Introduction

The history of all sociology as a science, as well as the history of its most important private discipline, the sociology of inequality, spans a century and a half.

In all ages, many scientists have thought about the nature of relations between people, about the plight of most people, about the problem of the oppressed and the oppressors, about the justice or injustice of inequality.

A variety of relations of roles, positions lead to differences between people in each particular society. The problem comes down to somehow streamlining these relations between categories of people that differ in many aspects.

Even the ancient philosopher Plato reflected on the stratification of people into rich and poor. He believed that the state is, as it were, two states. One is the poor, the other is the rich, and they all live together, plotting each other all sorts of intrigues. Plato was "the first political ideologue who thought in terms of classes," according to Karl Popper. In such a society, people are haunted by fear and uncertainty. A healthy society must be different.

What is inequality? In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption. To describe the system of inequality between groups of people in sociology, the concept of "social stratification" is widely used.

social stratification- (from Latin stratum - layer and facere - to make) in bourgeois sociology - a concept that denotes the main social differences and inequality (social differentiation) in modern society. Opposes the Marxist theory of classes and class struggle.

Bourgeois sociologists ignore property relations as the main feature of the class division of society. Instead of the main features of classes opposing each other, they single out derivative, secondary characteristics; while adjacent layers differ little from each other. Three directions prevail in the study of social stratification. The first puts forward social prestige as the leading criterion for distinguishing layers, embodied in a certain collective opinion about the "higher - lower" position of individuals and groups. The second considers people's self-assessments regarding their social position to be the main one. Thirdly, when describing the stratification, he uses such objective criteria as profession, income, education, etc. In essence, non-Marxist sociology does not distinguish between the main features by which classes and strata are divided, and additional ones.

The latter do not explain the essence, causal relationships of social differentiation, but only describe its consequences in different spheres of life. If at the empirical level, bourgeois scientists simply fix social inequality, approaching the problem of social stratification purely descriptively, then when they go on to explain the phenomenon of social stratification, they violate the principle of correspondence of levels of generalization, since a person’s position in society is explained through individual behavior, i.e. the social dissolves into the individual. Social stratification is a central theme in sociology. It explains social stratification into the poor, the wealthy and the rich. Considering the subject of sociology, one can find a close connection between the three fundamental concepts of sociology - social structure, social composition and social stratification. In domestic sociology, during his life in Russia and for the first time during his stay abroad (20s), P. Sorokin systematized and deepened a number of concepts that later acquired a key role in the theory of stratification (social mobility, “one-dimensional” and “ multidimensional stratification, etc. Social stratification, Sorokin notes, is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank.

It finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. The structure can be expressed through a set of statuses and likened to empty cells of a honeycomb.

It is located, as it were, in a horizontal plane, but is created by the social division of labor. In a primitive society there are few statuses and a low level of division of labor, in a modern society there are many statuses and, consequently, a high level of organization of the division of labor. But no matter how many statuses there are, in the social structure they are equal and functionally related to each other.

But now we have filled the empty cells with people, each status has turned into a large social group. The totality of statuses gave us a new concept - the social composition of the population. And here the groups are equal to each other, they are also located horizontally. Indeed, in terms of social composition, all Russians, women, engineers, non-party people and housewives are equal. However, we know that in real life the inequality of people plays a huge role. Inequality is the criterion by which we can place some groups above or below others. The social composition turns into social stratification - a set of social strata located in a vertical order, in particular, the poor, the wealthy, the rich. If we resort to a physical analogy, then the social composition is a disorderly collection of "iron filings". But then they put a magnet, and they all lined up in a clear order. Stratification is a certain "oriented" composition of the population. What "orients" large social groups? It turns out that society's unequal assessment of the meaning and role of each status or group. A plumber or a janitor is valued lower than a lawyer and a minister. Consequently, high statuses and people occupying them are better rewarded, they have more power, the prestige of their occupation is higher, the level of education should also be higher. So we got the four main dimensions of stratification - income, power, education, prestige. And that's all, there are no others. Why? But because they exhaust the range of social benefits that people aspire to, more precisely, not the benefits themselves (there may be many of them), but the channels of access to them: a house abroad, a luxury car, a yacht, a vacation in the Canary Islands, etc. - social goods that are always in short supply but inaccessible to the majority and are acquired through access to money and power, which in turn are achieved through high education and personal qualities. Thus, social structure arises from the social division of labor, and social stratification - about the social distribution of results. To understand the essence of social stratification and its features, it is necessary to conduct a general assessment of the problems of the Russian Federation.

social stratification

The sociological concept of stratification (from Latin stratum - layer, layer) reflects the stratification of society, differences in the social status of its members.

social stratification - it is a system of social inequality, consisting of hierarchically arranged social strata (strata). A stratum is understood as a set of people united by common status features.

