Sociology. Culture in terms of sociology

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SOCIOLOGY(from Greek socio - society, lat. logos - word, science) - the science of society. This general definition has several clarifying explanations: 1) the science of the social systems that make up society; 2) the science of the laws of development of society; 3) the science of social processes, social institutions, social relations; 4) the science of social structure and social communities; 5) the science of the driving forces of consciousness and behavior of people as members of civil society. The latter definition is relatively new and is increasingly shared by many sociologists. Based on this definition of sociology, its subject is the totality of social phenomena and processes that characterize the real social consciousness in all its contradictory development; activity, the actual behavior of people, and conditions(environment), which affect their development and functioning in the socio-economic, socio-political and spiritual spheres of society.

The emergence of sociology as a science.

The term "sociology" literally means "the science of society" or "the study of society". It was first used by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in the 1840s. However, many provisions of the future science were anticipated in the writings of Confucius, Indian, Assyrian and ancient Egyptian thinkers. A special place in the justification of social ideas belongs to the ancient Greek philosophers Plato, Aristotle. French enlighteners of the 18th century. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Charles Louis Montesquieu, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, representatives of utopian thought - Thomas More, Tommaso Campanella, Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen developed ideas about the possibilities of improving society in the realities of modern times. However all social ideas expressed and formulated before the 19th century were the forerunners of sociology, its sources, but not the science itself. The emergence of sociology as a science reflects a qualitatively new stage in the history of society, when it appeared in the human dimension - each person became the subject of the historical process. This radical turn in social practice and social science is connected with the great bourgeois revolutions, mainly with the French one at the end of the 18th century. She proclaimed the freedom, equality, brotherhood of all people, regardless of social origin, social status, religion, nationality. It is from this period that a new understanding of the role of man begins, the study of the consciousness and behavior of people as active participants in economic, social, political and cultural changes.

The main milestones in the development of sociology.

From the middle of the 19th century calculated First step in its development - the stage of formation of the scientific foundations of sociology. The search for fundamental ideas went on a broad front: if O. Comte spoke about the possibilities of knowing society with the help of “social physics” (he likened society to nature and therefore considered it possible to know social life with the help of natural laws or similar ones), then socio-biological school and its founder G. Spencer compared society with the development of a living organism, advocating the use of biological laws in their cognition. In the same century, the search for the essence of sociology was led by socio-psychological school: G.Tard, G.Lebon, F.Tennis, N.K.Mikhailovsky, N.I.Kareev, E.V.De Roberti focused on the problems of the personality, which they considered as the unity of the biological and social principles in man, and social life was presented as a special manifestation of world energy. In the second half of the 19th century. was very popular geographical direction in sociology, whose ideas were most fully embodied in the works of E. Reclus, F. Ratzel, L.I. Mechnikov, who defended the notion of the decisive influence of the geographical environment on the development of society and the individual. In the same period, it gained strength and gained significant influence Marxist concept in sociology, prominent representatives of which were K. Marx, F. Engels, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and, until a certain time, P. B. Struve, A. A. Bogdanov and M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky. This concept is based on the decisive influence of socio-economic relations on the process of interaction between different classes and the role of the revolutionary struggle in resolving all social conflicts. In addition, in Russia declared itself social and legal direction presented by N.M. Korkunov, L.I. Petrazhitsky, P.I. Novgorodtsev, B.A. Kistyakovsky and B.N. They analyzed the processes of domination and subordination, paying particular attention to the role of the state in solving social problems.

Second phase in the development of sociology, which is often called classical, is represented by the works of the French scientist E. Durkheim, German researchers M. Weber, G. Simmel. They claimed a different vision of sociology - not "knowing all" about society, but the study of the most important components of social life: social facts (E. Durkheim), political and economic phenomena (M. Weber), social patterns (G. Simmel). It was they who initiated the search for new approaches, incl. and empirical, to the definition of the object and subject of sociological science, which were also developed by V. Pareto, G. Mosca, W. Dilthey, P. A. Sorokin, Z. Znanetsky and other major representatives of sociological thought of the first half of the 20th century.

These searches continued throughout the 20th century. and led to the third, modern stage in the development of sociology, which is represented by the following major schools in sociology.

Structural functionalism.

The foundations of this concept are most fully expounded by the American sociologist T. Parsons, who bases his search on the concepts of Spencer and Durkheim. The basic idea is the idea of ​​"social order", which embodies the desire to maintain the balance of the system, to harmonize its various elements among themselves, to achieve agreement between them. These ideas dominated Western sociology for a long time, sometimes under a slightly modified name - structuralism. In France, it was developed by M. Foucault, K. Levi-Strauss and others. The main approach of this theory is to determine the parts of society, to identify their functions. At the same time, structural functionalism practically rejected the idea of ​​development, calling for maintaining "balance" within the existing system, coordinating the interests of various structures and subsystems. This conclusion was made on the basis of an analysis of the social and state structure of the United States, which T. Parsons considered the standard, and the stability of which he regarded as a great achievement.

To improve structural functionalism was called upon neoevolutionism, who turned to the problem of man and tried to explain the process of complication of social systems through the ever-increasing differentiation of functions performed by individuals. R. Merton, trying to overcome the limitations of the structural-functional approach, created a theory of social change by introducing the concept of "dysfunction". He brought the idea of ​​change into functionalism, but limited change to the “middle” level—the level of a particular social system. The idea of ​​social change brought to life the need to search and study cause-and-effect relationships.

Theories of social conflict.

At the heart of development, argued the American scientist C. R. Mills, who was extremely critical of traditional social science, is conflict, and not conformism, harmony, integration. Society is always in a state of instability, because there is a constant struggle between various social groups that embody certain interests. Moreover, relying on the ideas of K. Marx, M. Weber, V. Pareto and G. Mosca, Mills argued that the highest manifestation of this conflict is the struggle for power. Another conflict theorist, German sociologist R. Dahrendorf, believes that all complex organizations are based on the redistribution of power. In his opinion, conflicts are based not on economic, but on political reasons. The source of conflicts is the so-called political man. Ranking conflicts (conflicts of opponents of the same level, the conflict of opponents who are in a relationship of subordination, the conflict of the whole and the part), he received 15 types and analyzed in detail the possibility of their "canalization" and regulation. Another supporter of this theory, the American sociologist L. Koser, defined social conflict as an ideological phenomenon that reflects the aspirations and feelings of social groups or individuals in the struggle for power, for changing social status, redistributing income, reassessing values, etc. Most representatives of this trend emphasize the value of conflicts that prevent the ossification of society, open the way for innovation, and become a source of development and improvement. At the same time, this position rejects the spontaneity of conflicts and advocates the possibility and necessity of their regulation.

Behaviorism.

The creative impulse of this theory lies in the fact that conscious human activity comes to the fore, the need to study interpersonal interaction instead of the reification of social relations implemented by the structural-functional approach. Another feature of this direction was the reliance on the study of the specific state of human relations within certain social organizations and social institutions, which allowed theoretical schemes to saturate the surrounding social reality with “blood and flesh”. ().

Theory of social exchange.

Its most prominent representatives, American sociologists J. Homans and P. Blau, proceeded from the primacy of the role of a person, not a system. They defended the great importance of the mental qualities of a person, because in order to explain the behavior of people, it is necessary to know their state of mind. But the main thing in this theory, according to Blau, is that people are constantly striving to receive rewards (approval, respect, status, practical help) for their actions. And when they interact with other people, they get it, although the interaction will not always be equal and satisfying to all its participants.

symbolic interactionism.

In search of a way out of the contradictions of the behaviorist approach, representatives of this theory began to explain people's behavior in terms of the importance that a person or group attaches to certain aspects of a situation. The American sociologist J.G. Mead, as the creator of this theory, focused his attention on the study of the processes “within” behavior as a whole. Proponents of this approach attached great importance to linguistic symbolism. They are characterized by the idea of ​​activity as a set of social roles, which is personified in the form of linguistic and other symbols, which served as the basis for naming this direction as "role theory".

Phenomenological sociology.

It originates from the philosophical concept of the German scientist E. Husserl. Based on this theory, a “sociology of ordinary consciousness” arose, substantiated in the works of the Austrian philosopher and sociologist A. Schutz. The focus of the supporters of the phenomenological approach is not the world as a whole, as in the case of positivists, but a person in his specific dimension. Social reality, in their opinion, is not some objective given, which is initially outside the subject and only then through socialization, upbringing and education becomes its component. For phenomenologists, social reality is "constructed" by means of images and concepts expressed in communication. Social events, according to their ideas, only seem to be objective, while in reality they appear as the opinions of individuals about these events. Since it is opinions that form the social world, the concept of "meaning" is in the center of attention of this school.

