornice of the tent and on the doors, a text illustrated in the hallmarks is carved. The side walls of the throne are covered with reliefs "the content of which is associated with" The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir. "The royal place is the most striking example of ancient Russian relief carving. The sculptural talent of Russian masters was more evident in small plastic: images, treasures, creests-panagias. When they were made, wood was used , stone, bone.By the nature of the interpretation of the form, they can be brought closer to the sculptural relief, by the thoroughness of work, miniaturization of details - with jewelry, especially since they all had frames made of precious materials.
Arts and Crafts
Artistic crafts of various profiles: tiling, jewelry, sewing, etc. reach a high level of skill. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin employs jewelers, enamellers, chasers who masterfully master the most complex techniques of filigree (filigree), cloisonné enamel, granulation, embossing, etc.
Precious examples of decorative and applied arts are fabrics patiently embroidered by female embroiderers. This skill was owned by both nuns and secular craftswomen. The monuments of ancient Russian sewing that have survived to this day are mainly valuable commemorative contributions of eminent people to parish and monastery churches. Functionally, sewing is connected with the place of investment, these are items of church use: shrouds, shrouds, covers, air, banners and even embroidered iconostases. The graphic contour on the embroidered canvas could be applied by special sign artists, and the skilled embroiderer only "painted with a needle." In sewing, gold threads, pearls, and various precious stones were used. The image and patterns for sewing were laid with silk colored thread, but the fabric was not stitched through, and the upper thread was attached with another silk thread. The technique of execution was called sewing "in attachment".
In the middle of the 16th century, the most famous were the workshops of Empress Anastasia Romanovna and Euphrosyne Staritskaya, the wife of Andrei Staritsky, a pretender to the royal throne.
The contributions of Anastasia Romanovna have been preserved in Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Trinity-Sergius and Pskov-Pechersky monasteries. On the cover of the shrine of Sergius of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery there is an inscription about the contribution of 1557. The composition depicting the Calvary cross and two weeping angels is extremely simple. Colored silk threads are combined into a subdued soft colorful range. The veil of the Pskov-Caves Monastery, according to legend, was carried out by the queen herself. A small deviation from the traditional plot is allowed: the shroud depicts not a tomb cry, but the carrying of Christ in burial shrouds. The cover is embroidered with silk, silver and precious stones were not used in the work. In the graphics of lines and rhythms of artistic works of the workshop of Anastasia Romanovna, the influence of the art of Dionysius is noticeable.
The work of the embroiderers at the Staritsky workshop is different in character. In the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky, Volokolamsky monasteries there are sewing samples with inscriptions about the contribution of the Staritskys. The shrouds of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra of 1561 are a vivid monument of this workshop. The large figures of the composition of the funeral lamentation, a wide border along the perimeter of the canvas, including an inscription and round stamps, are the features of the style of this work. But the technical execution of the shroud is masterly: sewing with silk, gold and silver "in attachment", smoothness in soft colorful tones with tints of halftones.
Just as in icon painting, by the end of the 16th century, the "Godunov" and "Stroganov" schools competed in the art of sewing. The first is distinguished by the luxury of the texture of an embroidered fabric, including pearls and precious stones; the second prefers a less sophisticated technique and a modest tonal color, in which gold sounds "on the sly".
At the same time, just as in painting, local workshops continue their traditions scattered throughout small Russian cities, metropolitan courts and monasteries.
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During the 9th - 10th centuries, Kievan Rus developed and grew stronger, becoming not only a political center, but also a major center of Russian culture. Kyiv was the center of Russian crafts and trade; oriental fabrics, Byzantine products, and luxury goods from Europe were brought there. Contemporaries enthusiastically write about the wealth and glory of this city. In Kievan Rus, the remnants of moribund communal and tribal relations and patriarchal slavery still coexisted with the new feudal relations. But the latter prevailed, they determined the general character of Kievan culture, which reached its peak under Prince Vladimir (980-1015) and Grand Duke Yaroslavl (1019-1054).
Under Vladimir, who expanded and strengthened the Kievan state, Rus' adopted Christianity. At first, Vladimir tried to reform the pagan religion, gathering Slavic, Eastern and Finnish gods into a single pantheon. But this reform did not give positive results: Rus' was already surrounded by countries that adopted a monotheistic religion - Christianity. The decisive impetus for the establishment of Christianity in Rus' was the baptism of Prince Vladimir. Note that, analyzing this period, historians express a variety of opinions about the place and time of the baptism of the prince. It can be assumed that this happened in 988 during the stay of the embassy of the Byzantine emperor in Kiev.
When “choosing faiths”, which the chronicler colorfully narrates, Vladimir did not accidentally give preference to the Greek faith - Orthodoxy. The chronicler, however, makes a special emphasis on the aesthetic ritualism of Christianity. The ambassadors of Vladimir, having familiarized themselves with the peculiarities of worship in various countries, were amazed at the splendor of the Byzantine church service. “We did not know whether we were on earth or in heaven,” they declared with delight to the prince. It seems, however, that the main reasons were of a political nature. First of all, Byzantium played an active role, which, with the help of Christianity, wanted to find in Kievan Rus not only a brother in faith, but also an ally in the struggle against other states. In turn, the Kyiv prince needed to form a new religious and ideological basis for strengthening statehood. Christianity has done this very well. The wise ruler of Kievan Rus Vladimir could not but see that the adoption of Christianity from the southern neighbor fundamentally changes the idea of secular power, and above all - the supreme power. Vladimir could not help but be seduced by the position of the Byzantine emperor: he was considered a sacred person, standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder. Moreover, with the adoption of Christianity, Vladimir acts both "as the sovereign of his subjects on earth" and as "their patron and intercessor in heaven."
Christianity penetrates into Rus' in various ways, and not only from Constantinople. From Bulgaria, the closest neighbor in the southwest, Christian preaching went to the Eastern Slavs, from there the first liturgical books came to Rus'. But both under Vladimir, who strengthened the Kievan state, and under Yaroslav, who completed the state work of his predecessor, ancient Rus' established close ties with Byzantium. And it's not only about politics, but also about the level of culture. Why is the culture of Byzantium so attractive to Rus'? Academician D.S. Likhachev answers this question in the following way.
It is known that the transition from the communal-patriarchal formation to feudal Rus' took place very quickly over a vast territory. Rus' practically avoided the stage of slavery. The absence of one or another stage of historical development, according to D.S. Likhachev, requires “compensation”, replenishment. As a rule, this function is performed by culture, ideology, “drawing their strength under such circumstances from the experience of neighboring peoples” /9, p. 35/. Rus' found such an experience in the culture of Byzantium.
By the 10th century, the Byzantines managed to create the highest example of culture in the feudal world. About Byzantine churches, decorated with mosaics and paintings, about the splendor of the imperial court and Tsaregrad palaces, about the splendor and splendor of the Byzantine church service, about precious luxury items created by Byzantine craftsmen, there were legends known in Kiev. Princes and feudal lords adopted Byzantine court etiquette, features of life and customs. The strongest Byzantine influence on Ancient Rus' was in the field of church ideology, liturgical literature, church music, the construction of temples and cult fine arts. Byzantium introduced Rus' to the technique of mosaics, frescoes, and tempera painting.
History, however, shows that the influence of Byzantine culture on Ancient Rus' was not only significant, but also contradictory. On the one hand, the activities of the Greeks and Byzantine culture found wide support in Rus', on the other hand, they met with strong opposition, sometimes taking the form of an open and sharp conflict.
The most indicative for the development of Russian culture was the formation of the national church and the national religious worldview. It sounds unusual: we are talking about the national form of one of the world's religious cultures. But it is precisely this process that characterizes pre-Mongol Rus. What did he express?
We note a number of significant points. Christianity came to Rus' "from above" and was assimilated, first of all, by the political and class elite. "Lowers" were rebuilt very slowly. As N. M. Nikolsky, a remarkable connoisseur of Russian history, testifies, Christian dogma and cult were not suitable for the life of the Dnieper region. “Christianity arose as a religion of slaves with a predominant eschatological content, which was subsequently reworked by theologians into a “religion of redemption.” This was completely alien and incomprehensible to the Eastern Slavs, for in Rus' there was no ground for messianic expectations.
That is why the Russian Church, forced to reckon with the spontaneous processes of popular consciousness, supported the cult of the Intercessor Mother of God in the first place and only then - the cult of Christ the Savior.