Considering social stratification as a multidimensional, hierarchically organized social space, sociologists explain its nature and causes of origin in different ways. Thus, Marxist researchers believe that the social inequality that determines the stratification system of society is based on property relations, the nature and form of ownership of the means of production. According to the supporters of the functional approach (K. Davis and W. Moore), the distribution of individuals into social strata occurs in accordance with their contribution to the achievement of society's goals, depending on the importance of their professional activities. According to the theory of social exchange (J. Homans), inequality in society arises in the process of unequal exchange of the results of human activity.

To determine belonging to a particular social stratum, sociologists offer a variety of parameters and criteria.

One of the creators of the stratification theory, P. Sorokin, distinguished three types of stratification:

1) economic (according to the criteria of income and wealth);

2) political (according to the criteria of influence and power);

3) professional (according to the criteria of mastery, professional skills, successful performance of social roles).

In turn, the founder of structural functionalism T. Parsons identified three groups of signs of social stratification.

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

All-Russian Correspondence Institute of Finance and Economics

test

in the discipline "Sociology"

on the topic

"Social stratification of society"

Option number 11

Artist: Khasanova M.V.

Specialty: F&K

Record book number: 04FFD41122

Head: Zainetdinov Sh.R.

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….…………3

INTRODUCTION:

Considering the first question, I will reveal the essence of structuring society, I will give a definition of the concept of "stratification", what social stratification is, what reflects and what are the causes of social stratification. What criteria are used to locate the strata.

Considering the types of stratification systems, I will reveal their content.

In answer to the second question, I will characterize Western sociological theories of social stratification: Marxist, functional significance, concepts of the West German sociologist R. Dahrendorf, French sociologist A. Touraine, American sociologist A. Barber.

Setting out the third question, I will consider the concept of stratification, the problem of inequality, what is their view of the placement of layers in hierarchical subordination.

1 question.

The concept of social "stratification of society". Causes of social stratification. Types of stratification systems.

Stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time. Moreover, social inequality is reproduced in fairly stable forms as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. The existence of social differentiation can be taken as an axiom. However, the explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, the relationship of specific forms remains one of the key problems of sociology.

social stratification- this is a description of social inequality in society, its division into social strata according to income, the presence or absence of privileges, and lifestyle.

In the case of primitive society, this inequality was not so significant, and because of this, the phenomenon of stratification was almost absent. As society has developed, inequality has only grown and grown. In complex societies, it divided people by level of education, income, power. arose castes, Then estates and not so long ago classes.

Term "stratification" originally a geological term. There it serves to indicate the location of the layers of the Earth along a vertical line. Sociology inherited this scheme and made the structure of society, like the structure of the Earth, placing the social strata of society also vertically. The basis for this scheme of structure is the so-called income ladder, where the poor have the lowest rung, the middle class of the population - the middle, and the rich stratum - the top.

Inequality or stratification arose gradually, accompanying the birth of human society. Its initial form was already present in the primitive mode. The tightening of stratification occurred during the period of the creation of early states due to the creation of a new class- slaves.
Slavery is the first historical system stratification. It arose in ancient times in China, Egypt, Babylon, Rome, Greece, etc. Slavery often deprived a person of any rights at all and bordered on an extreme degree of inequality.

Mitigation stratification occurred with the gradual liberalization of views. For example, during this period in countries with the Hindu religion, a new division of society is created - into castes.

castes are social groups, a member of which a person became only because he was born from representatives of one or another stratum (caste). Such a person was deprived for the rest of his life of the right to move to another caste, from the one in which he was born. There are 4 main castes: peasants, merchants, warriors and priests. In addition to them, there are still about 5 thousand castes and a podcast.