Within the framework of the phenomenological concept, two major schools have developed - sociology of knowledge And ethnomethodology(the last term is constructed by analogy with the ethnographic term ethnoscience- rudimentary knowledge in primitive societies). Concerning sociology of knowledge, then it is presented by K. Mannheim, who focused on the study of those structures in which, one way or another, there are interconnections between thinking and society. It was from these positions that he approached the interpretation of ideology, truth, and the role of intellectual life in society. These ideas were developed by the American P. Berger and the German T. Lukman, who sought to substantiate the need to "legitimize" the symbolic universals of society, because the internal instability of the human body requires "the creation of a stable living environment by the person himself." American sociologist G. Garfinkel, being one of the brightest and most consistent representatives ethnomethodology, formulated its program position: "The features of the rationality of behavior must be revealed in the behavior itself." In accordance with this, the main task of sociology is to identify the rationality of everyday life, which is opposed to scientific rationality.

In the last quarter of the 20th century spread world-systems sociology, the founder of which is a German sociologist working in the USA, W. Wallerstein, considers the processes of development of society from the point of view of globalization processes, the intensity of which has become a tangible reality.

Modern sociology continues to generate new theories and concepts. According to the French sociologist A. Touraine, the peculiarity of modern sociology is the change in the subject of research and research orientations. If in the middle of the 20th century. all the problems were centered around the concept of a social system, now it is centered around the concept of action and an active agent (actor). In historical terms, we can say that Max Weber defeated Emile Durkheim. The classical approach to sociology, in which it is understood as the science of social systems, has almost disappeared. The influence of the most prominent representatives of this tradition - Parsons and Merton - weakened. Accordingly, the categorical apparatus has also changed: concepts of social institutions, socialization, integration are no longer central sociological concepts. Much more important are crisis concept,risk and related categories disorganization, violence, chaos. In addition, within the framework of the Frankfurt School, the main content of whose theories is to determine the role and significance of political power, the content of ideologies, the reasons for the radicalization of behavior, the conditions for the formation of social movements and protests are studied. An increasingly popular variant of sociological thinking is becoming rational choice theory, which was proposed by the American sociologist N. Coleman. The concept of a system is also denied by him. The main focus is on the concepts of resources and mobilization. An original contribution to modern sociology is P. Bourdieu's concept of social field, O social capital And social space.

But especially attractive to the latest concepts of sociology are the ideas of the role of man as active social subject, under the influence of which transformations are carried out both in the macro-, and in the meso- and microenvironment. In this regard, such definitions of sociology are becoming the most common. “Sociology is the science of social behavior” (P.A. Sorokin). “Sociology is the scientific study of human behavior and the social environment of a person that influences this behavior” (K.Dub). “Sociology is the science of methods for studying human behavior” (St. Moore, B. Hendry). “Sociology is the systematic study of society and the social activity of human existence. As a specific discipline, it is considered in the form of knowledge about how a real person thinks and acts in the guise of a social creator ”(J. Meisionis). Thus, the face of modern sociology is increasingly determined by theories that go back to man, his consciousness, behavior in real socio-historical conditions. In other words, practically all sociologists in the late 20th and early 21st centuries in a direct or indirect form, they proceed from the problems of a person, an individual as a social being, considering consciousness and behavior as the main criterion for social change. It is the humanistic orientation, the human dimension of social science that is the most important characteristic of the state and development of sociology, which makes it possible to determine its content as a concept sociology of life which in its essence takes into account the state and tendencies of social consciousness and behavior in close connection with the objective conditions of their existence.

subject of sociology.

If we analyze the main results of the search for the essence and content of sociology in the second half of the 20th century, then it can be argued that the object of all noteworthy research is social reality in all its contradictory development. All major works of modern sociologists, which have stood the test of time, were associated with the analysis of socio-economic, socio-political and socio-cultural problems. But what does it mean to study social reality? From which side to approach it? What should be taken as the initial base of analysis? As real sociological practice shows, in most studies (both theoretical and applied), regardless of the proclaimed goals, as a rule, social processes and phenomena are analyzed from the point of view of the state of a really functioning social consciousness. In this regard, the subject of sociology is a combination of three components of consciousness, behavior and environment (the conditions for their manifestation). Let's take a closer look at each of these components.

Public consciousness (from the standpoint of sociology) acts as a real consciousness, consisting of knowledge, opinions, value orientations, attitudes, needs and interests. Each of these structural elements grows out of direct practical activity, is not separated from social life. Moreover, they reflect not only random, spontaneous connections and relationships, but also stable patterns and trends in the development of society (albeit in an imperfect form). A person develops as a generic, social being with the help of his consciousness and its implementation in all spheres of social life.

In general, real consciousness in its content is a combination of rational and emotional, the interweaving of worldview elements, established traditional connections and habits. And if the emotional component of real consciousness is more associated with direct impression, momentary impact, then its rational component integrates both past experience and the lessons of not only personal, but also social life, which makes it possible to capture the social impact of ongoing events. This reveals what unites individual elements of the practical perception of reality with scientific, theoretical consciousness. The predominance of the elemental, emotional in real consciousness and behavior in no way removes the significance of the rational, the possibility that it will ultimately determine its direction and maturity.

Besides, all these components of real consciousness are products of collective creativity, characteristic both for the whole society and for social groups, strata and communities. Arising as a reaction to the direct perception of reality, as a reflection of the prevailing conditions of existence, real consciousness acquires an independent role, expressed in public opinion, people's mindsets.

Real consciousness includes common sense, which does not deny the possibility of cognition of deep essential processes - it even implies its constant enrichment and use in the practical life of a person. Real consciousness is not the result of some specialized activity (in contrast to its specific forms - political, aesthetic, moral, etc.) and is reproduced by all types of human activity. Although real consciousness is formed under the influence of direct experience, in social incarnation it forms a peculiar phenomenon, the creator of which is a class, nation, social group or social stratum. Real consciousness is not a collection or mechanical generalization of ideas and views - it forms a new specific essence, in which stable tendencies are manifested, objectively reflecting both the state of consciousness and the depth of his understanding of social life.

And finally real consciousness reflects social contradictions, a wide range of everyday illusions, often very close in essence to everyday consciousness. “... Taken ... as a totality of everyday experiences, that is, all those sorrows and joys, hopes and disappointments that make up everyday life, this ordinary consciousness turns out to be continuous anxiety, in comparison with which scientific and philosophical consciousness seem to be something like the ataraxia [peace of mind] of the Hellenistic thinkers." (T.I.Oizerman, 1967)

When considering a really functioning social consciousness, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that it consists of (and, accordingly, is studied with the help of) such components as:

1)knowledge, beliefs, attitude(when the sociologist finds out that people know how informed they are, how “scientific” their understanding is);

2) value orientations(what aspirations, desires are considered as an important condition for the existence, evaluation and regulation of behavior);

3) motives(to realize what needs and interests people's efforts are directed);

4) installations(value attitudes towards a social object, expressed in readiness for a positive or negative reaction to it).

Particular attention should be paid to the phenomenon social mood, the main characteristic of public consciousness, which, as the results of sociological research show, is its stable characteristic with possible changes in people's attitudes to specific economic and social realities.

The second basic concept of sociology is the activity, behavior of people who act as a stage in the implementation of all or individual components of a really functioning social consciousness..Consciousness and behavior are inextricably linked, determine each other, constantly interact, enrich each other and conflict with each other. Therefore, they need to be analyzed in inseparable unity, interconnection and interdependence. Components of Consciousness(knowledge, ideas, motives, values, attitudes)become a real force only when they are embodied in the activity, in the actions of people. It is no secret that public intentions, desires, orientations, for one reason or another, are not always realized in actions, in actions, in real deeds. Therefore, it is important for sociology to learn the forms and methods of "transforming social consciousness into a social force" (K. Marx). The process of realizing the prognostic function of sociology, living consciousness and behavior are specific states of social life that are much richer in content, in which both scientific knowledge, judgments and conclusions are intertwined, as well as spontaneous, dictated by practical experience, direct perception of reality and the corresponding action. In other words, a living, practical consciousness and behavior is a really functioning social life in all the complex interweaving of both regular connections and relationships, as well as random, individual, and sometimes views, ideas and ideas that are opposite to social progress. It is this approach that makes it possible to explain many processes in the language of sociology, to identify the common features inherent in them not only in all spheres of public life, but also in the conditions of various socio-economic systems. In this regard, it is appropriate to characterize sociology given by P.A. Sorokin as “a science that studies the behavior of people living in an environment of their own kind” (1928).