We believe, however, that the matter is not only in the reasons indicated by N. M. Nikolsky. The Mother of God was closer to the recent pagan Slav. In his mind, the Mother of God intercessor merges with the Bereginya-Earth, which he worshiped for many centuries. Moreover, in the "lower classes" there was a struggle for the people's faith, "taking here both the form of active performances under the leadership of the Magi, and the form of preserving old beliefs in everyday life, despite all sorts of sermons and influences of the authorities"
Christianity in Rus' faced such strong pagan beliefs that it had to adapt to them, replace Volos with Vlasiy, Perun with Ilya, Mokosh with Pyatnitsa-Paraskeva, and actually recognize Shrovetide and other pagan calendar holidays.
We emphasize once again: the historical conditions for the formation of Christian culture in Rus' created fertile ground for dual faith, the long-term coexistence of paganism and Orthodoxy, which was never overcome by the church. Paganism remained in the ideological tradition of the people and received a certain expression in artistic creativity. Recall that paganism required obligatory observance of specific rules and rituals, the performance of rituals. The principle of ritual, for all the difference in its forms, is close to the newly baptized Inhabitants of Rus'. Transferred to artistic culture, it formed the basis of what D.S. Likhachev called "etiquette". Creating his work, the author, the creator, as it were, performs a certain rite, participates in the ritual, obeying the "etiquette" in the choice of topics, plots, means of depiction, in the construction of images and in their characteristics. “Fine arts and literature, in their constructions idealizing reality, proceed from unified ideas about the decorum and ceremoniality necessary in works of art.” These principles are followed by the creators of ancient Russian epics, chroniclers, unnamed authors of Sermons, Teachings, and Lives. Rituals and rules obey the builders of temples and ancient Russian icon painters. But each of the created works had its own "super task", conscious or unconscious by the author. Most often, the "super tasks" contained a moral and political meaning, and this characterizes most of the art forms of Ancient Rus'. Political conditions also determine the peculiarity of the development of Russian artistic culture, which in the 11th-12th centuries had two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod.
Let us try to imagine a historical time defined by two centuries. Feudal relations are being formed, the boundaries of the ancient Russian state, powerful, strong and, of course, rich, are gradually being determined. At the end of the 10th century, a wooden temple was built in Novgorod, as contemporaries wrote, “about thirteen peaks”, which has no analogues in Byzantine architecture. In Kyiv, the main temple, especially revered by Prince Vladimir, was the Church of the Tithes - a majestic building with five naves, decorated with mosaics and frescoes.
During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the Kievan state gained international prestige. Ties are being strengthened with Germany, the Balkan and Scandinavian states, relations are being established with England, France, and many other countries. Of course, the capital of the Kievan state, according to the plan of the prince, should amaze foreign ambassadors with grandeur and splendor. And this idea is most fully expressed by the Cathedral of St. Sophia, built in the center of Kyiv. In terms of breadth of architectural design, Kyiv clearly competed with Tsargrad. Sophia Cathedral was created by Byzantine architects and local Russian craftsmen. And the result of their labor was the most beautiful and most majestic creation of the XI century.
The temple is striking in its enormous length. The feeling of grandiosity is especially noticeable when you enter the inside of the cathedral: St. Sophia of Kiev is a complex structure in terms of the composition of its internal space. “To a person inside the church, it appears either full of majestic solemnity, then mysterious, then clear and open. The powerful masses of the cathedral are characterized by a tense and sublime dynamics, which corresponded to the tasks of the builders of the temple, where solemn services were performed, where the worshiper entered into mystical communion with the deity.
The ensemble of St. Sophia of Kyiv embodied not only the idea of political power, but also the ideas of a medieval person about the world. The painting of the temple is also subordinated to this. A peculiar expression of the worldview was the figure of Our Lady Oranta - a symbol of the "spiritualized City", the cosmic "House of Wisdom", which the Kyiv princes considered not only their church, but also the earthly city of Kiev. For people who are not initiated into theological subtleties, this is the Mother of God-intercessor, an image understandable and close to the people's consciousness, later received the Russian name "Indestructible Wall" .. She asks Christ to "forgive human sins" and prays for people.
In the paintings of St. Sophia of Kyiv there are also secular compositions: images of buffoons, musicians, games at the Constantinople Hippodrome. In the western part of the central nave there was a group portrait of Yaroslav's family. What do the paintings show? The masters pursued the goal that inspired all medieval artists: to show the "spark of the divine" that is in all people and personifies a high moral ideal.
Kiev Sophia is more grandiose and monumental compared to the Byzantine cathedrals of those years. It could not be otherwise: the young state claimed an outstanding role in the region.
After Kyiv, stone Sophia cathedrals were erected in Novgorod and Polotsk. Spassky Cathedral was built in Chernigov. These monuments of architecture are smaller and more modest, but for all their individuality, these stone structures were stylistically united, and this unity originally captured the idea of greatness, power, and the triumph of the ancient Russian state.
This idea, so thoroughly affirmed by artistic culture, has another deep meaning. The early feudal state of the Eastern Slavs was huge and did not have sufficiently strong internal ties. Economic and trade relations were weak, and the military situation of the state, torn apart by princely civil strife, inspired fear. Under these conditions, the force that held back the feudal fragmentation of Rus' became the force of high public morality, a sense of duty and loyalty, and a developed patriotic self-consciousness. All this was formed by architecture and painting, but to a greater extent - by various literary genres. The help of the church in these conditions was especially important. Let's give just one example.
The Russian Church, striving for legal and ideological autonomy from the Byzantine Church, needed the canonization of Russian saints. An indispensable condition for this was the presence of "Life", a story about the life of a person who has achieved the Christian ideal - holiness. In ancient Russian religious literature, this genre was very common, but in this case we are interested in The Tale of Boris and Gleb.
Princes Boris and Gleb, villainously murdered by their older brother Svyatopolk (the rumor called him "cursed"), fighting for autocracy, are the most popular saints of Ancient Rus'. Historical sources testify that the princes were informed about the plan of Svyatopolk. They were faced with a choice: whether to accept death at the hands of a brother or, having entered into a confrontation with him, to violate the Christian commandment to honor the elder. Boris and Gleb choose death.
Episodes related to the circumstances of the villainous murder of princes are colorfully given both in religious "Tales" (lives) and in historical chronicles. But the same motive - obedience to the elder - is given in different ways in these sources. In his life, Boris explains his choice with the words: “I will not resist, for it is written: “God opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble” / 14, p. 197/. The chronicler cites another statement by Boris: “Can I raise my hand against my elder brother? He should be my second father...” /15, p.2/. It is not difficult to see that the church, by canonizing Saints Boris and Gleb, affirms the unity of two principles: religious and moral and ethical, creating the basis of a new state ideal. For Rus' of the XI-XIII centuries, the ideal of subordinating the "junior" princes to the "senior" was especially important.
The idea of establishing a great state was pivotal in Russian culture. It received a certain expression in the first chronicle of Ancient Rus' - "The Tale of Bygone Years", which marked the beginning of Russian chronicle writing. It should be emphasized that as early as the 11th-13th centuries, materials are provided that make it possible to judge the authorship of a particular cultural creation. Extraordinary, original personalities, creators of remarkable monuments of artistic and philosophical culture are put forward. Among them is Metropolitan Hilarion, the first Rusich at the head of the Kievan Church and the first Russian thinker who turned to the problems of the history of national culture. In the well-known work "The Word of Law and Grace" (1051), he offers a religious-sociological concept, according to which the history of mankind moves through a change in the forms of religion. Metropolitan Hilarion believes that there are two different principles of social organization. The first - "Law" - the basis of the subordination of peoples to each other, the second - "Grace" - the basis of complete equality. Illarion seeks to theoretically substantiate the state independence of Rus', emphasizing the greatness of Russian Christian culture. He rejects the claims of Byzantium to seniority only because this state adopted Christianity much earlier than Kyiv. Defending national self-consciousness, asserting the high level of ancient Russian culture, Illarion substantiates this quite convincingly. He believes that everything new is more perfect than the old, which means that the peoples who have newly adopted Christianity can count on more promising development.
The significance of Metropolitan Hilarion's work for Russian culture is enormous. It is not limited to the theoretical principles discussed above. It is important to note that in the "Word of Law and Grace" is formed ideal of human being. True, this formation takes place within the boundaries of Christian doctrine, but the important fact is that Russian culture addresses the problem of man, the principles of his life. Of course, the answer to the question of what a person should be could not be unambiguous. Already the first centuries of Russian Christian history are characterized by a peculiar literary polemic between the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh and the abbot of the Caves Monastery Theodosius.
“Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” contains a bold statement for that time: the world created by God is diverse, people in it are not the same, and therefore there cannot be identical moral requirements. Everything that exists in the world, "God gave to the people, for fun." Is it possible, then, to see sin in the satisfaction of the flesh, in worldly affairs? Of course not. The main indicator of piety is useful work for society, civic activity. Those who endure loneliness, blueberry, hunger are superfluous people.