All the most prestigious professions and privileged positions are held by the wealthy segment of the population. Usually their work is connected with mental activity and management of the lower parts of society. Their examples are presidents, kings, leaders, kings, political leaders, scientists, politicians, artists. They are the highest rung in society.

In modern society, the middle class can be considered lawyers, qualified employees, teachers, doctors, as well as the middle and petty bourgeoisie. The lowest layer can be considered the poor, unemployed and unskilled workers. Between the middle and the lower one can still distinguish one class in the composition, which often includes representatives of the working class.

Society stratification occurs with the application of several factors: income, wealth, power and prestige.

Income can be characterized as the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received in a certain period of time. Such money includes: wages, alimony, pensions, fees, etc.
Wealth - this is the possibility of having property (movable and immovable), or the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash. This is the main feature of all the rich. They can either work or not work in order to get their wealth, because the share of wages in their general condition is not large.
Power exercise the ability to impose their wishes, not taking into account the will of others. In modern society, all power is subject to regulation by laws and traditions. People who have access to it can freely use a wide range of various social benefits, have the right to make decisions that, in their opinion, are important for society, including laws (which are often beneficial to the upper class).
Prestige - this is the degree of respect in society for a particular profession. On the basis of these bases for the division of society, the aggregate socio-economic status is determined. In another way, it can be called the place of a certain person in society.

There are many stratification criteria by which it is possible to divide any society. Each of them is associated with special ways of determining and reproducing social inequality. The nature of social stratification and the way it is established in their unity form what we call the stratification system.

Below are NINE TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS that can be used to describe any social organism, namely:

1.Physico-genetic 2.Slave-owning

3. Caste 4. Class

5. Etacratic 6. Socio-professional

7. Class 8. Cultural-symbolic

9. Cultural and normative

PHYSICAL-GENETIC stratification system, which is based on the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or a group is determined by their gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity. Accordingly, the weaker, those with physical disabilities are considered defective here and occupy a lowered social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or by its actual use, and then fixed in customs and rituals. Currently, devoid of its former significance, it is still supported by military, sports and sexual-erotic propaganda.

The second stratification system - SLAVE - is also based on direct violence. But inequality is determined here not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. At the same time, certain social groups are completely deprived of any civil and property rights and, moreover, along with things, they turn into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and, thus, is fixed in generations. Examples: this is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens. Ways to reproduce the slave system are also quite diverse. Ancient slavery was kept mainly due to conquests.

The third type of stratification system is CAST. It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are reinforced by the religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a clear place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the special functions of each caste in the system of division of labor. There is a fairly clear list of occupations that members of this caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural occupations. The highest position is occupied by the caste of "ideologists" who possess some kind of sacred knowledge. Since the position in the caste system is inherited, the possibilities of social mobility are extremely limited here. And the stronger caste is expressed, the more closed this society turns out to be.

The fourth type is represented by the ESTATE stratification system. In this system, groups differ in legal rights, which, in turn, are strictly connected with their duties and are directly dependent on these duties. Moreover, obligations mean obligations to the state, enshrined in law. Some estates are obliged to carry out military or official service, others - to bear the "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties.

Some similarity with the class system is observed in the ETAK-RATIC society (from French and Greek - "state power"). In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities of mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to derive from their power positions. The degree of material well-being, the style of life of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel are associated here with the same formal ranks that they occupy in the respective power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a secondary role. The scale and nature of differentiation (the amount of power, the size of regulated property, the level of personal income, etc.) in the etacratic system are under the control of the state bureaucracy. At the same time, hierarchies can be fixed formally legally - through bureaucratic Tables of Ranks, military regulations, assignment of categories to state institutions - or they can remain outside the sphere of state legislation (a good example is, for example, the system of the Soviet party nomenklatura, the principles of which are not spelled out no laws). Independence from legal formalization, the possibility of complete formal freedom of members of society (with the exception of dependence on the state), the absence of automatic inheritance of positions of power - also distinguish the etacratic system from class divisions. The etacratic system is revealed with the greater force, the more authoritarian character the government takes.