And finally, the third component of the subject of sociology is the environment or specific socio-economic,socio-political And socio-cultural conditions, embodying all types of social macro-, meso- and microenvironment. The sociologist is called upon to take into account the "special life circumstances" that determine the consciousness and behavior of people.

The study of consciousness and behavior in a specific socio-historical setting,transfers sociology from the plane of registering science into the plane of an active social force participating in solving all urgent problems of human development without exception. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall that social consciousness and behavior become the subject of study only in the conditions of civil society - a society born at a certain stage of the historical process, as a result of an era of new history, dating back to the period of the great bourgeois revolutions, from the time when society separated from the state.

Only in the conditions of civil society can a person demonstrate fundamentally new features of behavior and lifestyle, when he gets the opportunity to act as an independent social force, the influence of which largely depends on the level and degree of consciousness, creativity of participants in the real historical process. The fact that the creator and driving force of the development of this society is the consciousness and behavior of people is also evidenced by such a figurative expression attributed to the English historian and philosopher T. Carlyle: "Revolutions do not take place on the barricades - they take place in the minds and hearts of people."

Structure of sociology.

The structure of sociological knowledge is determined depending on the methodological principles that are applied in the study of social reality. Sociology uses such types of its classification as macro- and microsociology, theoretical and empirical, fundamental and applied sociology, etc. There are proposals to define the structure of sociology taking into account all scientific knowledge, when the knowledge accumulated by all sciences is involved in the explanation of its content. When answering this question, one can proceed from two premises: to structure only that knowledge that claims to be called sociological, and secondly, to consider its division into theoretical and empirical sociology as its main initial characteristic.

1. The basic, initial - first - level of sociological knowledge forms theory And methodology who focus their attention on clarifying and defining the object and subject of sociological science, its conceptual (categorical) apparatus, patterns (trends) in the development of both social reality and sociology itself, its functions, and place among other sciences. As part of this analysis, historical material (the history of sociology) is also involved, which shows the genesis of ideas, the emergence, birth and extinction of searches (theories, concepts), as well as the clarification of the place of sociology in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. In addition, at this level, theoretical knowledge of other sciences is involved (adapted, adapted) in the sense that it contributes to the clarification, enrichment and development of sociological knowledge. This structural level of sociological knowledge is called theoretical sociology.

2.empirical sociology, which is represented by special sociological theories that combine theoretical and methodological knowledge with empirical data obtained in the course of specific sociological research. Empirical sociology is the unity of theoretical knowledge (or theoretical ideas) and their empirical verification, as a result of which the initial provisions, effectiveness and efficiency are clarified methodology and techniques. But empirical sociology, consisting of special sociological theories, has its own internal hierarchy. This hierarchy begins, first, with summarizing(systemic) special (sometimes called sectoral) sociological theories - economic and political sociology, sociology of social and spiritual spheres of society. The basis for such a structure of sociological knowledge is the substantiated by social philosophers and most sociologists, the division of the life of society into various spheres that are associated with certain types of activity - labor (industrial), social (in the narrow sense of the word), political and cultural (spiritual). Concerning economic sociology, then it explores the social problems of the economic life of society, by studying the consciousness of people and the corresponding type of behavior associated with the implementation of the goals and objectives of social production, with the process of meeting the needs and interests of people in the conditions of the functioning of socio-economic relations. Turning to another area of ​​society, to social life, it should be noted that sociology in this area studies such important and fundamental problems as the social structure in all its diversity, social processes and institutions, and social communities. Within its framework, the prerequisites, conditions and factors for the transformation of classes, social strata and groups into subjects of conscious activity are studied. Political sociology studies a huge layer of transition from objective to subjective, conscious development. It studies political (class, group) interests, which are based and proceed from the will, knowledge and actions, i.e. methods and forms of expression of the political activity of a person, classes and social groups and is addressed to the whole spectrum of feelings, opinions, judgments and attitudes of people to the processes of functioning of power relations, which allows us to imagine the ways of functioning of statehood, to identify pain points in the development of political life. The fourth, but not least, generalizing special sociological theory is sociology. spiritual life society, investigating activities for the development of existing cultural values, the creation of new ones, the distribution and consumption of accumulated ones. This process is complex, multifaceted and ambiguous, which is why it is so important to determine its main components. Such structural elements include the process of socialization of the individual, education, mass information, cultural and educational activities, literature, art, and science. Finally, generalizing (systemic) special sociological theories include sociology of management. It is associated with the use of a special class of tasks - a mechanism for regulating social processes - and therefore can be considered independently, at the level of identifying certain general characteristics, regardless of specific circumstances, and can be applied within each of the spheres of public life and their constituent elements, which requires identification and analysis of the specific features of management in each specific area of ​​consciousness and behavior of people

Secondly, along with generalizing (system) theories exist main special sociological theories, the subject of study of which are social processes and phenomena, their specific connections with other phenomena and processes, which in their integrity are an integral part of a particular sphere of social life. These theories do not consider the general interactions that exist between all social phenomena, but only the characteristic connections within a specific sphere of social life. Thus, economic sociology includes the study of such processes that form the totality of socio-economic phenomena: the sociology of labor, the sociology of the market, the sociology of urban and rural areas, demographic and migration processes, and so on. In this sense, the sociology of social life includes the study of socio-professional and age structure, ethnosociology, the sociology of youth, the family, and so on. In turn, political sociology includes the sociology of power, political parties and social movements, the sociology of law (although some researchers distinguish it as an independent scientific and applied theory), the sociology of the army, and international relations. As for the sociology of spiritual life, it is represented by the sociology of education, culture, religion, media, science, literature and art.

Today in sociology, more or less, more than 50 major special sociological theories have already been formalized. Some of them received the status of fundamental disciplines, others - applied, and others - theoretical and applied. Their situation is still not fully comprehended both from the point of view of the perspectives of sociology and from the point of view of social needs. Analysis of the place of special sociological theories in the system of sociological knowledge implies a constant critical review of their development, especially those that are of direct importance both for understanding the place, role and functions of sociological science in modern conditions, and for improving the efficiency and quality of research.

In sociology, more than in any other social science, there is a noticeable division into theory and empiricism, but this in no way means that they exist separately, without interacting with each other. Following the apparent independence of theory and empiricism in the practice of work of sociologists does not turn out to be anything but deep scientific and methodological miscalculations.

Third , along with generalizing(systemic)and the main special sociological theories, there are private auxiliary concepts, the object of study of which are specific, individual phenomena and processes that are derivatives of more "voluminous" processes and social phenomena. Such objects of research are within the framework of the sociology of education - higher or preschool education, within the framework of the sociology of youth - youth movements, interest groups, etc. Thus, the modern structure of sociological knowledge consists of four elements - theoretical sociology, consisting of theoretical and methodological knowledge and empirical sociology, which includes three levels of special sociological theories, divided into generalizing(systemic),main and private(specific).

The main characteristic feature of sociology in the modern era is the anthropocentric approach, because the modern era has revealed the enduring and ever-increasing value of man and his activities, people's lives in all its diversity. Within the framework of this approach, a person appears before us both as a resource for social development and as a carrier of social capital, which is a huge reserve and impetus for social development. Modern approaches that define the subject of sociology are noticeably shifting in the direction of human science, to the recognition that the analysis of the problems of people's lives in all its diversity is becoming more and more the object of sociology's attention. Man in society and society for man - this is the essence of modern sociology

Modern sociology is increasingly inclined to interpret itself as sociology of life, since it operates with indicators of the relationship and interactions of people to real problems, situations, to everything that happens in the society in which they work and live.

Zh.T. Toshchenko

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The concept of sociology itself comes from the Latin term "society" and therefore it is the main one in this science. Society is the subject and object of study in sociology.

For the first time the concept of sociology was put into use by Auguste Comte, a famous French philosopher in the first third of the 19th century. And at first this science was identified with social science. Later, sociology emerged as a separate branch, more narrowly and specifically dealing with social problems.

The concept of society in sociology has several points of view. This term can be considered as an association of people according to interests, a group association on a class or genus basis, to denote residents of different countries or representatives of nationalities and peoples. If we think in this sense from simple to complex, then ultimately society is all people living on the most general concept of society in sociology, thus, includes that part of the world in which people are the main ones, their interaction with each other , as well as the forms of their associations. So, let's look at this situation in more detail.

Broad in sociology suggests its separation from nature as a conscious part that has will and consciousness. does not develop spontaneously. It has its own laws that are created by man and ultimately become an element of human culture. However, this isolation of society from nature does not at all mean their antagonism. The connection between them is inextricable and in the end they are dependent on each other. A society by nature - to a greater extent. All actions and deeds of a person in relation to the natural habitat return to him in the form of a threat to the death of everything in the world, including those created by human hands.