Of course, Theodosius, who urged “to seek God by sobbing, tears, fasting, and by all means repent of sins every day,” was an implacable opponent of the point of view of Vladimir Monomakh.
In essence, we have two lines of culture in front of us: one takes into account the recent paganism of the Rus and assumes the priority of national-patriotic consciousness, the other, orthodox-religious, separates a person "from worldly concerns and state affairs." The history of the Russian state has confirmed the need for those religious values that are based on everyday experience and are filled with "earthly content". "Earthly content" is both the unification of Rus', and the formation of principles that determine the viability of a centralized state, and the high moral ideal of those who defend the independence of the Russian land. These ideas crystallize in such monuments of ancient Russian culture as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land", in numerous chronicles of a later period associated with the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
The culture of pre-Mongol Rus, especially of the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, is characterized by the flourishing of the art of Novgorod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk. Remarkable masters of all kinds of art come forward from the people's milieu. Chronicles, princely and church, wrote a little about craftsmen. But history has preserved the names of some of them. These are the wonderful jewelers Kosta and Bratila from Novgorod, the Chernihiv foundry artist Konstantin, the Kiev mosaicist and painter Alimpiy, the architects - Novgorodians Peter and Korov Yakovlevich, Polochan John, Kievan Peter Miloneg. Their works were determined not only by Byzantine and European experience, they were based on popular tastes and features of local artistic traditions. The cultural monuments created in the most diverse corners of the Russian land testify that, by solving religious, political, moral and moral problems, Russian art forms aesthetic and artistic principles that are close and understandable to man. Let us dwell on just one example - the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), amazing in terms of craftsmanship and aesthetic significance. The construction of the church dates back to the time of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, who did a lot to ensure that Vladimir eclipsed Kyiv.
The Church of the Intercession is very poetic, it is “permeated” with a sense of lightness and light harmony. It is no coincidence that they talk about the musical associations that this temple gives rise to. The excavations of the walls showed that the creators of this masterpiece solved a very difficult task: they had to erect a temple at the confluence of the Nerl into the Klyazma as a kind of solemn monument, visible from afar. For ships sailing along the river, it meant the arrival at the princely residence. That is why the Nerlin temple was called "a stone word in praise of the prince."
But something else is more important. Firstly, "the poetry of the Church of the Intercession is an expression of deeply folk artistic ideas." Its creator "tried to evoke in the viewer a feeling of festivity, an inspiring rise in spiritual strength and warmth, which creates elegant embroidery, intricate wood carvings - in a word, folk art ..." Secondly, in the plasticity of the interiors of this church, the theme of man and the human world occupies a considerable place. And the very theme of intercession, patronage goes beyond the religious ideal, is filled with worldly, universal content. In other words, Russian artistic culture testifies to the establishment of not only theological, but also earthly, human values.
This process was lengthy and controversial, it is reflected in many monuments of ancient Russian culture. Let us turn to one of these monuments - a wonderful work of literature "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (approximately the 12th century). This is a message to the prince from a man who at one time was rich and happy, but fell into disfavor and was exiled, according to him, to Lake Lache. "Prayer" is considered the first satirical social accusatory work of ancient Russian literature.
Daniel bows before a strong princely power, recognizing its necessity for Rus', his satire is directed at the boyars and churchmen. He writes that the boyars are greedy and ready to ruin the poor, that the monks lie to God. The author talks a lot about his life, the oppression and oppression that he had to experience. For the first time in Russian literature, the theme of offended human dignity is heard in this author's confession.
"The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" testifies to a bright and bold attempt to penetrate the psychology of the character, to show the individuality and unique originality of the personality. The attempt was successful. Later, V. G. Belinsky writes about it this way: “Daniel Zatochnik ... was one of those personalities who, to their own misfortune, are too smart, too gifted, know too much and, not being able to hide their superiority from people, insult the proud mediocre; whose heart hurts where it would be better to be silent, and to be silent where it is profitable to speak ... "
In the future, the process of turning to specific, purely human characteristics of heroes in ancient Russian literature is growing. For example, the genre of historical songs is developing, in which the conventional figures of epic heroes are replaced by images of real people - heroes of ordinary height and ordinary physical strength.
The appeal to a person, the assertion of the significance of his merits and demerits, is already manifested in the culture of pre-Mongolian Rus'. But we emphasize once again: in the XII century, this process is just beginning. It could not be otherwise: the attitude towards a person is an element of a holistic “image of the world”, an idea of the Universe. In the culture of pre-Mongol Rus', the image of the world is equated with the "divine cosmos". Despite the introduction of earthly human qualities and principles into this image, its essence remains deeply religious for a long time.
An indicative fact: already from the beginning of the XIV century, interesting evidence appeared in Russian chronicles. Chroniclers describe observations of natural phenomena without mentioning "God, retribution, repentance." In order to understand the origins of a new approach to the world, to imagine the process of formation new model of the universe in the ancient Russian culture of the XIV-XV centuries, we turn to such factors as education and the dissemination of natural knowledge.
In the spread of literacy, a wide variety of knowledge and enlightenment in medieval Rus', the church played a significant role. But this did not exhaust the originality of Russian culture. “The spread of knowledge and literacy went its own way in an unliterate Russian village or in a noisy trading city; special features were given to education by feudal administrative activity, which required accounting; enlightenment developed in its own way at princely courts or in distant forest monasteries”
The Russian medieval village had a significant stock of knowledge, which was primarily of practical value. They were passed down from generation to generation. Games and folklore played an important role in the upbringing of children. Proverbs and sayings were widespread - a kind of moral code, a collection of folk wisdom. Great pedagogical importance was attached in antiquity to riddles that accustomed the younger generation to "juxtapositions, allegories, and required quick wits, and often versatile knowledge" /17, p.160/. The Russian village of the XIII-XV centuries carefully treated the epic poetry of the times of Kievan Rus: epics and solemn songs about Russian heroes, victories over the enemy were a kind of oral history textbook. The desire for knowledge is one of the most characteristic features of epics. Curiosity is manifested in the epic for any reason, reflecting the period when knowledge and experience were at the initial stage of their development. To visit, to learn something hitherto unknown, to obtain new information is a characteristic feature of Ilya Muromets, forcing him to perform the most incredible feats and repeatedly expose himself to danger, which he neglected in the name of knowledge. The desire to achieve knowledge, wisdom is characteristic of many heroes of the epic. True, rational knowledge is intertwined here with irrationalism: along with exploring new lands and peoples and teaching the sciences, epic characters (like Volkh Vseslavievich) were engaged in sorcery, magic and werewolf. Experienced knowledge has not yet separated from occult ideas about the properties of nature and man.
Surprise in front of the outside world is a constant feature of the epic. It shines through in every epic, in every part of the epic story. Bylina does not want to surprise, does not engage in deliberate amusement in order to force the listener to listen with unflagging interest. This is a natural feeling, quite understandable for the time when man began to conquer the mighty forces of nature and at the same time become aware of himself. However, despite the giant step forward that mankind has taken in understanding the world, much still remained unknown, incomprehensible and terrible. Travel was dangerous, any trip outside the community, or even more so the country. Therefore, every departure was considered full of dangers from all sorts of real and imagined disasters.
The connection of village communities with the outside world was carried out through merchants, buffoons and wanderers, of whom there were so many in medieval Rus'. Literacy in the countryside was just emerging and, according to experts on ancient Russian culture, embraced village elders, clergymen, and servants of the feudal lord who lived in the village. But, despite the fact that “book education had not yet penetrated into the medieval village,” the Russian peasantry of that time “had its own culture, its own education, its own experience and skills, which created a stable foundation for all-Russian culture”
In cities and patrimonial castles, education was based largely on literacy, writing and books. Of course, in Rus', as in other countries of the medieval world, there were quite a few illiterate feudal lords, priests, and even princes: they either “barely wandered on the letter”, or “were not very well trained in books.” However, the literacy rate was quite high. Birch bark letters found in the middle of our century during excavations in Novgorod testify that many townspeople were taught to write. On parchment, on birch bark, bills of sale, wills are drawn up, chronicles, agreements with princes and neighboring states are written.
The needs of government, diplomacy, trade and worship necessitated not only literacy, but also "knowledge of book wisdom." Books were not only read, but also listened to. Reading aloud was then widespread in different strata of society. There were even special readers for whom reading aloud became a profession.