This is followed by the sixth, SOCIO-PROFESSIONAL stratification system. Within the framework of this system, groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. A special role is played by the qualification requirements for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, skills and abilities. Approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of qualification certificates (diplomas, licenses, patents), the effectiveness of which is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history. The socio-professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor. This is a system of craft workshops in a medieval city and a rank grid in modern state industry, a system of certificates and diplomas of education received, scientific degrees and titles that open the way to qualified and prestigious jobs.

The concept of social stratification. Conflictological and functionalist theory of stratification

social stratification- this is a set of social strata located in a vertical order (from lat. - layer and - I do).

The author of the term is an American scientist, a former resident of Russia, Pitirim Sorokin. He borrowed the concept of "stratification" from geology. In this science, this term refers to the horizontal occurrence of various layers of geological rocks.

Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) was born in the Vologda region, in the family of a Russian, a jeweler and a kome peasant woman. He graduated from St. Petersburg University, a master of law. He was an activist of the Right Social Revolutionary Party. together with a group of scientists and politicians, he was expelled from Russia by Lenin. In 1923 he worked in the USA at the University of Minnesota, and in 1930 he founded the Department of Sociology at Harvard University, invited Robert Merton and Talcott Parsons to work. It was in the 30-60s years - the peak of the scientist's scientific creativity. The four-volume monograph "Social and Cultural Dynamics" (1937-1941) brings him worldwide fame.

If the social structure arises from the social division of labor, then social stratification, i.e. the hierarchy of social groups - about the social distribution of the results of labor (social benefits).

Social relations in any society are characterized as unequal. Social inequality are the conditions under which people have unequal access to social goods such as money, power and prestige. Differences between people, due to their physiological and mental characteristics, are called natural. Natural differences can become the basis for the emergence of unequal relationships between individuals. The strong coerce the weak, who triumph over the simpletons. Inequality resulting from natural differences is the first form of inequality. However, the main feature of society is social inequality, inextricably linked with social differences.

Theories of social inequality are divided into two principal areas: Functionalist and conflictological(Marxist).

Functionalists, in the tradition of Emile Durkheim, derive social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, stateevik) and organic (arises as a result of training and professional specialization).

For the normal functioning of society, an optimal combination of all types of activities is necessary, but some of them, from the point of view of society, are more important than others, therefore, there should always be special mechanisms in society to encourage those people who perform important functions, for example, due to uneven in remuneration, provision of certain privileges, etc..

Conflictologistsemphasize the dominant role in the system of social reproduction of differential (those that divide society into layers) relations of property and power. The nature of the formation of elites and the nature of the distribution of social capital depend on who gets control over significant social resources, as well as on what conditions.

The followers of Karl Marx, for example, consider private ownership of the means of production to be the main source of social inequality, which gives rise to the social stratification of society, its division into antagonistic classes. The exaggeration of the role of this factor prompted K. Marx and his followers to the idea that with the elimination of private ownership of the means of production, it would be possible to get rid of social inequality.

sociodialect - conventional languages ​​and jargon. Jargon is distinguished: class, professional, age, etc. Conditional languages ​​("Argo") are lexical systems that perform the functions of a separate language, incomprehensible to the uninitiated, for example, "fenya" is the language of the underworld ("grandmothers" - money, "ban" - station, "corner" - suitcase "Clift" - jacket).

Types of social stratification

In sociology, three basic types of stratification are usually distinguished (economic, political, professional), as well as non-basic types of stratification (cultural-speech, age, etc.).

Economic stratification is characterized by indicators of income and wealth. Income - the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain period of time (month, year). This includes wages, pensions, allowances, fees, etc. Income is usually spent on living but can be accumulated and turned into wealth. Income is measured in monetary units that an individual (individual income) or family (family income) receives over a specified period of time.

Political stratification is characterized by the amount of power. Power - the ability to exercise one's will, to determine and control the activities of other people through various means (law, violence, authority, etc.). Thus, the amount of power is measured, first of all, by the number of people who are subject to the power decision.