Thus, the concept of society in sociology considers its object of study as a universal self-sufficient and developing system, the level of which is assessed precisely by how it relates to the environment, how various mutually influence each other in the process of interaction.

The concept of a person in sociology is also considered from three points of view. The first concerns the natural, biological essence of a person, the second focuses on the external and internal distinctive features of a person as an individual, and the third is based on the qualities that distinguish him as a product of social relations. Let's touch on each point of view.

Man is a child of nature. Therefore, he has a lot to do with the animal world. But unlike its smaller counterparts, it stands out sharply among them with such features as upright walking, the ability to get food with the help of tools, creating comfortable conditions for existence for itself, which indicates the complex structure of the human brain. Conscious life is the most important thing that does not allow us to put an equal sign between man and animals.

Further, sociology pays attention to the question of man as an individual. This term includes the features of the human appearance, his character, temperament, the degree of development of the intellect, that is, those original features that distinguish him from his own kind in society.

But the main concept of a person in sociology is revealed in the term "personality" and is associated with his activities in society, highlighting as the main features. These include activity, consciousness, moral consistency, responsibility of a person in relation to what is happening around him. Personality is manifested in the roles that he chooses for himself in the process of interacting with people and how well he copes with them.

Thus, we conclude that in sociology, a person and society are a single whole.

Having passed a rather long path of development, sociology has become a science whose task is to study a constantly changing society. Sociological research reveals patterns and patterns of various social relations and, based on these general patterns and patterns, tries to show (and sometimes predict) why certain phenomena and events occur at this particular time and place.

Many sociological works are descriptive, descriptive, they show the external properties of social actions and events - verbally and through numbers. The result of such descriptive research is usually hypotheses concerning various social phenomena. These hypotheses are used in subsequent research to identify causal relationships and develop theories.

Thus, models of social values ​​and social changes are described; deviant behavior and family life. The relationship between social class and educational goals, between the structure of the organization and the information system, the living environment and family forms, technology and leadership style has been revealed.

These dependencies are simple sociological objects, but in reality the sociologist is faced with very multifaceted interrelated social processes.

The primary objects of sociological research are communities of people and their social structures and processes, the development and change of these structures and processes. The sociologist is interested in the patterns and patterns of the social world (Baldridge, 1980).

Social facts (this term was used by Durkheim) are, as a rule, broader and more versatile than in the ordinary perception of the world. Social facts include, for example, bureaucracy, overpopulation, crime, unemployment, and many others. etc. Such facts can be studied only in the totality of all social phenomena associated with them and involved in their environment. (For example, the social fact "crime": economic, psychological, mental causes, educational qualifications, the presence-absence and quality of leisure places, alcoholism, genetics, etc.)

Already from these examples it is clear that sociology can be considered a complex science, because: a) the subject of its study is extremely diverse, b) it considers multivariable causal relationships in the sphere of society and culture, c) it faces various models of changing social problems. ,

Sociology is based on facts and operates with theories, that is, sociology is empirical and theoretical. In this sense, it can be considered a "conservative" science. It is radical because it does not leave anything outside the field of study, not a single sphere of human activity is sacred or taboo for it. Public opinion is necessarily taken into account by sociology, but it approaches it critically.

Sociology has its own special approaches and methods, its main goal is the development of sociological theory. The sociological point of view reflects the world and human experience in a new way.

Sociology is objective in the sense that the knowledge gained in the research of sociologists can be tested by the life practice of other people. The objectivity of science is often understood as freedom from values. People are connected with different values, but researchers try to avoid such connection as far as possible, that is, to be objective, or at least to state their starting positions clearly and unbiasedly, so that the reader can see for himself the possible value connections. Weber is famous for his differentiation of empirical knowledge and evaluation. This question is debatable at the present time, and doubts are even expressed about the possibility of the existence of value-free statements in the social sciences in general.

4. 2. MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHODS

The sociologist uses in his research information acquired in various ways. He must resort to his observations, conjecture or common sense, but he can only achieve proper scientific knowledge with the help of a sound methodology of research. Methodology is understood as a system of various rules, principles and measures that govern scientific research.

Along with its own methodology, sociology is also guided by the following general criteria for scientific research.

Systematicity in conducting observations, processing the material and reviewing the results.

Comprehensiveness: the researcher seeks to identify general patterns, invariance, and is not content with describing single and isolated cases. The more comprehensive the explanation of a phenomenon, the more likely it is to predict its manifestation.

Accuracy in the measurement of features and in the use and definition of concepts. Measurement methods and results are required to be reliable and valid.

The requirement of simplicity, i.e. economics of scientific research. The desire to achieve goals with the smallest possible number of basic concepts and relationships. The results of the study should be clear and definite.

Objectivity. A detailed and precise statement of the question will provide an opportunity to check and control the study.

The methodology of sociology determines the ways and methods of collecting sociological material to obtain (generally speaking) answers to the questions why certain phenomena and events occur at a certain time and in a certain place. The methodology indicates which research methods can and are recommended to be applied in each case. Sociological questions are those that can be answered with observable or verifiable facts.

The most common methods of collecting information for sociological research are experiment, survey and interview, observation, and the use of statistics and documents.

Experiment. The situation of the experiment allows, under specially controlled conditions, to study the effect of the variable under study in the experimental group. To determine the impact, measurements are taken before and after the experiment in certain situations in both the experimental and control groups. When compiling experimental and control groups, they strive, with the exception of the experimental variable, to the greatest possible similarity.

In sociological research, it is often difficult to create a controlled experimental situation, so it is necessary to resort to various situations similar to the experimental setting. Of these, perhaps the most common is the use of "ex post facto" data, i.e., on the basis of facts that have already occurred, experimental and control groups are formed, and conclusions are drawn only after events that are significant from the point of view of the issue under study.

Poll and interview. The survey and interview is called the "survey" method. This is a general coverage of the issue, after which the data are subjected to statistical generalizations. Polls are perhaps the most frequent methods of collecting information, especially since they began to spread, in addition to sociology, and in other areas of science. Mail surveys make it possible to reach a large number of respondents conveniently and at relatively low economic cost, but this method also has many disadvantages. Concise questionnaires are best suited for surveys.

The interview provides, thanks to its versatility, a good starting point for a very thorough investigation of social behavior, various social relations, opinions, etc. the relevance of the problem under study for the respondent. The interview is a very effective, but methodologically difficult method of collecting information.

Survey and interview methods include many different options. These are, in particular, group surveys and telephone interviews, which are suitable in certain cases.

observation. A sociologist often has to resort to observation in his research to supplement and clarify information obtained using other methods. Moreover, observation itself is also a method of collecting information, since by participating (included) and non-participating (non-involved) observation, it is possible to systematically and reliably collect information about phenomena that other methods are not suitable for. An example of participating observation is the study of the prison community by I. Galtung, who himself was in prison as a pacifist; non-participating observation - a study by K. Bruun on the norms and customs of drinking alcoholic beverages (which did not make the author a fan of Bacchus).

statistics and documents. Different types of statistics provide many-sided opportunities for sociological research. Information about society and social phenomena is collected in official and unofficial statistics to such an extent that materials can be found in them for the consideration of a wide variety of problems.

Various newspapers and magazines, television and radio programs, films, books and written materials in general are excellent starting points for considering many social phenomena and problems by the method of analyzing the content. The currently widespread discourse analysis is also successfully used to interpret social relations and social phenomena. Statistics and documents largely ensure the objectivity and scientific nature of sociological research.

Sample. The object of sociological research is sometimes so broad that it is practically impossible to conduct research on this object as a whole, examining each unit of a certain general population. The only alternative is to draw conclusions on the basis of a sample population that represents the general population. With the help of various sampling methods developed by statistics, a certain part of the optimal parameters (i.e. selection) is selected from the general population, which is subjected to research and study. The results obtained in this way allow us to draw conclusions about the general population as a whole.

The most common sampling methods are probability sampling using random numbers and systematic sampling with an equal interval of numbers. When the population is made up of different groups, it is perhaps most convenient to use a split sample, with a selection drawn from each group. In studies covering the whole country, it is possible to use group sampling, in which the objects of study are first divided into groups from which samples are taken. For example, when the population is students in grades 1-4 of rural communities, the communities being studied are selected first, then schools, classes, and finally students. This method is called four-stage cluster sampling.

Research model. The following is a summary of the course of the empirical study step by step. The general lines that (with some variations) guide researchers are given:

1. Statement of the problem. Naturally, the problem of research is its starting point and essence.

3. Putting forward a hypothesis. The research problem must be subjected to experimentation and verification. This requires a verifiable statement that first defines the relationship of the variables. So, a hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption on the essence of the problem under study.