Recall that books came to Rus' with the adoption of Christianity /18, p.175/. They were brought from Byzantium, Greece, but mainly from Bulgaria. The Old Bulgarian and Old Russian languages were similar, and Rus' used the Slavic alphabet created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius. The process of copying books was long and complicated, they were not written, but drawn, decorated with beautiful miniatures. Some of the books were real works of art. By the 15th century, there were already many libraries with a significant number of volumes and inventories of book wealth. Documentary materials were collected in the princely and monastic archives. It should be borne in mind that only an insignificant part of the book wealth of medieval Rus' has survived to this day. Books were plundered, burned in the fire of the Tatar pogroms, and subsequently destroyed by church censorship. And yet, the XIII-X centuries gave us 583 handwritten books. According to scientists, in the first three centuries of Christian history in Rus' there were at least 8,500 church books alone, and in subsequent centuries this number multiplies.
Books served as the main source of dissemination of natural knowledge in Rus'. Written monuments of the XIII-XIV centuries. include, firstly, a description of those natural phenomena that suddenly and powerfully violated the abnormal life of people (floods, droughts, thunderstorms, hurricanes), and secondly, reflections on the causes of phenomena and the system of the universe.
A simple description of the facts by an eyewitness, a witness of events was made either for Christian edification, or simply from the standpoint of an observer and participant in events, telling "for the memory of posterity."
Christian theological literature, dealing with questions of the structure of the universe, was diverse and full of internal contradictions. Basically, it can be divided into two groups: one of them consisted of works, the authors of which to some extent relied on ancient science, knew and appreciated Aristotle, Plato, Ptolemy, and tried only to reconcile "Hellenic philosophy" with the basic principles of Christianity. Kievan Rus drew cosmological knowledge from the works of this group. Russian scribes of the 12th century were reproached for being too familiar with the teachings of such pagans as Plato and Aristotle.
But in the XIII-XIV centuries in Rus', the works of another group began to enjoy particular popularity, and among them are such sources as The Book of Enoch and Christian Topography by Cosmas Indikoplova. The authors of the "Book of Enoch" did not try to explain the universe, they "sought to create a fantastic picture that would rule out any attempts at further questions and searches" /17, p.139/. Views on the structure of the world, the characteristics of the universe Cosmas Indikoplova obeyed Christian theology. His book contained a sharp criticism of ancient ideas about the sphericity of the earth, about the origin of rain from evaporation. In other words, the author did everything possible to destroy the "pagan" ancient picture of the world.
Such books, as the researchers write, satisfied the needs of people striving for enlightenment only "in the darkest time of the Middle Ages." Already at the beginning of the 15th century, ancient views on the shape of the earth, its position in world space, and ideas about the colossal dimensions of the Universe were reviving in Rus'. This is evidenced by a wonderful handwritten collection of the Kirillovo-Belozersky Monastery, according to legend, written by the founder of the monastery Kirill. The collection is called "The Wanderer with Other Things" and includes a number of geographical and cosmographic articles. Of particular interest are three articles on the earth, its extent, shape and position in the universe. Comparing the earth with an egg, trying to determine the "distance of heaven from earth", the compiler of the collection is not based on theological traditions. He uses, according to his own statements, the calculations of "star-watchers and surveyors."
Let us pay attention to these concepts, new for Old Russian culture. They meant that for knowledge about nature, about the earth, a simple description of the facts is no longer enough. Information based on observation and measurement is needed. And in Rus' such information appears. One of the sources of new knowledge was the works of Russian travel writers.
Travel significantly expanded the geographical horizons of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus', or, in other words, changed the spatial ideas about the world. Travel multiplied due to the expansion of trade, diplomatic relations, religious pilgrimage, and simply because interest in foreign lands and peoples is formed. Russian travelers, whose works have come down to our time, went to different parts of the world from Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Suzdal, Tver. The interest in the descriptions of Palestine, Constantinople, the countries of Western Europe was so great that geographical collections were compiled from them, repeatedly copied. One description complemented another. Merchants and pilgrims heading to the East were provided with a detailed description of the routes, indicating distances and places of interest.
The 14th-15th centuries gave the world a large number of manuscripts, testifying to the wide interest of Russian readers in distant "far-away kingdoms, far-away states." The greatest detail, accuracy of observations, and brilliance of presentation is characterized by "The Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin, a merchant from Tver. The author gives a description of the socio-economic life of India in the 15th century, which far exceeds the brief notes of Vasco da Gama.
What does the development of knowledge about the earth and about nature bring to Russian culture of the XIV-XV centuries? First of all, the basis of a new "image of the world" is being created. Its features are determined by the interaction of two gradually growing processes of Russian culture: one that began in the 12th century addressing a person with its advantages and disadvantages and going beyond the theological concept of the universe. As a result of the interaction of these processes, a new anthropomorphic "image of the world" is formed, in the center of which is a person. This meant that Ancient Rus' was moving to a new type of culture, which will be discussed in more detail later.
It moves towards a person, reflects his interests and religious consciousness. Even the problems put forward by Russian Orthodoxy in the 14th century are becoming “more humane”, they are looking for a new support in the emotional experiences of the individual. Individualism is born in the depths of religion itself, and this causes an increase in internal contradictions in ancient Russian culture as a whole. The struggle of opinions, the clash of interests, is still going on in the form of religious disputes, but the scale of this struggle is much more significant. The emerging opposition trends contain elements of free thought and even rationalist criticism of religion. In this direction, the philosophical culture of Rus' arises and is being formed.
A vivid example of the "personal" nature of theological discussions is provided by the clash around, at first glance, the purely economic question of monastic possessions. His discussion very quickly went beyond religious disputes, revealed moral overtones, put forward outstanding personalities in spiritual culture. Among them is Nil Sorsky (1433-1508). He is the first to formulate the demand of the movement he started, eloquently called "non-possessors": "so that the monasteries do not have villages, but the blacks live in the deserts, and feed on needlework."
Vassian was a student and follower of Nil Sorsky, in worldly life he was a rich and noble governor and diplomat. Vassian fought so actively for the principles of “non-possessiveness” that the authorities imprisoned him in a monastery. A sufficiently educated man, he, judging by the accusations of his opponents, knew and used the writings of Aristotle and Plato. The oblivion of the commandments of Christ, which forbid the clergy to make themselves dependent on material values, Vassian declared a direct sin and apostasy from the faith. He urged the monks to be more tolerant of the poor, to take care of their neighbors, to help the poor and the poor.
The nonpossessors criticized the important principles of the existence of the Russian church. Criticism was dangerous only because it found support among the masses. The official church, defending its own interests, declares “non-possessiveness” a heresy and supports the direction, whose representatives were called “Josephites”. The goal of the "Josephites" is to fight the "non-possessors" and destroy the followers of Nil Sorsky as heretics threatening the unity of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The forces were unequal, and the "non-possessors" were brutally dealt with. But an important question arises, which the church cannot leave unanswered: why did trends appear in Russian spiritual culture in the second half of the 15th century that were declared heretical? The "Josephites" declare: the source of "non-possessiveness" and other heresies is "ignorance" - ignorance and isolation. What is the way out? It is proposed by Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod. It is necessary, he believes, to create a network of schools that promote the spread of literacy "for the honor and glory of the sovereign and space for the clergy" /18, p.52/. Thus, the ideological struggle that unfolded, at first glance, within the framework of religion, leads to the formulation of such questions that determine the formation of ancient Russian culture as a whole: the need for a new level of education, the presence of elements of philosophical culture, a new approach to moral and ethical principles and norms . In this regard, the work of Joseph Volotsky "The Enlightener" is indicative, in which the theoretical principles of the opponents of the "non-possessors" are formulated. Interpreting biblical and gospel myths, the author goes beyond theology, trying to determine what is good and what is evil in human life.
The development of an anthropomorphic "image of the world", the appeal of ideology to man, an attempt to determine the characteristics of human relations give grounds to talk about the formation of a new type of culture in Rus'. Usually, Russian culture of the late XIV - early XV centuries is compared with the Western European Renaissance. This comparison is natural, but the fact that up to the 17th century religion occupied a priority position in the spiritual culture of Rus' allows us to speak only about individual elements of the Renaissance, about individual phenomena of a humanistic nature. This period, however, can be fully called the Pre-Renaissance - the beginning of the movement, the first stage of a new culture, not yet freed from the dominance of religion. “The pre-revival was able to embrace the entire spiritual culture in its highest manifestations without a radical break in the very relationship of spiritual culture to religion”
What is the process of rebirth connected with and what exactly is “reborn” in the culture of Ancient Rus' of the period under review? The facts testify that the appeal to a person is connected with the awakening of historical consciousness. History is no longer viewed only as a mere change of events. In the minds of people at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, the idea of the nature of the era, its values and ideals changed. The time has come for the idealization of the era of independence of Rus'. In ideology, the main role is played by the idea of the independence of a strong and powerful Russian state, and the foundations of this ideology are found in Kievan Rus. Architects and builders draw inspiration from the cathedrals of pre-Mongolian Rus', chroniclers and writers - from such works of the 11th-13th centuries as "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In other words, for the Russian Pre-Renaissance, pre-Mongol Rus became the same as antiquity was for Western Europe.