Professional stratification is measured by the level of education and the prestige of the profession. Education is a set of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the process of education (measured by the number of years of study) and the quality of the acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. Education, like income and power, is an objective measure of the stratification of society. However, it is also important to take into account the subjective assessment of the social structure, because the process of stratification is closely linked with the formation of a system of values, on the basis of which a “normative rating scale” is formed. So, each person, based on their beliefs and preferences, evaluates the professions, statuses, etc. existing in society in different ways. At the same time, the assessment is carried out according to many criteria (place of residence, type of leisure, etc.).

Profession prestige- this is a collective (public) assessment of the significance, attractiveness of a certain type of occupation. Prestige is the respect for status that has developed in public opinion. As a rule, it is measured in points (from 1 to 100). Thus, the profession of a doctor or a lawyer in all societies enjoys respect in public opinion, and the profession of a janitor, for example, has the least status respect. In the USA, the most prestigious professions are doctor, lawyer, scientist (university professor), etc. The average level of prestige is manager, engineer, small owner, etc. Low prestige - welder, driver, plumber, farm worker, janitor, etc.

In sociology, four main types of stratification are known - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones. A closed society is a society where social movements from the lower strata to the higher strata are either completely prohibited or significantly limited. An open society is a society where movement from one country to another is not officially restricted in any way.

Slavery - a form in which one person acts as the property of another; slaves constitute a low stratum of society, which is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

Caste - a social stratum, membership in which a person owes solely to his birth. There are practically insurmountable barriers between castes: a person cannot change the caste in which he was born, marriages between representatives of different castes are also allowed. India is a classic example of a caste organization of society. in India, a political struggle against caste has been proclaimed, in this country today there are 4 main castes and 5000 non-basic ones, the caste system is especially stable in the south, in poor regions, as well as in villages. However, industrialization and urbanization are destroying the caste system, as it is difficult to adhere caste distinctions in a city crowded with strangers. Remnants of the caste system also exist in Indonesia, Japan and other countries. The apartheid regime in the Republic of South Africa was marked by a peculiar caste system: in this country, whites, blacks and "colored" (Asians) did not have the right to live together , study, work, rest. A place in society was determined by belonging to a certain racial group. In 994, apartheid was eliminated, but its remnants will exist for more than one generation.

estate - a social group with certain rights and obligations, enshrined in custom or law, are inherited. During feudalism in Europe, for example, there were such privileged classes: the nobility and the clergy; unprivileged - the so-called third estate, which consisted of artisans and merchants, as well as dependent peasants. The transition from one state to another was very difficult, almost impossible, although individual exceptions were extremely rare. Say, a simple Cossack Alexei Rozum, by the will of fate being a favorite Empress Elizabeth, became a Russian nobleman, count, and his brother Cyril became the hetman of Ukraine.

Classes (in a broad sense) - social strata in modern society. This is an open system, because, unlike previous historical types of social stratification, the personal efforts of the individual, and not his social origin, play a decisive role here. Although in order to move from one stratum the other also has to overcome certain social barriers. It is always easier for the son of a millionaire to reach the top of the social hierarchy. Say, among the 700 richest people in the world, according to Forbes magazine, there are 12 Rockefellers and 9 Mallone, although the richest person in the world today is Bill Gates was by no means the son of a millionaire, he did not even graduate from the university.

Social mobility: definition, classification and forms

According to the definition of P. Sorokin, under social mobility refers to any transition of an individual, group or social object, or value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another, as a result of which the social position of the individual or group changes.

P. Sorokin distinguishes two forms social mobility: horizontal and vertical.Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social object from one social position to another, lying on the same level. For example, the transition of an individual from one family to another, from one religious group to another, as well as a change of residence. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs, or social status. But the most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that contribute to the transition of an individual or a social object from one social stratum to another. This includes, for example, a career advancement (professional vertical mobility), a significant improvement in well-being (economic vertical mobility) or a transition to a higher social stratum, to another level of power (political vertical mobility).

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, youth should force out other individuals who do not possess these qualities from the highest statuses. Depending on this, upward and downward social mobility, or social upsurge and social downfall, are distinguished. The upward currents of professional economic and political mobility exist in two main forms: as an individual rise from the lower to the higher stratum, and as the creation of new groups of individuals. These groups are included in the top layer next to existing ones or instead of them. Similarly, downward mobility exists both in the form of pushing individual individuals from high social statuses to lower ones, and in the form of lowering the social statuses of an entire group. An example of the second form of downward mobility is the decline in the social status of a professional group of engineers that once held very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power.

