Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many respects lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. The conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art.

At the head of the direction is the Paris Academy of Arts, which owns the creation of a set of artificial dogmatic rules and supposedly unshakable laws of the composition of the picture. This Academy also established rationalistic principles for depicting emotions (“passions”) and the division of genres into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included historical, religious and mythological genres, while the “low” genres included portrait, landscape, everyday genre, and still life.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism freed a person from religious and church influence, asserting the individual as the highest value of being. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Classicism was formed as an antagonistic direction in relation to the magnificent and virtuoso art of the Baroque. But when, in the second half of the 17th century, classicism became the official art of the absolutist monarchy, it absorbed elements of the baroque. This manifested itself in the architecture of Versailles, in the work of the painter Ch. Lebrun, the sculptures of F. Girardon, and A. Coisevox.

In the middle of the 18th century, against the backdrop of the enlightenment movement, on the eve of the French Revolution, a new trend of classicism arose, opposing itself to the art of the Rococo and the work of epigones - academicians. A feature of this trend was the manifestation of the features of realism, the desire for clarity and simplicity, the reflection of the educational ideal of “natural humanity”.

The period of late classicism - Empire - falls on the first third of the 19th century. It is distinguished by splendor and splendor, expressed in architecture and applied art. This period is distinguished as independent.

IN painting classicism, the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, K. Lorrain) acquired the main importance. Clear

The demarcation of plans in landscapes was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be brown, the middle one - green, and the far one - blue.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. The themes of Poussin's canvases are diverse: mythology, history, the New and Old Testament. The heroes of Poussin are people of strong characters and majestic deeds, a high sense of duty to society and the state. The public purpose of art was very important to Poussin. All these features are included in the emerging program of classicism. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor; his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds.

Sculpture the era of classicism is distinguished by rigor and restraint, coherence of forms, calmness of poses, when even movement does not violate formal isolation (E. Falcone, J. Houdon).

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted norms.

Morals. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

main feature architecture classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in

Compliance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

Literature. The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory authorial assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

Classicism became the first full-fledged literary movement, and its influence practically did not affect prose: all theories of classicism were partly devoted to poetry, but mostly to dramaturgy. This direction arises in France in the 16th century, and flourishes about a century later.

The history of the emergence of classicism

The emergence of classicism was due to the era of absolutism in Europe, when a person was considered just a servant of his state. The main idea of ​​classicism is civil service, the key concept of classicism is the concept of duty. Accordingly, the key conflict of all classic works is the conflict of passion and reason, feelings and duty: negative characters live, obeying their emotions, and positive characters live only by reason, and therefore always turn out to be winners. Such a triumph of reason was due to the philosophical theory of rationalism, which was proposed by Rene Descartes: I think, therefore I am. He wrote that not only man is reasonable, but all living things in general: reason is given to us from God.

Features of classicism in literature

The founders of classicism carefully studied the history of world literature and decided for themselves that the literary process in ancient Greece was most reasonably organized. It was the ancient rules that they decided to imitate. In particular, from the ancient theater was borrowed rule of three unities: unity of time (more than a day cannot pass from the beginning to the end of the play), unity of place (everything happens in one place) and unity of action (there should be only one storyline).

Another technique borrowed from the ancient tradition was the use mask heroes- stable roles that move from play to play. In typical classic comedies, we are always talking about the extradition of a girl, so the masks there are as follows: mistress (the girl-bride herself), soubrette (her servant-girlfriend, confidante), a stupid father, at least three suitors (one of them is necessarily positive, i. e. the hero-lover) and the hero-reasoner (the main positive character, usually appears at the end). At the end of the comedy, some intrigue is necessary, as a result of which the girl will marry a positive groom.

Classical comedy composition should be very clear, must contain five acts: exposition, plot, plot development, climax and denouement.

There was a reception unexpected outcome(or deus ex machina) - the appearance of a god from the machine, which puts everything in its place. In the Russian tradition, such heroes often turned out to be the state. Also used receiving catharsis- purification through compassion, when sympathizing with the negative characters who got into a difficult situation, the reader had to cleanse himself spiritually.

Classicism in Russian literature

A.P. brought the principles of classicism to Russia. Sumarokov. In 1747, he published two treatises - Epistol on poetry and Epistol on the Russian language, where he sets out his views on poetry. In fact, these epistles were translated from French, a paraphrase for Russia of Nicolas Boileau's treatise The Poetic Art. Sumarokov predetermines that the main theme of Russian classicism will be the social theme, dedicated to the interaction of people with society.

Later, a circle of novice playwrights appeared, headed by I. Elagin and the theater theorist V. Lukin, who proposed a new literary idea - the so-called. declination theory. Its meaning is that you only need to understandably translate Western comedy into Russian, replacing all the names there. Many similar plays appeared, but in general the idea was not very realized. The main significance of the Elagin circle was that it was there that D.I. Fonvizin, who wrote the comedy

Classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic direction (flow) in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent baroque. The influence of classicism on the artistic life of Europe in the 17th - 18th centuries. was wide and long-term, and in architecture it continued into the 19th century. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards the universal “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.