Pre-Renaissance tendencies in Rus' already appeared at the end of the 14th century, but they gained particular strength at the beginning of the 15th century. This is associated with at least two important factors: the rise of national self-consciousness, the powerful impetus of which was the famous Battle of Kulikovo, and the strengthening of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands.
As you know, from the middle of the XIV century, the rulers of Moscow received the title of "Grand Dukes of Moscow", and under Ivan Kalita, the chair of the Metropolitan of "All Rus'" was transferred from Vladimir to Moscow. Moscow becomes a religious center, emerges victorious in the struggle against other great principalities - Tver and Ryazan, as well as Novgorod. And although it took a lot of time, the Russian people felt a single force that could resist the aggressors after the victory on the Kulikovo field.
The spiritual life of Rus' of this era was reflected in such literary works as “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev”, “The Life of Dimitri Ivanovich”, “The Tale of the Tokhtamyshev Invasion”. In them, concern for the Russian land, a great sense of patriotism are associated with an interest in human feelings and passions. But an indicator of the flourishing of Russian culture of the 15th century is the fine arts and its most striking expression - icon painting.
The icon was a classic form of medieval Russian art. It is known that she came to Rus' along with Christianity, but only a small number of icons of the pre-Mongolian period have survived to our time. One can only assume that during this period the ancient Russian icon painting strictly followed the Byzantine and Bulgarian models. Christian iconography is diverse: here are various images of the Mother of God, Christ, saints, prophets, archangels, numerous scenes, images of miracles. Sacred scenes were depicted in strict accordance with iconographic schemes, deviations from which are unacceptable.
The icon that came from foreign countries has taken a special place in Russian culture. In no other country were so many icons painted, in no other country did they receive such recognition as in Rus'. This is partly due to the conditions favorable for the development of icon painting. Forests, of which there were many in Rus', provided the necessary material, easily amenable to processing - linden and pine. Merchants imported rare paints, but very soon domestic dyes were obtained.
These are important reasons, but there were suitable conditions both in Byzantium and in the Balkans, however, icon painting did not have such a wide scope as in Rus'. In Byzantium, the icon was replaced by mosaics; in Bulgaria, during the construction of churches, special attention was paid to frescoes. And this is understandable: stone temples were built in these countries. In Rus', the most common building material was wood. Wooden churches could not be decorated with mosaics or frescoes, but the wooden icon-painting board was natural and familiar here.
Let us recall, however, that, while performing an aesthetic function, the icon had a deeply religious meaning. In the Christian cult, she became the reification of the unreal, "a manifestation of the divine essence." Therefore, the icon itself was perceived as a shrine, in it, according to the Russian philosopher E. N. Trubetskoy, we feel “embodied in images and colors, a vision of a different truth of life and a different meaning of life” / 19, p. 23 /. These “images and colors”, says the well-known researcher of Russian culture A.V. Kartashov, correspond to the psychology of a Russian person. He writes: “Russian people do not think abstractly, but in images, plastically. He is an artist, an esthete and in religion. The icon in his eyes takes on a special meaning ... the easiest way to make the invisible Church visible. And it is not surprising that the Eastern Greek icon, in itself a high creation of art in Russia ... has reached such perfection and beauty, which is still the limit in iconography.
These are the objective reasons for the wide distribution of the icon in Rus'. But its role in the national culture will not be fully disclosed if we do not single out one more, very important function of the icon. According to the aesthetic ideas of the Middle Ages, a work of art (and an icon, as mentioned above, is such) could be comprehended by a person only if “its very soul, its inner “I” was built according to the same laws as the contemplated image And this meant: if an icon is a spokesman for the highest aesthetic and moral ideals, then the same ideals characterize a person. So he was created by God. But in the soul and life of man, these ideals can be replaced by gross biological instincts. The task of the icon is to return the best spiritual qualities that were originally inherent in a person. How? Through contemplation and perception.
In other words, the Russian icon, as an element of culture, performed the function that the ancient Greeks called "catharsis" - purification through empathy and, as a result, elevation above the "physiological flesh".
The heyday of the Russian icon is associated with the work of the great masters - Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev and Dionisy. At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, Theophanes the Greek was the central figure among Moscow artists. He attracted everyone's attention with his highest professionalism and breadth of views. No wonder Epiphanius the Wise calls him "a very cunning philosopher" /22, p.113/. Theophan's Moscow workshop, where visiting Greeks collaborated with local craftsmen, produced many icons to decorate the rapidly growing iconostases. It is believed that Theophanes was the first to introduce a full-figure Deesis tier into the iconostasis composition, which immediately led to an increase in the iconostasis. Starting from the 15th century, the latter becomes an obligatory part of the interior decoration of every temple. Byzantine art did not know a high iconostasis, it should be considered an achievement of Russian culture.
In the summer of 1405, Feofan, together with two Russian masters, painted the Cathedral of the Annunciation. One of these masters is Andrei Rublev, who left such a deep mark on Russian culture that the first half of the 15th century is called the “Rublev era”.
About the biography of Andrei Rublev, one cannot say definitely, based on clear dates. It is assumed that he was born around 1360 and died in 1430 at an advanced age, "having honest gray hair." Nothing is known about the early period of the icon painter's work. Only recognized masters who carried out especially important orders were occasionally mentioned by chroniclers, and only in 1405 does the chronicle report that a simple monk Andrei Rublev takes part in the painting of the Grand Duke's Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Moscow Kremlin.
In subsequent years, Rublev created the most beautiful manuscript with miniatures - the Gospel of Khitrovo, named after its owner in the 17th century. In 1408, Andrei Rublev, together with master Daniil Cherny, painted and painted the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Soon the famous "Zvenigorod rank" was created. Only three icons have survived from him - "Savior", "Archangel Michael", "Apostle Paul". Beautiful image of the Savior. There is nothing of “Byzantine severity and dogmatism” in it, it is national Russian. In the eyes of Christ, fixed on the viewer, one senses both wisdom and kindness, he is full of attention to a person, is able to understand his soul, and therefore save it. Rublevsky Spas is not a punishing judge, he is the embodiment of benevolence and justice.
"Zvenigorod rank" testifies to the great talent and skill of the artist. However, the pinnacle of creativity
Rublev, the most perfect and famous work
became the "Trinity", written in honor of St. Sergius of Radonezh. Sergius himself especially revered the Trinity, wishing that “by the contemplation of this unity, the hated strife of this world would be overcome”
Rublev's icon depicts three angels. Which of them is the hypostasis of God the Father? There is no consensus on this matter, and for the artist this was not the main thing. Following the precepts of Sergius of Radonezh, Rublev wanted to express the idea of the unity of all Russian people, to embody in the icon the ideal of self-sacrifice, love, justice, kindness and beauty. Everything is subordinated to this main idea in Rublev's "Trinity" - composition, linear rhythm, and color.
The remarkable researcher of the Russian icon, V. N. Lazarev, writes about Andrey Rublev’s “Trinity” as follows: “There is something soothing, affectionate, conducive to long-term contemplation in the icon. It makes our imagination work hard, it evokes many poetic and musical associations that endlessly enrich the process of aesthetic perception. ... The most remarkable thing in Rublev's icon is its coloring. First of all, it affects the viewer with its colors, in which there is an incomparable melodiousness. It is the colors in combination with the lines that determine the artistic appearance of the icon, clear, pure and harmonious. The color scheme of the Trinity could be called friendly, because it expresses with rare persuasiveness the friendly consent of the three angels.
Rublev's "Trinity" was the most beloved icon of ancient Russian artists, many tried to imitate her. But none of the imitators managed to create a work even close to the "Trinity". Rublev painted the icon in one of those happy moments of inspiration that only geniuses have. And he "managed to create such a work, which we rightfully consider as the most beautiful Russian icon and as one of the most perfect creations of Russian painting"
From the 70s of the XV century, Dionysius, the most famous master of that period, began to work. It is difficult to single out Dionisy's works of authorship: he never worked alone, but was a member of a squad, the composition of which changed from order to order. Together "with Mitrofan and accomplices" Dionysius paints the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Pafnutiev Monastery. Later, Dionysius painted icons for the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. The last mention of Dionysius refers to 1502-1503, when he, together with his sons, painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery.