Also distinguish individual social mobility And group(group, as a rule, is the result of serious social changes, such as revolutions or economic transformations, foreign interventions or changes in political regimes, etc.). An example of group social mobility can be a drop in the social status of a professional group of teachers who at one time occupied very high position in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party, due to defeat in elections or as a result of the revolution, lost real power. According to Sorokin's figurative expression, the case of downward individual social mobility resembles the fall of a person from a ship, and the case of group mobility resembles a ship that sank with all the people who were on board.

In a society that develops stably, without upheavals, not the most group, but individual vertical movements prevail, that is, it is not political, professional, class or ethnic groups that rise and fall in the social hierarchy, but individual individuals. In modern society, individual mobility is very high The processes of industrialization, then the reduction in the proportion of unskilled workers, the growing need for office managers, businessmen, encourage people to change their social status. However, even in the most traditional society there were no insurmountable barriers between strata.

Sociologists also distinguish mobility intergenerational and mobility within one generation.

Intergenerational mobility(intergenerational mobility) is determined by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the career of both (for example, by the rank of their profession at approximately the same age). Research shows that a significant portion, perhaps even the majority, of the Russian population moves at least slightly up or down the class hierarchy in every generation.

Intragenerational mobility(intragenerational mobility) involves comparing the social status of an individual over a long period of time. Research results show that many Russians have changed occupations during their lives. However, the mobility of the majority was limited. Short distance travel is the rule, long distance travel is the exception.

Spontaneous and organized mobility.

An example of spontaneous mAbundance can serve as a movement to earn money from residents of the near abroad to large cities in Russia.

Organized mobility - the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state. These movements can be carried out:

a) with the consent of the people themselves,

b) without their consent.

An example of organized voluntary mobility in Soviet times is the movement of young people from different cities and villages to Komsomol construction sites, the development of virgin lands, etc. An example of organized involuntary mobility is the repatriation (resettlement) of Chechens and Ingush during the war against German Nazism.

It should be distinguished from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people.

Vertical mobility channels

The most complete description of channels vertical mobility given by P. Sorokin. Only he calls them "channels of vertical circulation." He believes that there are no impassable borders between countries. Between them there are various "elevators" along which individuals move up and down.

Of particular interest are social institutions - the army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation.

The army functions as a channel of vertical circulation most during wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks. In wartime, soldiers advance through talent and bravery.

It is known that out of 92 Roman emperors, 36 reached this rank, starting from the lower ranks. Of the 65 Byzantine emperors, 12 advanced through military careers. Napoleon and his entourage, marshals, generals and the kings of Europe appointed by him, came from commoners. Cromwell, Grant, Washington and thousands of other commanders have risen to the highest positions thanks to the army.

The Church as a channel of social circulation has moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society. P. Sorokin studied the biographies of 144 Roman Catholic popes and found that 28 came from the lower classes, and 27 from the middle strata. The institution of celibacy (celibacy), introduced in the 11th century. Pope Gregory VII ordered the Catholic clergy not to have children. Due to this, after the death of officials, the vacant positions were filled with new people.

In addition to the upward movement, the church became a channel for the downward movement. Thousands of heretics, pagans, enemies of the church were brought to justice, ruined and destroyed. Among them were many kings, dukes, princes, lords, aristocrats and nobles of the highest ranks.

School. The institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what concrete form they take, have served in all ages as a powerful channel of social circulation. In an open society, the "social lift" moves from the very bottom, goes through all the floors and reaches the very top.

During the era of Confucius, schools were open to all classes. Examinations were held every three years. The best students, regardless of their marital status, were selected and transferred to higher schools, and then to universities, from where they got to high government posts. Thus, the Chinese school constantly uplifted the common people and hindered the advancement of the higher strata if they did not meet the requirements. Great competition for colleges and universities in many countries is explained by the fact that education is the most fast and accessible channel of social circulation.

Property most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money. They are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social promotion. Family and marriage become channels of vertical circulation in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union. In European society, the marriage of a poor, but titled partner with a rich, but not noble, was common. As a result, both moved up the social ladder, getting what each wanted.