4. Choosing a method for collecting information and analyzing data.

5. Collection of information.

6. Processing of the material, analysis of the results. Actually research work: connection, classification, comparison and statistical verification of information, compilation of tables according to the data received, etc. to test, refute or confirm the hypothesis put forward and to find answers to the questions posed.

7. Conclusions. Presentation of the results of the study, indication of findings and omissions, outstanding points, assessment of the fulfillment of the research task, substantiation of the theoretical and practical significance of the results obtained; determination in the first approximation of prospective studies arising from the results of this one, etc. The above questions should be stated in the published report of the study.

Above, we have considered mainly quantitative methods, that is, methods based on various measurements. Along with them, sociological research also uses methods that can be called qualitative, using so-called "soft" materials (eg, documents, diaries, letters). It is possible to use complex statistical solutions, but above all, various methods of interpretation, inference and philosophical interpretation. All this is connected with the language expression.

Modern sociological research is polymethodical, that is, it uses simultaneously various methods and methods to solve problems and ensure the greatest possible reliability of the results.

Sociological research is, to put it simply, the search for answers to problems chosen by the researcher himself or given to him.

THEORY

The purpose of sociological research is to identify, describe and explain the patterns of social processes, relationships, phenomena, as in any science, to give a satisfactory explanation of everything that requires explanation. Such an explanation can be considered a sociological theory. According to E. Hahn (Erich Hahn, 1968), one can speak of a theory when there are: 1) a scientific level of knowledge or research, and 2) a systematically organized terminology.

In its broadest sense, "theory" refers to everything that is formal or abstract as opposed to empirical. With the help of correct sociological theory, it is possible to explain human behavior, primarily due to the influence of the environment, social expectations and social structure.

Although the theory reflects the essence of the object under consideration, it, as such, in its pure form, cannot be observed in reality. For example, the position that members of society are divided into social strata is not a theory, but an empirical fact or knowledge. However, the explanation of the underlying causes of this division is already a sociological theory.

Sociological theory is a theory about social phenomena or society. On the basis of scientific sociological theory, one can make certain predictions about the state of society and possible social events. A more particular component of the theory are "concepts".

Looking ahead, we note that theoretical concepts express something abstract and are at the same time the opposite of an empirical fact, which is concrete and observable. Typical sociological concepts are, for example, group, norm, role, and status (see Chapter 5 for details). There are several types of sociological theories.

An explanatory theory reveals and studies the social causes of phenomena existing in society.

Predictive theory seeks to predict the future based on knowledge of existing trends in society.

The classifying theory is more descriptive than explanatory or predictive; it represents the identification of the most abstract essential features of a phenomenon. For example, Weber's "ideal type" is an example of such a theory.

Functional theory refers to classifying theories. It classifies and interprets phenomena and their consequences. Functional theory shows the cause-and-effect relationships of various parts of the system and the impact of each part on the whole.

Instead of functional theory, researchers may use the term "functional analysis", which can be considered a synonym for functional theory, or the term "systems theory", when the importance of the whole is emphasized. Many researchers noted that the social sciences do not yet have a systematic approach, there are only research methods and a number of generalizations, and those at a relatively low level. In relation to this, Robert Merton (1968) used the expression "theory of the middle level". Some researchers compare theory with a paradigm, which is understood as a way of thinking or direction of science (Wiswede, 1991).

Despite criticism directed at theory, it is possible to use the notion of theory, especially when it can provide useful information about social relationships. The theory has a close relationship with the reality under study. Theory is a paradigm or model of reality. Sociological theory is based on the relationship of factors, variables, concepts. A "competent", correct sociological theory should not be something divorced from reality, an end in itself, but should be a way to discover new relationships and patterns.

The following is a diagram of the scientific work process by Walter L. Wallace (1969), which discusses the development of theory and its application in research. Wallis considers sociology to be an unconditional scientific discipline and identifies in it, according to this scheme, five areas that correlate with each other.

Let's use Durkheim's analysis of suicide as an example. It comes from observations about people who commit suicide. These observations provide some empirical generalizations such as "there is a higher rate of suicide among Protestants than among Catholics."

The next level of knowledge depends on the answers to the questions:

1. What is the significance of belonging to a particular religion in the special case when it comes to the frequency of suicides?

2. Can the frequency of suicides be considered a special case in general?

These questions, taken together, touch on a phenomenon that requires explanation (suicide) and a phenomenon that explains (religion). At the same time, it is possible, by induction, to "raise" the empirical generalization above the original form and, as a result, increase the scientific information used. Religious affiliation, i.e., an explanatory phenomenon, can be generalized through varying degrees of integration. Suicide, on the other hand, as an explainable phenomenon, is only one of the expressions of the so-called disorganization, that is, the functional disorder of society, or the weakening of predictability. With the help of these broader concepts, the named empirical generalization can be presented in the form of the following theory: "The state of personal disorganization varies inversely with the degree of social integration."

The above can be clearly shown using the diagram located on p. 85. It can be seen from it that in empirical generalizations we are talking about the relationship between two variables (a - 1), but at the level of theory, attention is drawn to the interconnection of theoretical concepts (A - B).

The next step is to test the theory. Based on the theory, hypotheses are put forward by logical deduction. According to this theory, unmarried women and unmarried men are less socially integrated than married and married women.

For this reason, the former have a higher suicide rate than the latter. This hypothesis is tested by collected observations, after which empirical generalizations are made, and finally the hypothesis is incorporated by logical induction into the theory.

The development of a theory, on the one hand, and its application, on the other, can be stated according to Wallis (1971) in the following way: at the stage of developing a theory, the observations obtained during the research are important, and at the stage of applying the theory, the objects of application are important. When observing and drawing conclusions, it is necessary to take into account the provisions of the theory. Theory helps to direct research towards substantive issues.

After testing the hypothesis, it is considered proven and serves as the basis for the logical conclusions leading to the theory.

As noted above, the development of sociological theory and empirical research are in a relationship of mutual influence. The validity and generalizability of research results directly depends on this interaction.

LITERATURE

Asplund Johan (red.). Sociologiska theorier. Studi-er i sociologins historia. (Sociological theories. Research in the history of sociology). Stockholm, 1967.

Baldridge Victor J. Sociology: A Critical Approach to Power, Conflict and Change. Johan Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980.

Bourdieu Pierre. Kultursociologiska texter. (Texts on the sociology of culture). Salamander, Stockholm, 1986.

Durkheim Emil. Method in sociology // Emile Durkheim. Sociology. M., 1995.

Eskola Antti. Sosiologian tutkimusmenetelmat 1 (Research Methods of Sociology, 1). WSOY, 1981.

Fichter Joseph H. Sociology. second edition. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1971.

Khan Erich. Historical materialism and Marxist sociology. M., 1971.

Jyrinki Erkki. Kysely ja haastattelu tutkimuk-sessa (Survey and interview in the study). Hame-enlinna, 1974.

Kloss Robert Marsh & Ron E. Roberts & Dean S. Dorn. Sociology with a Human Face. Sociology as if people mattered. The C. V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, 1976.

Liedes Matti & Pentti Manninen. Otantame-netelmut (Sampling methods). Oh Gaudeamus Ab, Helsinki, 1974.

Merton Robert. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York, 1968.

Mills Wright C. Sosiologinen mielikuvitus (The Sociological Imagination). Gaudeamus, Helsinki, 1982.

Robertson lan. sociology. Worth Publishers Inc., New York, 1977.

Sariola Sakari. Sosiaalitutkimuksen menetelmat (Methods of social research). WSOY, Porvoo, 1956.

Stinchcombe Arthur L. Constructing Social Theories. New York, 1968.

Valkonen Tapani. Haastattelu, ja kyselyaineiston analyysi sosiaalitutkimuksessa (Analysis of survey and interview materials in social research). Hameenlinna, 1974.

Wallace Walter L. Sociological Theory. An introduction. Chicago, 1969.

Wallace Walter L. The Logic of Science in Sociology. Aldine. Atherton. Chicago, 1971.

Warren Carol A. B. (ed.). Sociology, Change and Continuity. The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois, 1977.

Wiswede Gunther. Soziologie. Verlag Moderne Industries. Landsberg am Lech, 1991.

Sociology(from Greek socio - society, lat. logos - word, science) - the science of society, its functioning, system, interaction of people. Its main goal is analysis of the structure of social relations that develop in the course of social interaction.

The term was first used by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1840. However, even earlier, Confucius, Indian, Assyrian, and ancient Egyptian thinkers showed interest in society. Also, social ideas were traced in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Robert Owen and others. But it was in the 19th century that it received a new development, becoming a science, giving a new understanding of the role of man, the study of the consciousness and behavior of people as active participants in economic, social, political and cultural changes.