In the art of Dionysius, the ideological currents of his time are peculiarly intertwined. He, just like Andrei Rublev, strives to embody "unearthly beauty", to depict in the images of saints such people, whose whole appearance would call for purification and moral perfection. Dionysius "preferred a state of inner concentration, he liked to convey in his works the power of wisdom, kindness, humility" To a certain extent, all this brings Dionysius's painting closer to the art of Rublev. But there are also new trends in his works. “In the faces of the saints, something monotonous appears, reducing their psychological expressiveness, in the proportions and outlines of the figures, a fragility unknown to Rublev is revealed, sometimes wearing a somewhat deliberate character. Rublev's "lordship" goes from Dionysius to “festivity”, which in itself means a decrease in the high spirituality of the image” In the 16th century, the Rublev and Dionysian traditions began to wane. The icon palette fades, the rhythm of the composition decreases. The pace of development of art, iconography in particular, is slowing down, the church jealously ensures that no bold innovations penetrate into painting. And although the theologians of the 16th century called for writing “from ancient translations, as Greek icon painters wrote and as Andrei Rublev wrote ...”, the former high level of art was no longer achieved.
The Russian icon, carrying a huge semantic load from the first centuries of Christianity to the culmination of icon painting, became a phenomenon of world culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
Developing along its own cultural path, sometimes incomprehensible to the West, ancient Rus' was long perceived by historians as a country of “semi-pagan standing in everyday life”, crushed by the state and cut off from Europe. There was a point of view according to which medieval Rus' did not have a culture worthy of attention at all. And only the discovery of the Russian icon at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century made it possible “to see in Rus',” according to G. Fedotov, “a quiet and dumb girl who saw so many secrets with her unearthly eyes and can only tell about them with signs. And for a long time she was considered a fool just because she was dumb.
In the second half of the 15th century, the Russian state was further strengthened. By the beginning of the 16th century, Moscow became the capital of a mighty Russian state, a symbol of its strength and greatness. The period of formation of the centralized Russian state (as the end of the 15th - 16th centuries is usually called) is also characterized by new processes in Russian culture. We note, first of all, that the influence of the central government extends to all spheres of life - military affairs, judicial practice, and artistic culture. Political processes find a certain expression in literature, architecture and painting, in the development of social thought and religious ideology. In the 20s of the 16th century, two most important ideological monuments appeared: the “Message on the Monomakh’s Crown” by Spiridon-Sava and the “Message to the Astrologers” by the Pskov elder Philotheus. The “Message about the Monomakh’s Crown” set forth a legend, fundamentally important for the official ideologies of the Russian autocratic state, about the origin of the grand ducal dynasty ruling in Rus' from the Roman emperor “August Caesar” and about the confirmation of its dynastic rights by the “Monomakh’s Crown”, allegedly received by Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Byzantine emperor. One of the popular literary monuments of the 16th century, The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir, was created on the basis of the “Message about the Monomakh’s Crown”, and scenes from the “Tale ...” were carved on the doors of the royal place (the fence for the throne of Ivan the Terrible) in the Assumption Cathedral .
Around 1524, Elder Philotheus, in his “Epistle to the Astrologers,” expressed an opinion that received a wide historical response: since the entire Latin (Catholic) world is sinful, both the “first Rome” and the “second Rome” (Constantinople) fell into heresy, ceased to be the centers of the Christian world. The Russian state became such a center, Moscow was proclaimed the “third Rome”, “and there will be no fourth”
Most literary monuments of the 16th century affirm the unshakable idea of the special role of Russia as the only Orthodox country that has not lost its true face in the Christian world. And in the culture of that time, an attempt is made to strictly obey religious dogmas. In 1551, a Church Council was held in Moscow, the decisions of which were published in a special book, consisting of 100 chapters. Hence the name of the Cathedral - Stoglavy, and the books - Stoglav. The Council approved the church cult that had developed in Rus' as "immutable and final", its decisions are directed against any reformation-heretical teachings. For the development of Russian culture, the condemnation by the Council of the reading and distribution of "blasphemous" and "heretical repudiated books", and the speech against buffoons, "fool-makers", "guselniks" and "laughers" was of particular importance for the development of Russian culture. Strict supervision was introduced not only over icon painting, but also over the icon painters themselves. This task was also served by the organization of art workshops, in which the private life of artists and their behavior were regulated. Under circumstances that are not entirely clear, book printing, which began in the 50s and 60s of the 16th century, ceased, and the first printer Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Western Rus'. In other words, it was “about the excitation of protective principles in the mental movement of Muscovite Rus' of the 16th century”, and these “protective principles”, which resulted in tight control over culture as a whole, acquired a particularly sharp form during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
Culture (in any historical period) can be limited, its development can be slowed down, but it is impossible to stop. The 16th century was unfavorable for fiction and some forms of folk art - that, from the point of view of official authorities, was "unprofitable". But what was considered "useful" continued to evolve. The vacuum formed by the prohibition of folk art forms is gradually filled with a new kind of artistic creativity - the Russian theater is being born. Metropolitan Macarius creates "Great Menaion", in which he collects stories about all the saints revered in Rus'. Historical and literary works glorifying the policy of the Moscow Princes are being circulated. Historical works - chronographs - are created. A new type of literature, characteristic of the 16th century, emerged - secular journalism, which discussed the most important issues of public administration. In connection with the flow of “non-possessors”, “the first sprouts of the so-called “natural law” are breaking through in journalism, which began to develop especially in Russia in the second half of the 18th century and then moved into the 19th century. granted by God to all people. Prince A. M. Kurbsky, a talented publicist of the 16th century, in his polemic with Ivan the Terrible, accuses him of "closing the Russian land, that is, free human nature, like in a hellish stronghold" One of the first Russian "freethinkers" Matvey Bashkin, rebelling against slavery, he refers to the Gospel: “Christ calls everyone brothers, but we have bondage (that is, we keep slaves).” Publicist Ivan Peresvetov writes: “God created man to be autocratic and commanded himself to be master”
The spiritual culture of the 16th century, as the above examples testify, prepared the basis for ideological processes not only in the 17th century. She expressed the need for fundamental reforms, which were later carried out by Peter I.
According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it was the 14th-15th centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived. In the future, this process, despite numerous moments of crisis, was no longer interrupted, but only acquired new features.
FEATURES OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE MIDDLE XIV-XV CENTURIES.
From the middle of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke had a negative impact on the pace and course of the cultural development of the ancient Russian people.
The death of many thousands of people and the capture of the best craftsmen led not only to a decline in skill, but also to the complete disappearance of some complex types of craft technology. Massive destruction delayed the development of stone construction for almost half a century. The destruction of the main cultural centers led to a reduction in the historically established ties between the lands of North-Eastern Russia. During the conquest, many architectural and literary monuments, works of fine and applied art were destroyed.
The revival of Russian culture since the end of the XIV century. Successes in economic construction, the beginning of the process of unification of Russian lands and the first major victory over the Mongol-Tatar invaders contributed to the beginning of the revival of Russian culture.
The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 and later victories over the Tatar-Mongols contributed to the rise of national self-consciousness and played an important role in restoring ties interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar conquests with Byzantium and the South Slavic countries. The nationwide struggle against foreign invaders determined the dominant role of patriotic themes in the cultural tradition of Rus' of this period.
The rise of Moscow and the gathering of Russian lands around it contributed to the restoration of broken ties between Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, when Moscow had become the most important economic, military-political and spiritual center, the process of the formation of the Russian people intensified and the tendencies of the formation of a single national culture intensified.
After the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Rus' became a stronghold of world Orthodoxy. At the end of the XV century. this contributed to the growth of the international prestige of Rus' and gave a new impetus to cultural development.
LITERATURE AND ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY
1. Epic epic.
In the 14-15 centuries. Legends about the merchant Sadko (a rich Novgorod merchant).
Tales of the bogatyr Vasily Buslaev - the hero of the Novgorod epic epic
"The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh", a city that went to the bottom of the lake, but did not surrender to the Mongols.
2. Chronicle
Chronicle writing did not lose its significance during this period, despite the destruction of almost all of its centers, with the exception of Novgorod, where it was not interrupted.
The rise of Moscow also predetermined the special role of Moscow chronicle writing. After the Battle of Kulikovo, its content is determined by the idea of the unity of the Russian lands under the leadership of Moscow. This manifested itself both in the Trinity Chronicle (beginning of the 15th century) - the all-Russian chronicle of Moscow origin, and in the Moscow annals proper of the late 15th century, designed to substantiate the historical role of Moscow.
3. Historical stories
The most common literary genre of this period was historical stories. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. Often the stories became part of the annalistic text. The story "About the Battle of the Kalka", "The Story of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", the story about Alexander Nevsky, "The Story of Schelkan", which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327, is devoted to the fight against foreign conquerors before the Battle of Kulikovo. a cycle of historical stories: "On the Battle of the Don", "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev", "Zadonshchina" (author Sofony Ryazanets)
4. The heyday of hagiographic literature of that time is also largely associated with the process of unification of Russian lands and with the need to justify the God's chosenness of Moscow. Talented writers Pachomius Lagofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the greatest church leaders in Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow; Sergius of Radonezh, who supported the Grand Duke of Moscow in the struggle for the throne and in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.