Models of social stratification

Social stratification is based on natural and social inequality, which has a hierarchical character and manifests itself in the social life of people. This inequality is supported and controlled by various social institutions, constantly modified and reproduced, which is a necessary condition for the development and functioning of any society.

Currently, there are many models of social stratification, but most sociologists distinguish three main classes: higher, middle, lower.

Sometimes an additional division is made within each class. W.L. Warner identifies the following classes:

• supreme-highest - representatives of rich and influential dynasties with significant power;
• higher-middle - lawyers, successful businessmen, scientists, doctors, managers, engineers, cultural and art workers, journalists;
• higher-lower - manual workers (mainly);
• lower-higher - politicians, bankers who do not have a noble origin;
• lower-middle - employees (clerks, secretaries, employees, the so-called "white collars");
• lowest-lowest - homeless, unemployed, declassed elements, foreign workers.

Remark 1

All models of social stratification come down to the fact that non-basic classes appear as a result of adding layers and strata that are inside one of the main classes.

Types of social stratification

The main types of social stratification include:

• economic stratification (differences in living standards, incomes; division of the population on their basis into super-rich, rich, wealthy, poor, impoverished strata);
• political stratification (division of society into political leaders and the bulk of the population, into managers and controlled);
• professional stratification (singling out social groups in society according to the nature of their professional activities and occupations).

The division of people and social groups into strata makes it possible to single out relatively constant elements of the structure of society in terms of income received (economics), access to power (politics), and professional functions performed.

Rich and poor strata can be distinguished on the basis of ownership of the means of production. The social ranks of society are not the owners of the means of production. Among the middle strata of society, one can single out small proprietors, persons managing enterprises that did not belong to them, as well as highly skilled workers who have nothing to do with property. Rich strata of society receive their income due to the presence of property.

Remark 2

The main feature of political stratification is the distribution of political power between the strata. Depending on the level of income, the scale of ownership, position held, control over the media, as well as other resources, different strata influence the development, adoption and implementation of political decisions in different ways.

Types of social stratification

Historically, the following types of social stratification have developed: slavery, castes, estates, classes.

Slavery is a legal, social, economic form of enslavement, characterized by an extreme degree of inequality and complete lack of rights. Historically, slavery has evolved. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal slavery (a slave has some rights of a family member, could inherit the owner's property, marry free persons, it was forbidden to kill him) and classical slavery (a slave had no rights, was considered the owner's property, which can be killed).

Castes are closed social groups connected by origin and legal status. Birth alone determines caste membership. Marriage between members of different castes is prohibited. A person falls into the appropriate caste based on what his behavior was in a past life. So, in India there was a caste system based on the division of the population into varnas: brahmins (priests and scientists), kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), vaishyas (merchants and peasants), shudras (untouchables, dependent persons).

Estates - social groups with inherited rights and obligations. For estates consisting of several strata, a certain hierarchy is characteristic, manifested in the inequality of social status and privileges. For example, for Europe 18-19 centuries. the following estates are characteristic: clergy (servants of the church, cult, excl. - priests); nobility (serving officials and large landowners; an indicator of nobility was the title - duke, prince, marquis, count, baron, viscount, etc.); merchants (trading class - owners of private enterprises); philistinism - the urban class (small merchants, artisans, lower employees); peasantry (farmers).

Separately, the military estate (chivalry, Cossacks) stood out as a class.

It was possible to move from one class to another. Marriages between members of different classes were allowed.

Classes are large groups of people, politically and legally free, differing in relation to property, level of material condition and income received. The historical classification of classes was proposed by K. Marx, who showed that the main criterion for determining a class is the position of their members - oppressed or oppressed:

• slave society - slave owners and slaves;
• feudal society - feudal lords and dependent peasants;
• capitalist society - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, or capitalists and workers;
• there are no classes in a communist society.

Classes are large groups of people who have a common standard of living, mediated by income, power, prestige.

The upper class is subdivided into upper upper (financially secure persons from "old families") and lower upper (recently wealthy individuals) subclass.

In the middle class, there are upper middle (skilled specialists, professionals) and lower middle (clerks and skilled workers) subclasses.