IN difference from philosophy, sociology operates not with a high level of communication, but shows life in all its contradictions, unfolds the essence of human nature in reality. She comprehends society, public life, not as something abstract, but as a reality, trying to express this in her positions.

The specificity of sociology is that society is viewed as an ordered system of social communities, and the individual, individual action is studied against the background of the relations of social groups. That is, the individual is not an independent object, but part of a group, expressing attitudes towards other social groups.

Sociology studies how the system of order is formed and reproduced in the course of social practice, how it is fixed in the system of such social norms, roles and assimilated by individuals in such a way that it becomes socially typical and predictable.

This typicality testifies to the existence of objective social laws that sociology studies as scientific disciplines.

1. positivism and naturalism.
2. Antipositivism (understanding sociology). The basic concept is that society is different from nature, because a person acts in it, with his own values ​​and goals.

In addition to these areas, there is also a huge system of classifications and divisions. Sociology is a complex structure.

As practical applications of sociology today the following areas can be distinguished:

• political sociology,
• Measures of social order, family and society,
• The study of human resources,
• Education,
• Applied social research (public opinion research),
• Public policy,
• demographic analysis.

Sociologists also work issues of gender relations, issues of environmental equity, immigration, poverty, isolation, the study of organizations, mass communications, quality of life, etc.

There is no single theory in sociology. There are many conflicting schemes and paradigms in it. This or that approach can be brought to the fore, giving a new direction for the development of this science. This is due to constant changes in the development of the consciousness of society. However, the whole set of basic theoretical approaches worked out by sociology is basically preserved and creatively developed. All of them reflect the real aspects of society, the real factors of its development, thus allowing sociology to occupy an important place in modern scientific knowledge.

Introduction

Topic 1. Sociology as a science

Topic 5. Social structure

Topic 8. Ethnosociology

Topic 9. Sociology of personality

Literature

Sociology

Introduction

The training course "Sociology" provides an opportunity to get acquainted with the main patterns and forms of regulation of social behavior, learn to identify and analyze the characteristics of social groups and communities, master the basics of sociological research, acquire the skills of sociological thinking. The study of sociology allows a person to analyze his life in the context of social phenomena and events, to see individual problems as part of general social processes.

Course program

Topic 1. Sociology as a science

Society is an object of sociological knowledge. The specifics of the subject of sociology. Social life. The place of sociology in the system of scientific knowledge. Structure of sociology. sociological point of view. Functions of sociology.

Topic 2. The evolution of sociological thought

Stages of development of sociology. The specificity of the study of society before the nineteenth century. The emergence of sociology. O.Kont is the founder of sociology. Classical period in the development of sociology. Sociology of K. Marx, E. Durkheim, M. Weber. Positivism and humanitarianism are research approaches to the study of society. Paradigms of modern sociology: structural functionalism, radical conflict paradigm, symbolic interactionism.

Topic 3. Features of the development of domestic sociology

Sociological thought in Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. The development of sociology in the twentieth century. pre-revolutionary period. Sociology in Russia after October 1917

Topic 4. Society as an object of study in sociology

The essence of the concept of society in the history of social cognition. Interpretations of the category "society" in sociology. Society in the broad and narrow sense. Classification of social theories.

Topic 5. Social structure

The concept of social structure. social group. primary and secondary groups. Social community, its signs. social institutions. Types of social organizations.

Topic 6. Social stratification

The essence of the concept of "Social stratification". Location of strata in society. Stratification and system of values. Social mobility, its types and channels.

Topic 7. Types of social stratification

Stratification in the history of human society. Caste and class stratification. Closed society. Differences in class stratification. The concept of a class. The class theory of K. Marx. M. Weber. Class division of modern societies. Trends in the class system of modern Russia.

Topic 8. Ethnosociology

The subject of ethnosociology. Directions of its development. Definition of the concept of "ethnos". Ethnic features. Ethnos and nation - correlation of concepts: different approaches. Nation as fellowship. ethnic processes.

Topic 9. Sociology of personality

Man - individual - personality - correlation of concepts. Sociological concepts of personality. Essence and stages of socialization. Deviation as a deviation from the group norm. Types of social control.

Topic 10. Fundamentals of applied sociology

Goals and objectives of applied sociology. Opportunities for sociological research. Types of specific sociological research. Research program. Methods of collecting sociological information.

Basic educational literaturefor the course "Sociology":

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. – Kazan, 1997.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M.., 1996.

Short course of lectures

Topic 1. Sociology as a science

Questions:

1. Object and subject of sociology.
2. Structure and functions of sociology.

Object and subject of sociology

The object of sociological knowledge is society. The term "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "logos" - doctrine, meaning in literal translation "the doctrine of society". Human society is a unique phenomenon. It is directly or indirectly the object of many sciences (history, philosophy, economics, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.), each of which has its own perspective of studying society, i.e. your subject.

The subject of sociology is social life of society, i.e. a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of "social" is deciphered as referring to the life of people in the process of their relationships. The vital activity of people is realized in society in three traditional spheres (economic, political, spiritual) and one non-traditional - social. The first three give a horizontal section of society, the fourth - a vertical one, implying a division according to the subjects of social relations (ethnic groups, families, etc.). These elements of the social structure in the process of their interaction in traditional spheres form the basis of social life, which in all its diversity exists, is recreated and changes only in the activities of people.

People interact, uniting in various communities, social groups. Their activities are predominantly organized. Society can be represented as a system of interacting and interconnected communities and institutions, forms and methods of social control. The personality manifests itself through a set of social roles and statuses that it plays or occupies in these social communities and institutions. At the same time, the status is understood as the position of a person in society, which determines access to education, wealth, power, and so on. A role can be defined as the behavior expected of a person due to his status. Thus, sociology studies social life, that is, the interaction of social actors on issues related to their social status.

The definition of sociology as a science is formed from the designation of the object and subject. Its numerous variants with different formulations have a substantial identity or similarity. Sociology is defined in various ways:

• as a scientific study of society and social relations (Neil Smelser, USA);
• as a science that studies almost all social processes and phenomena (Anthony Giddens, USA);
• as the study of the phenomena of human interaction and the phenomena arising from this interaction (Pitirim Sorokin, Russia - USA);
• as a science of social communities, the mechanisms of their formation, functioning and development, etc. The variety of definitions of sociology reflects the complexity and versatility of its object and subject.

Structure and functions of sociology

The specificity of sociology lies in its borderline position between natural science and socio-humanitarian knowledge. It simultaneously uses the methods of philosophical and socio-historical generalizations and the specific methods of the natural sciences - experiment and observation. Sociology has strong links with applied mathematics, statistics, logic, and linguistics. Applied sociology has points of contact with ethics, aesthetics, medicine, pedagogy, planning and management theory.

In the system of socio-humanitarian knowledge, sociology plays a special role, as it gives other sciences about society a scientifically based theory of society through its structural elements and their interaction; methods and techniques of human study.

Sociology has the closest connection with history. With all the sciences of society, sociology is connected by the social aspect of his life; hence the socio-economic, socio-demographic and other studies, on the basis of which new "frontier" sciences are born: social psychology, sociobiology, social ecology, etc.

Structure of sociology. Three approaches to the structure of this science coexist in modern sociology.

First (content) implies the mandatory presence of three main interrelated components: a) empiricism, i.e. a complex of sociological research focused on the collection and analysis of real facts of social life using a special methodology; b) theories- a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain the processes of development of the social system as a whole and its elements; V) methodology- systems of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.

The second approach (target). Fundamental sociology(basic, academic) is focused on the growth of knowledge and scientific contribution to fundamental discoveries. It solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development. Applied sociology focused on practical use. This is a set of theoretical models, methods, research procedures, social technologies, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving a real social effect. As a rule, fundamental and applied sociology incorporate both empiricism, theory, and methodology.

Third approach (large scale) divides science into macro- And microsociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena (ethnic groups, states, social institutions, groups, etc.); the second - the spheres of direct social interaction (interpersonal relations, communication processes in groups, the sphere of everyday reality).

In sociology, content-structural elements of different levels are also distinguished: general sociological knowledge; sectoral sociology (economic, industrial, political, leisure, management, etc.); independent sociological schools, directions, concepts, theories.

Sociology studies the life of society, learns the trends of its development, predicts the future and corrects the present both at the macro and micro levels. Studying almost all spheres of society, it aims at the coordination of their development.

Sociology can and must play the role of a social controller in society, intervening in the development of technology, the natural and social sciences. It can show the way out of impasses in social development, out of crisis situations, and can choose the most optimal model for further development.