Hagiographic literature during this period is represented not only by the lives of the ascetics of the church, but also by statesmen, which brings it closer to historical and heroic works.
5. Walking
Further development was received by the literature of travels - "walking". In the last quarter of the fifteenth century a new variety of this genre appeared - secular walks, the most striking example of which is the notes of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, describing his journey to India ("Journey Beyond the Three Seas"). It was the first European written work on the economy, customs and religion of India.
Interest in world history, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - a kind of world history of that time. All R. 15th century Pakhomiy Lagofet compiled the first Russian chronograph, in which the history of Rus' is presented in connection with the history of all Slavic peoples.
ARCHITECTURE
By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, there was not a single truly majestic building in Moscow.
Continuing the traditions of northeastern Rus'. BUT!!! It attracts Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari) Based on the traditions of Russian urban planning, old Russian architecture and Renaissance style features, talented Italians worked together with Russian masters to create Russian masterpieces
What temples and buildings were built during this period
Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. Built over the coffin of Sergei Radonezh.
The murals inside were created by Andrey Rublev. The main icon of the temple of the Trinity
Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery
The oldest building in Moscow. The Life of St. Nikon reports that Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny with their icon-painting artel went to Moscow to paint the new stone cathedral of the Spas-Andronikov Monastery after they had completed their icon-painting work in the cathedral of the Trinity Monastery in 1424.
MOSCOW KREMLIN
REMIND Kalita - oak Kremlin, Donskoy - white stone
In 1485-1495. the restructuring of the Kremlin begins, brick walls are erected. The Cathedrals of the Annunciation and the Archangel, the bell tower of Ivan the Great, and the Palace of Facets are under construction.
The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square. It is the historical and architectural center of the Moscow Kremlin. It is surrounded by the Faceted and Patriarchal Chambers, the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Annunciation, the Rizopolozhenskaya Church and the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great.
CAREFULLY CONSIDER THE PHOTO (then you will need to return again and understand - where and what)
The Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin is an Orthodox church located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. Built in 1475-1479 under the direction of the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti. The main temple of the Moscow state. The oldest fully preserved building in Moscow. It was in this temple that the coronations of Russian tsars and emperors later began to take place.
The Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin is an Orthodox church located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin.
The cathedral was built in 1505-1508. under the guidance of the Italian architect Aleviz the New on the site of the old cathedral of the XIV century and consecrated on November 8, 1508 by Metropolitan Simon. In October 1508, Grand Duke Vasily III "ordered to prepare places and transfer the relics of the ancestors of his Grand Dukes of Russia" to the new Archangel Cathedral, indicating the burial rules. Tomb of the rulers of Russia
The Faceted Chamber is an architectural monument in the Moscow Kremlin, one of the oldest civil buildings in Moscow. Built in 1487-1491 by decree of Ivan III by Italian architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari. The name is taken from the eastern facade, finished with faceted stone rust (diamond rust), characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture.
Bell tower of Ivan the Great - the common name of the church-bell tower of St.
John of the Ladder, located on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. The bell tower is the tallest building in the Moscow Kremlin (81 m) and until the end of the 19th century (the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior) was the tallest building in Moscow.In the old days, royal decrees were read at the bell tower - loudly, "in all Ivanovo", as they said then.
Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin
House temple of Russian princes (tsars) Served as the entrance to the royal palace
PAINTING
As in the previous period, the church had a decisive influence on the development of painting.
The main direction in the development of painting was still icon painting.
Of great importance in painting is the personality of the artist. The author's style of the most talented painters overcomes the influence of local traditions. The work of such icon painters as Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius (late 15th-early 16th century - about him in the next topic)
A huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the brilliant artist Theophan the Greek (c. 1340-after 1405), who came from Byzantium. His works (frescoes, icons) are notable for their monumentality, expressiveness of images, bold and free painting style. Worked in Veliky Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow
Some art historians consider him to be the author of Our Lady of the Don
There are two periods in the work of Theophan the Greek: rebellious Novgorod and more calm Moscow. In Novgorod, fragments of his painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin have been preserved. In Moscow, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin, and, together with Andrei Rublev and Elder Prokhor, the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (a part of the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Annunciation by Theophanes the Greek has been preserved).
1. Don Icon of the Mother of God 2. John the Baptist.
Andrei Rublev (his associate Daniil Cherny worked with him) canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity and sublime spirituality of images, combined with softness and lyricism. His most famous work, which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, is the icon "Trinity", painted for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra
(kept in the Tretyakov Gallery). Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in Zagorsk, the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin that have come down to us, and those that died in the 18th century. Frescoes of the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow
1. Holy Trinity
2. Saved in strength
RESULTS
The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars significantly slowed down the pace of the cultural and historical process, but did not interrupt it, did not violate the continuity in the development of Russian culture of the so-called pre-Mongol period and the period of its restoration and new flourishing.
Russian culture has retained its national character. An important role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by the lands that were not defeated, such as Novgorod and Pskov. The forcible intervention of an alien culture did not destroy the national identity and independence of Russian culture.
The end of the XIV-XV centuries. characterized by the beginning of a long process of merging local literary, architectural, art schools into a single national all-Russian school. The process of folding the Russian nationality continued.
The dependence on the Horde khans disappeared, a Russian centralized state was formed, which, unlike the mono-ethnic states of Western Europe, was initially formed as a multinational one. Muscovite Rus' for two and a half centuries organically assimilated many of the ideas and principles of the Horde. This applies primarily to the idea of autocracy, the features of which were borrowed by the Russian tsars. In this regard, we can say that the Muscovite tsar was the heir of the Mongol khan.
Russian literature of the 16th century.
Literature of that time testifies to the deep transformative processes that covered all spheres of Russian society. In addition to traditional chronicles and hagiographies, fiction and books with entertaining plots appear. Among them are the translated "Alexandria" about the life and adventures of Alexander the Great and "The Tale of Dracula" written by the clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn. These books told about autocratic rulers, strong power capable of holding the state in their hands.
The idea of autocracy was clearly and strictly substantiated in philosophical and socio-political writings. Among them, a special place is occupied by the teaching of Elder Philotheus about Moscow as the “Third Rome”, which he set forth in his letters to Vasily III. Philotheus used the idea of a “wandering kingdom” that arose back in Byzantium, according to which Orthodox Constantinople, which replaced the former Rome, occupies a central place in the Christian world. Therefore, it is natural that during the period of the crisis of the Byzantine Empire and its subsequent fall in Rus', a view arises of the Muscovite Orthodox Kingdom as inheriting the historical mission of Byzantium. According to Philotheus, the Russian kingdom is the only Orthodox kingdom in the world, the guardian of Orthodox shrines. Only Moscow remained faithful to Orthodoxy and therefore is the world center of Christianity. Hence the idea of the messianic role of Russia is derived, which, preserving the true Christian faith, preserving true spirituality, saves the world from evil and filth. Moscow is destined to be a stronghold of truly universal Christianity until the second coming of Christ. "Two Romes have fallen, a third stands, and there will be no fourth."
The rise of Moscow put an end to feudal fragmentation and contributed to the cultural rapprochement of the principalities.
Russian architecture of the 16th century.
Moscow architecture borrowed the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskov-Novgorod architecture. The new position of the city required the development of monumental construction.
Moscow Kremlin became an architectural symbol of state power, its walls began to be rebuilt at the end of the 15th century. during the reign of Ivan III. The Milanese engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, Anton Fryazin (real name Antonio Gilardi) and others were invited to rebuild the Kremlin. The Tainitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya, Spasskaya, and Borovitskaya towers were erected under their leadership. Inviting foreign masters, Ivan III wanted to use the latest achievements of European engineering, but not to forget national traditions. Therefore, the builders almost completely preserved the old arrangement of the walls, making them even more majestic and high. Brick walls with a total length of more than 2 km with 18 towers turned out to be not only a formidable fortress, but also a remarkable architectural work. After the walls and towers were completed in 1515, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses in Europe. The Kremlin almost completely repeated the plan of the Dmitry Donskoy fortress, new cathedrals began to be built mainly on the sites of old churches built under Ivan Kalita. Moscow, as it were, emphasized by this its ancient ties. The old churches were dilapidated and cramped and did not correspond to the increased political significance of the capital.