Writers and artists often turn to the images of ancient myths (see Ancient Literature).

Classicism flourished in France in the 17th century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Moliere), in poetry (J. Lafontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. At the end of the XVII century. N. Boileau (in the poem "Poetic Art", 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.

The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the work of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to the service of state interests. Showing conflicting mental movements in their characters, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of depicting the inner world of a person. Imbued with the pathos of the study of the human soul, the tragedy included a minimum of external action, easily fit into the famous rules of the "three unities" - time, place and action.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adheres to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with the ode, the epic) belonged to the “high genres” and had to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and reflect only sublime heroic sides. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. In the genre of fable, Lafontaine became famous in France, and in the genre of comedy - Molière.

In the 17th century, permeated with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment, classicism was imbued with passionate criticism of the order of the feudal world, the protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished by a great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives of enlightenment classicism are Voltaire in France, J. W. Goethe and J. F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century, in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the works of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, M. M. Kheraskov, V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavin. It presents all the most important genres - from ode and epic to fable and comedy. D. I. Fonvizin, the author of the famous satirical comedies Brigadier and Undergrowth, was a remarkable comedian. Russian classic tragedy showed a keen interest in national history (Dimitri the Pretender by A. P. Sumarokov, Vadim Novgorodsky by Ya. B. Knyaznin, and others).

At the end of the XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. Classicism, both in Russia and throughout Europe, is in crisis. He is increasingly losing touch with life, closing in a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism is subjected to sharp criticism, especially from the romantics.

Classicism as an art style

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1. Characteristics of classicism as a trend in art

Classicism - artistic direction in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries. In many ways, he opposed the baroque with its passion, volatility, inconsistency, asserting his principles.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, "should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself" . Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

Classicism appeared in France. Two stages can be distinguished in the formation and development of this style. The first stage dates back to the 17th century. For the classics of this period, works of ancient art were unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, where the ideal was order, rationality, harmony. In their works, they sought beauty and truth, clarity, harmony, and completeness of construction. Second stage, 18th century. It entered the history of European culture as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. Man attached great importance to knowledge and believed in the ability to explain the world. The main character is a person who is ready for heroic deeds, subordinating his interests to the general, spiritual impulses to the voice of reason. He is distinguished by moral steadfastness, courage, truthfulness, fidelity to duty. The rational aesthetics of classicism is reflected in all forms of art.

The architecture of this period is characterized by orderliness, functionality, proportionality of parts, a tendency to balance and symmetry, clarity of ideas and constructions, and strict organization. From this point of view, the symbol of classicism is the geometric layout of the royal park at Versailles, where trees, shrubs, sculptures and fountains were located according to the laws of symmetry. The standard of Russian strict classics was the Tauride Palace, built by I. Starov.

In painting, the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J. David) have acquired the main importance.

In poetic art, there was a division into "high" (tragedy, ode, epic) and "low" (comedy, fable, satire) genres. Outstanding representatives of French literature P. Corneille, F. Racine, J.B. Moliere had a great influence on the formation of classicism in other countries.

An important moment of this period was the creation of various academies: sciences, painting, sculpture, architecture, inscriptions, music and dance.

The art style classicism (from Latin classicus Ї “exemplary”) arose in the 17th century in France. Based on the ideas of regularity, the rationality of the world order, the masters of this style "sought for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, the embodiment of high moral ideals." They considered the works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, therefore they developed ancient plots and images. Classicism in many ways opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, inconsistency, asserting its principles in various types of art, including music. In 18th century opera classicism is represented by the works of Christoph Willibald Gluck, who created a new interpretation of this type of musical and dramatic art. The pinnacle in the development of musical classicism was the work of Joseph Haydn,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who worked mainly in Vienna and formed the Viennese classical scale in the musical culture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Classicism in music is in many ways not similar to classicism in literature, theater or painting. In music it is impossible to rely on ancient traditions - they are almost unknown. In addition, the content of musical compositions is often associated with the world of human feelings, which are not amenable to strict control of the mind. However, the composers of the Viennese school created a very harmonious and logical system of rules for constructing a work. Thanks to such a system, the most complex feelings were clothed in a clear and perfect form. Suffering and joy became for the composer a subject of reflection, not experience. And if in other types of art the laws of classicism already at the beginning of the 19th century. seemed outdated to many, then in music the system of genres, forms and rules of harmony developed by the Viennese school retains its significance to this day.

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Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental antique architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.

The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.

In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

The development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of ​​the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:

• Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
• Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
• Empire.

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between the various arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the period of its existence, many talented craftsmen have appeared, and a large number of projects have been created.

The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.

In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.

The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.

In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinguishing feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.

The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.

Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.

If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century, original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.