Sociology is directly related to production through the problems of its social development, the improvement of personnel, the improvement of planning and the socio-psychological climate. It can serve as a powerful tool in the hands of political forces, influencing the mass consciousness and shaping it.

Sociology builds bridges between personal and social problems, allows each person to understand his life from the point of view of the general historical process, on the one hand, and on the other, to see the general in the particular, individual. This is the specificity of the sociological point of view.

Sociology performs many different functions in society. The main ones are:

epistemological- gives new knowledge about society, about social groups, about individuals and the patterns of their behavior;

applied- provides specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems;

social forecasting and control - warns about deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends in social development;

humanistic function - develops social ideals, programs for the scientific, technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society.

Literature

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. - Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 1.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 1.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch.1.

Frolov S.S. Sociology: Textbook for universities. 2nd ed. M., 1997. - Sec. 1.

Topic 2. The evolution of sociological thought

1. The emergence and development of sociology (the beginning of the 19th - the end of the 20th centuries).
2. Research approaches to the study of society and the main paradigms of modern sociology.

The emergence and development of sociology (the beginning of the 19th - the end of the 20th centuries)

Since ancient times, people have been concerned not only with natural, but also with social mysteries and problems. Philosophers of Ancient Greece, thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern times tried to solve them. Their judgments about society and man had a significant impact on the development of socio-humanitarian knowledge and contributed to the separation of sociology from it as an independent science.

The birth of sociology is usually associated with the name of the French naturalist Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857). He was the first to raise the question of creating a science of society that would model itself on the model of the natural sciences. It is no coincidence that this science was called by him "social physics". In the 30s of the 19th century, O. Kont created his main scientific work “Course of Positive Philosophy”, where a new name was given to the science of society - sociology. In the teachings of O. Comte, the most important were his ideas about the application of scientific methods in the study of society and the practical use of science in the field of social reforms.

The fathers of sociology, its classics, besides O. Comte, can rightly be called the English philosopher and naturalist Herbert Spencer (1820 -1903) and the German scientist publicist Karl Marx (1818 - 1883). Spencer (the main work "The Foundation of Sociology") was the author of the organic theory, which was based on the assimilation of society to biological organisms, and the theory of social Darwinism, transferring the natural principle of natural selection to society. K. Marx (the main work "Capital") is an outstanding theorist of capitalism, who explained social development as the result of a change in formations occurring under the influence of economic and socio-political factors (mode of production, classes, class struggle).

The 19th century is called the golden age of classical sociology: new approaches to the study of society were being formed - positivism (Comte, Spencer) and Marxism (Marx, Engels); theoretical science was developed, the first scientific schools and directions were created, branch sociological knowledge was born. Conventionally, this time is called the first stage in the development of sociology and is dated to the 40-80s of the 19th century.

The evolution of sociology from the 90s of the 19th century to the 20s of the 20th century at the so-called second stage was associated with the development of methods of sociological thinking and the formation of a categorical apparatus. The professionalization and institutionalization of sociology, the creation of profile periodicals, the growth in the number of new scientific schools testified to the entry of science into its heyday. But sociology became more complex in content and more and more acquiring a pluralistic character. The positivist doctrine of O. Comte and G. Spencer found its development in the works of the French scientist Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917) - the author of a functional theory based on an analysis of the functions of social institutions. In the same years, representatives of the anti-positivist approach to the study of society - humanitarianism - also declared themselves. A school of social action was formed by the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), who was the founder of "understanding" sociology, which, according to him, understands social action and tries to causally explain its course and results. In the development of sociology, this was a period of crisis of classical science and the search for a new worldview.

Despite the active revision of the ideas of the "fathers" of sociology, in the 20-60s of the twentieth century, stabilization increased in science. The rapid development of empirical sociology began, with the widespread use and improvement of the methods and techniques of concrete sociological research. US sociology came to the fore, trying to correct the "imperfections" of society with the help of empirical research. The most significant theoretical concept of this stage was the structural functionalism of the sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902 - 1979), which made it possible to present society as a system in all its integrity and inconsistency. Parsons enriched the theoretical developments of Comte - Spencer - Durkheim. The sociology of the United States was also represented by new theories of the humanist persuasion. A follower of Weber, Professor Charles Wright Mills (1916 - 1962), created the "new sociology", which laid the foundation for critical sociology and the sociology of action in the States.

The current stage in the development of sociology, which began in the mid-1960s, is characterized by both the expansion of the range of applied research and the revival of interest in theoretical sociology. The main question was about the theoretical basis of empiricism, which caused a "theoretical explosion" in the 1970s. He determined the process of differentiation of sociological knowledge without the authoritarian influence of any one theoretical concept. Therefore, the stage is represented by a variety of approaches, concepts and their authors: R. Merton - "the average value of the theory", J. Homans - the theory of social exchange, G. Garfinkel - ethnomethodology, G. Mead and G. Bloomer - the theory of symbolic interactionism, Koder - the theory conflict, etc. One of the directions of modern sociology is the study of the future, covering the general long-term prospects for the future of the Earth and humanity.

Research approaches to the study of society and the main paradigms of modern sociology

Theoretical sociology consists of many scientific schools, but all of them are based on two main approaches to the study and explanation of society - positivism and humanitarianism.

Positivism arose and began to dominate in the sociology of the nineteenth century, as opposed to speculative reasoning about society. This is a rational approach based on observation, comparison, experiment. His initial positions boil down to the following: a) nature and society are united and develop according to the same laws; b) a social organism is similar to a biological one; c) society should be studied by the same methods as nature.

The positivism of the 20th century is neopositivism. Its basic principles are much more complicated: naturalism (the generality of the laws of development of nature and society), scientism (accuracy, rigor and objectivity of social research methods), behaviorism (the study of a person only through open behavior), verification (the obligatory presence of an empirical basis for scientific knowledge), quantification (quantitative expression of social facts) and objectivism (freedom of sociology as a science from value judgments and connection with ideology).

On the basis of positivism and its second wave - neopositivism, the following areas of sociological thought were born, functioned and exist: naturalism(biologism and mechanism), classical marxism, structural functionalism. Positivists and their followers of the twentieth century consider the world as an objective reality, believing that it should be studied, discarding their values. They recognize only two forms of knowledge - empirical and logical (only through experience and the possibility of verification) and consider it necessary only to study facts, not ideas.

Humanitarianism or phenomenology is an approach to studying society through understanding. His initial positions are as follows: a) society is not an analogue of nature, it develops according to its own laws; b) society is not an objective structure that stands above people and is independent of them, but the sum of relationships between two or more individuals; c) the main thing is the decoding, interpretation of the meaning, the content of this interaction; d) the main methods of this approach: the ideographic method (the study of individuals, events or objects), the method of qualitative analysis (understanding the phenomenon, not its calculation), the methods of phenomenology, i.e. knowledge of the causes and essence of social phenomena, for example, the linguistic method (the study of what is available to the language), the method of understanding (the knowledge of society through self-knowledge), the method of hermeneutics (the interpretation of meaningful human actions), the method of feeling, etc.

Most representatives of humanitarianism are subjectivist, rejecting "freedom from values" as impossible in sociology - a science that affects the interests of people.

Modern sociology is a multi-paradigm science. A paradigm is a method recognized and accepted by the scientific community for solving a certain range of scientific problems. There are three main paradigms of modern sociology:

structural and functional, which sees society as a relatively stable system of interrelated parts based on widespread agreement on what is morally desirable, where each part of society has functional implications for society as a whole;

conflict-radical, which comes from the fact that society is a system that is characterized by social inequality, when some categories of people benefit more from the organization of society than others, this inequality is based on conflict, which contributes to social change;

symbolic interactionism - in contrast to the first two paradigms, society is presented as a constant process of social interaction in specific conditions, which is based on communication through symbols, while individual perceptions of social reality are unique and changeable.

Literature

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 2 - 5.

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. Textbook for students of liberal arts universities. M., Interpraks, 1995. - 3, 4.

Kapitonov E.A. Sociology of the twentieth century. Rostov n / D., 1996. - Ch. 14.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Ch. 2.

Topic 3. Features of the development of domestic sociology

1. The originality of the formation of sociological thought in Russia.
2. Periodization of the development of domestic sociology.

The peculiarity of the formation of sociological thought in Russia

Sociology is an international science in character, goals and objectives. But its development in different countries is largely determined by their originality. According to the specifics of research, one can speak in a broad sense about American, French, German and other sociological schools (or, conditionally, sociology).