New Assumption Cathedral was called upon to become the main temple of the Moscow state and outshine the Novgorod Sophia with its grandeur. For the construction of the cathedral from Italy, the architect Fioravanti, nicknamed Aristotle for "building wisdom", was invited. He was asked to take the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral as a model, since the Moscow tsars considered themselves the heirs of the Vladimir princes. The talented master in a short time managed to understand the beauty and logic of ancient Russian architecture and, having introduced the most significant ancient Russian forms into the building, creatively combined them with his Renaissance ideas. In the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, Fioravanti repeated the main features of the Vladimir Cathedral: yatiglavia, iozakomar covering, arched belt on the facades, perspective portals. However, the Moscow Cathedral gives the impression of being more monolithic, more majestic, which corresponded to the idea of statehood of that time.
Cathedral of the Archangel The Kremlin was erected on the central square and became the burial place of the Moscow tsars. Its construction was supervised by the Italian architect Aleviz Novy, who, having preserved the traditional forms and plan of the Russian five-domed church with choirs, used magnificent architectural details of the Venetian Cinquecento in the exterior decoration. The belt-cornice on the walls, pilasters of the Corinthian order, zakomaras, decorated with white shells, organically connected with Russian architectural traditions, without violating the traditional appearance of an Orthodox church.
Blagoveshchensky cathedral The Moscow Kremlin was built by Russian craftsmen and served as the house church of the grand dukes and the royal family, so it directly communicated with the palace chambers. The building of the cathedral is fully consistent with Russian architectural traditions, and its external appearance combines the features of various architectural schools: from Pskov, it has decorative belts on drums and a high jodklet; Vladi, the Mir-Suzdal school manifested itself in columnar belts on apses and drums; Moscow architectural element - the design of the building with kokoshniks with a keeled end in the center.
Russian masters, faced with Western European art, abandoned it in favor of searching for an independent path as a result of the collision of new ideas with the old canons that Russian culture lived on. This period in Russian culture is called the Pre-Resurrection, but in the 16th century. its modification took place, expressed, in particular, in new types of temples that are beginning to be built in Rus'. So, tent-shaped (pillar-like structure with a top structure in the form of a tent) and pillar-shaped temples appeared.
Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye is the most famous tent temple. This is a truly Russian building in all its forms, which broke with the usual image of the Byzantine cross-domed church. The composition of the church consists of four main elements: a basement, a powerful quadrangle with ledges - narthexes that form a cruciform plan, an octagon and a tent with a cupola. The Temple of the Ascension, light, aspiring upwards, surprisingly harmonious, at the same time solemnly monumental. In addition to the original architectural idea, the building impressed its contemporaries with its architectural decor - capitals, cornices and an ornamental pattern of brickwork of the tent itself.
Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Moat, better known to the whole world as St. Basil's Cathedral, is an equally remarkable architectural monument of the 16th century. It was built by Russian architects Barmoya Postnik in honor of the conquest of the Kazan Khanate.
The architectural ensemble of the cathedral, which has a complex star shape in plan, consists of nine pillar-like temples of different heights: the central hipped church is surrounded by eight others. All its parts rise from a single powerful stone platform and are connected by a gallery-ambulance. The original color scheme of the building was formed by a combination of red brick with white carved decorative stone, which harmonized sparkling domes covered with white iron and colored majolica decorations of the central tent. Elegant onion domes of the cathedral appeared at the end of the 16th century, and flowery painting in the 17th-18th centuries.
Russian painting of the 16th century
Moscow painting represented by the greatest artist of the era Dionysius. He was not a monk, he had two sons who worked with him. The most important among the surviving works of the master is the cycle of murals of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery (Vologda Region), which has come down to us almost completely. The temple is dedicated to the image of the Mother of God, and this glorification becomes the leitmotif of the work of the icon painter. Three large solemn compositions are presented in the temple - “Cathedral of the Virgin”, “Otebe rejoices” and “Protection of the Virgin”. They are written on the themes of the church hymns of the same name, together making up the "akathist" (a cycle of songs in honor of the Mother of God). In the center of each composition is placed the figure of the Mother of God, seated with a baby on her knees or standing with a veil in her hands against the backdrop of a high five-domed cathedral. Saints and mere mortals glorifying the Mother of God settled around. Bright colorful combinations, colorful patterns of clothes and architecture, an iridescent halo around the Mother of God create a festive, solemn impression. In the second tier of frescoes, stretching along the walls and pillars of the central part of the temple, the akathist to the Mother of God is illustrated in detail - a hymn that is always listened to while standing. The slender, dark cherry silhouette of Mary, repeated in each composition, against the background of pale pink and golden hills or buildings, gives the series of frescoes a semantic, compositional and coloristic unity. The painting makes a particularly solemn and joyful impression in the morning and evening, when the sun peeps into the windows of the temple.
In painting of the XVI century. the symbolic principle, the desire for abstract "philosophizing", the interpretation of the most important Christian dogmas in artistic images, is even more intensified. New trends in painting took shape in an independent direction by the 1540s. In this regard, the murals of the Kremlin chambers, including those of the Faceted Chamber, are evident. The depicted cosmic expanses (air, sun, moon, earth, angels), as well as the paths of human life (the Savior, the evangelists, the gates of paradise, earthly, fiery, lunar and temporal circles) were accompanied by allegorical images, among which were sometimes quite frivolous. Such murals required a wise reading, therefore, certain knowledge. At the same time, a combination of symbolic-cosmological pictures, abstract religious ideas with specific images drawn from life itself is possible. The plot of the Trinity often results in an everyday scene with a table placed diagonally. Such a reduction, simplification of canonical images caused a response from the zealots of antiquity, which ultimately led to the strengthening of church regulation of artistic creativity and the prohibition of writing according to one’s own design, the strict iconographic canon that came down from the Greeks and Andrei Rublev was once again confirmed.
For icon painting of the 16th century. the exaltation of official political ideas by means of art was also characteristic. This is how the famous icon "Church militant", or "Blessed is the army of the Heavenly King" appeared. It depicts the return of the Russian troops after the Kazan victory. The main idea of the work is clear - the apotheosis of the Moscow army led by Ivan the Terrible. But the allegorical form of expressing the idea of the Kazan victory and the triumph of Moscow does not drown out either the feeling of wildlife with its wide space, or the vitality of the human military crowd, divided into three horizontally extended streams. This icon actually brings close to the secular picture.
secular genres are actively developing at this time. Various world-power theories, universal and cosmological conceptions of the idea of statehood, as well as dynastic interests contributed to the formation of a sense of historicism, more and more freed from allegorical form. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace there were many compositions of a historical nature: the baptism of Rus', the history of the royal regalia of Vladimir Monomakh, Monomakh's campaign against Constantinople, etc. Rurik's genealogy, the history of the division of the Kyiv land by Prince Vladimir, etc. were developed in the painting of the Faceted Chamber.
Music. In the XV-XVI centuries. the idea of angelic singing was rethought, with which monophonic unison singing was associated. This happened simultaneously with a change in icon painting, in which, starting from the 15th century. the iconography of the Trinity is actively developing. Just as Rublev's "Trinity" became the highest expression of theological teaching, so the idea of the trinity was expressed in Russian church music in a special form of polyphony - triplet. This singing got its name from the recording system: the voices were recorded alternately in lines in red and black, one above the other, and added up to a multi-colored score. The main voice was the middle one - "the path", as he led the melody of the znamenny chant. Above it was the "top" - a duplicating voice, below it - the "bottom". For a long time in Rus', the custom was preserved to entrust the most important chants, especially perennials, to three young men who were called performers (from Grsch. performed ei despot "many years to you, sir"). The prototype of three-line singing, apparently, was the biblical story from the book of the prophet Daniel about three youths who did not want to bow to the golden idol, for which they were thrown into a fiery furnace by King Nebuchadnezzar, but sang a song of thanksgiving to God there and were saved by angels who descended from heaven.
The creation of three-line singing belongs to the chanters Savva and Vasily Rogov, Novgorod masters who were considered the most authoritative musicians of Moscow in the second half of the 16th century.
The traditional znamenny chant has also changed. Remaining within the boundaries of monophonic choral singing, Russian chanters managed to create several new chants. For example, a travel banner arose, with which stichera were performed, accompanying various kinds of church processions. At the end of the XVI century. a great chant appeared, characterized by the inexhaustibility of melodic richness. A new phenomenon was demestvenny chant, distinguished by its magnificence, pomp and pomposity of sound. Its name is associated with the position of choir regent - a domesticist who kept melodies in his memory that were not subject to traditional laws.
The development of Russian singing culture led to the appearance in Moscow of the choir of the sovereign's singing clerks. It was divided into several groups of singers - villages. At the head of the choir was the leader. The choir also had a conductor, who had a good voice (usually a baritone) and knew the liturgical rules; he was in charge of training young singers and taking care of order. This choir, under various names, existed for more than 300 years.