In the lower class, the upper lower (unskilled workers) and the lower lower (marginals, lupins) subclasses are distinguished. The lower class includes groups of people who do not fit into the structure of society for various reasons. Their representatives are actually excluded from the social class structure, therefore they are called declassed elements.

The declassed elements are lumpen (beggars and vagabonds, beggars), marginals (persons who have lost their social characteristics - peasants driven from their lands, former factory workers, etc.).

(from Lat. stratum - layer + facere - to do) is the differentiation of people in society depending on access to power, profession, income and some other socially significant features. The concept of "stratification" was proposed by a sociologist (1889-1968), who borrowed it from the natural sciences, where it, in particular, denotes the distribution of geological layers.

Rice. 1. The main types of social stratification (differentiation)

The distribution of social groups and people by strata (layers) makes it possible to single out relatively stable elements of the structure of society (Fig. 1) in terms of access to power (politics), professional functions performed and income received (economy). Three main types of stratification are presented in history - castes, estates and classes (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Main historical types of social stratification

castes(from Portuguese casta - clan, generation, origin) - closed social groups connected by a common origin and legal status. Caste membership is determined solely by birth, and marriages between members of different castes are forbidden. The most famous is the caste system of India (Table 1), originally based on the division of the population into four varnas (in Sanskrit this word means “kind, genus, color”). According to legend, varnas were formed from different parts of the body of the primordial man, who was sacrificed.

Table 1. Caste system in ancient India

Estates - social groups whose rights and obligations, enshrined in law and tradition, are inherited. Below are the main estates characteristic of Europe in the 18th-19th centuries:

• the nobility is a privileged class from among the large landowners and officials who have served themselves. An indicator of nobility is usually a title: prince, duke, count, marquis, viscount, baron, etc.;
• clergy - ministers of worship and the church, with the exception of priests. In Orthodoxy, black clergy (monastic) and white (non-monastic) are distinguished;
• merchant class - the trading class, which included the owners of private enterprises;
• peasantry - the class of farmers engaged in agricultural labor as the main profession;
• philistinism - the urban class, consisting of artisans, small merchants and lower employees.

In some countries, a military estate was distinguished (for example, chivalry). In the Russian Empire, the Cossacks were sometimes referred to as a special estate. Unlike the caste system, marriages between members of different classes are permissible. It is possible (although difficult) to move from one class to another (for example, the purchase of the nobility by a merchant).

Classes(from lat. classis - category) - large groups of people, differing in their attitude to property. The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), who proposed a historical classification of classes, pointed out that an important criterion for distinguishing classes is the position of their members - oppressed or oppressed:

• in a slave-owning society, such were slaves and slave-owners;
• in feudal society, feudal lords and dependent peasants;
• in capitalist society, the capitalists (the bourgeoisie) and the workers (the proletariat);
• there will be no classes in a communist society.

In modern sociology, one often speaks of classes in the most general sense - as collections of people with similar life chances, mediated by income, prestige and power:

• upper class: divided into upper upper class (rich people from "old families") and lower upper class (recently rich people);
• middle class: divided into upper middle (professionals) and
• lower middle (skilled workers and employees); The lower class is divided into an upper lower class (unskilled workers) and a lower lower class (lumpen and marginals).

The lower lower class are groups of the population that, for various reasons, do not fit into the structure of society. In fact, their representatives are excluded from the social class structure, so they are also called declassed elements.

The declassed elements include lumpen - vagabonds, beggars, beggars, as well as outcasts - those who have lost their social characteristics and have not acquired a new system of norms and values ​​in return, for example, former factory workers who lost their jobs due to the economic crisis, or peasants, driven off the land during industrialization.

Strata - groups of people with similar characteristics in a social space. This is the most universal and broadest concept, which makes it possible to single out any fractional elements in the structure of society according to a set of various socially significant criteria. For example, strata such as elite specialists, professional entrepreneurs, government officials, office workers, skilled workers, unskilled workers, etc. are distinguished. Classes, estates and castes can be considered varieties of strata.

Social stratification reflects presence in society. It shows that strata exist in different conditions and people have different opportunities to meet their needs. Inequality is the source of stratification in society. Thus, inequality reflects differences in the access of representatives of each layer to social benefits, and stratification is a sociological characteristic of the structure of society as a set of layers.