Domestic sociology is also specific. Its formation and evolution were determined by the peculiarities of Russia itself, generated by the uniqueness of its geographical position between the West and the East, territorial scale, customs, traditions, psychology, morality, etc.

The sociological thought of Russia has been formed for centuries on its own soil, growing on the basis of Russian culture and the liberation movement. Interest in a person in society, in their joint fate, their future manifested itself at two levels: mass-everyday (in folk tales and legends, for example, in The Tale of the City of Kitezh; in the works of writers and poets, in the judgments of public figures) and professional (in the theories of specialist researchers - philosophers, historians). Russian sociological thought was made up of both frankly ideologized and academic developments. The first were associated with the liberation movement and the revolutionary tradition of Russia, the second - directly with science. Domestic thought has absorbed many social utopias that are close to the forecast of judgments about the future of society and man. Until the 19th century, social utopias were vague and primitive. But in the XIX - early XX centuries. Utopias were presented both by representatives of the democratic trend in the revolutionary tradition of Russia (A. Radishchev, A. Herzen, N. Chernyshevsky, M. Bakunin, G. Plekhanov, V. Ulyanov-Lenin, etc.), and by the bearers of the autocratic trend (P. Pestel, S. Nechaev, I. Stalin).

Having Russian roots, domestic sociological thought, at the same time, experienced the powerful influence of the West. She was closely associated with the French Enlightenment, the English School of Economics and German Romanticism. The duality of origins determined the inconsistency of the sociological thought of Russia, which manifested itself in the confrontation of orientations towards the West (Westerners) and towards their own identity (Russophiles). This confrontation also characterizes modern sociology.

Russian sociological thought has become part of European culture.

Periodization of the development of domestic sociology

Sociology as a science was formed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Its subsequent development has not been a continuous process of quality acquisition. Sociology directly depended on the conditions in the country, on the level of its democracy, therefore it went through periods of rise and fall, prohibition, persecution and underground existence.

In the development of domestic sociology, two stages are distinguished: pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary (the milestone is 1917). The second stage, as a rule, is divided into two periods: 20-60 and 70-80, although almost every decade of the twentieth century had its own characteristics.

First stage characterized by a wealth of sociological thought, a variety of theories and concepts of the development of society, social communities and man. The most famous were: the theory of the publicist and sociologist N. Danilevsky about "cultural-historical types" (civilizations), developing, in his opinion, like biological organisms; the subjectivist concept of the all-round development of the individual as a measure of the progress of the sociologist and literary critic N. Mikhailovsky, who denounced Marxism from the standpoint of peasant socialism; the geographical theory of Mechnikov, who explained the unevenness of social development by changing geographical conditions and considered social solidarity as a criterion of social progress; the doctrine of social progress by M. Kovalevsky, a historian, lawyer, sociologist-evolutionist, engaged in empirical research; the theory of social stratification and social mobility of the sociologist P. Sorokin; positivist views of the follower of O. Comte, the Russian sociologist E. Roberti and others. These developments brought their authors world fame. The practical deeds of Russian sociologists, for example, compiling zemstvo statistics, benefited the fatherland. In pre-revolutionary sociology, five main directions coexisted: politically oriented sociology, general and historical sociology, legal, psychological and systematic sociology. The theoretical sociology of the end of the 19th century was influenced by the ideas of K. Marx, but it was not comprehensive. Sociology in Russia developed both as a science and as an academic discipline. In terms of its level at that time, it was not inferior to the western one.

Second phase development of domestic sociology is complex and heterogeneous.

Its first decade (1918 - 1928) was a period of recognition of sociology by the new government and its certain rise: the institutionalization of science was carried out, departments of sociology were created at the Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities, the Sociological Institute was opened (1919) and the first faculty of social sciences in Russia with a sociological department at the University of Petrograd (1920); a scientific degree in sociology was introduced, an extensive sociological literature (both scientific and educational) began to be published. The peculiarity of the sociology of these years consisted in the still remaining authority of non-Marxist sociology and, at the same time, in the strengthening of the Marxist trend and fierce discussions in it about the relationship between sociology and historical materialism. During these years, the problems of the working class and the peasantry, the city and the countryside, population and migration are being studied, empirical research is being carried out that has received international recognition.

In the 1930s, sociology was declared a bourgeois pseudoscience and banned. Fundamental and applied research was discontinued (until the early 60s). Sociology was one of the first sciences to fall victim to the Stalinist regime. The totalitarian nature of political power, the harsh suppression of all forms of dissent outside the party, and the prevention of diversity of opinions within the party halted the development of the science of society.

Its revival began only at the end of the 50s, after the 20th Congress of the CPSU, and even then under the guise of economic and philosophical sciences. A paradoxical situation has arisen: sociological empirical research has received the right of citizenship, while sociology as a science has not. Materials were published on the positive aspects of the country's social development. The alarming signals of sociologists about the destruction of the natural environment, about the growing alienation of power from the people, about nationalist tendencies were ignored and even condemned. But even in these years, science moved forward: there appeared works on general theory and on specific sociological analysis, summarizing the works of Soviet sociologists; the first steps were taken to participate in international comparative studies. In the 1960s, sociological institutions were created, and the Soviet Sociological Association was founded.

In the 1970s and 1980s, the attitude towards Russian sociology was contradictory. On the one hand, it received semi-recognition, on the other hand, it was hampered in every possible way, being directly dependent on party decisions. Sociological research was ideologically oriented. But the organizational formation of sociology continued: in 1968 the Institute for Social Research was established (since 1988 - the Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences). Departments of social research appeared in the institutes of Moscow, Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk and other cities; textbooks for universities began to be published; Since 1974, the journal Sociological Research (later Socis) began to appear. By the end of this period, administrative-bureaucratic interference in sociology began to intensify, and the mechanisms were almost the same as in the 1930s. Theoretical sociology was again denied, the quantity and quality of research decreased.

The consequences of this second "invasion" in sociology could have been the most tragic for science, if not for the new situation in the country. Sociology was restored to civil rights in 1986. The issue of its development was decided at the state level - the task was set to develop fundamental and applied research in the country. The sociology of modern Russia is being strengthened in terms of content and organization, it has been revived as an academic discipline, but there are still many difficulties in its path. Sociology today is accumulating material about society at a turning point and forecasting its further development.

Literature

Aron R. Stages of development of sociological thought. M., 1992.

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 5, 6.

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. Textbook for students of liberal arts universities. M., Interpraks, 1995. - 3.

Kapitonov E.A. Sociology of the twentieth century. Rostov n / D., 1996. - Ch. 3 - 4.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 2.

Topic 4. Society as an object of study in sociology

1. The concept of "society" and its research interpretations.
2. The main problems of megasociology.

The concept of "society" and its research interpretations

"Society" is the fundamental category of modern sociology, which interprets it in a broad sense as a part of the material world isolated from nature, which is a historically developing set of all ways of interaction and forms of unification of people, in which their comprehensive dependence on each other is expressed, and in a narrow sense - as a structurally or genetically defined genus, species, subspecies of communication.

The sociological thought of the past explained the category "society" in different ways. In ancient times, it was identified with the concept of "state". This can be traced, for example, in the judgments of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. The only exception was Aristotle, who believed that the family and the village as special types of communication are different from the state, and that there is a different structure of social ties, in which friendship relations as the highest form of mutual communication come to the fore.

In the Middle Ages, the idea of ​​identifying society and the state again reigned. Only in modern times in the 19th century, in the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli, the idea of ​​the state as one of the states of society was expressed. In the 17th century, the English philosopher T. Hobbes formed the theory of the “social contract”, the essence of which was the transfer of part of their freedoms by the members of the society to the state, which is the guarantor of compliance with the contract; The 18th century was characterized by a clash of two approaches to the definition of society: one approach interpreted society as an artificial formation that contradicted the natural inclinations of people, the other - as the development and expression of natural inclinations and feelings of a person. At the same time, economists Smith and Hume defined society as a labor exchange union of people connected by the division of labor, and the philosopher I. Kant - as Humanity, taken in historical development. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of the idea of ​​civil society. It was expressed by G. Hegel, who called civil society the sphere of private interests, different from state ones.

The founder of sociology, O. Comte, considered society as a natural phenomenon, and its evolution as a natural process of growth and differentiation of parts and functions.

According to E. Durkheim, society is a supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. M. Weber defined society as the interaction of people, which is a product of social, i.e. other people-oriented actions. According to K. Marx, society is a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint activities.

In modern sociology, a society is considered to be an association of people, which has the following features:

• it is not part of any other larger system;
• replenishment is mainly due to childbearing;
• has its own territory;
• has its own name and history;
• exists longer than the average life span of an individual;
• has a developed culture.

Thus, we can say that society is people interacting in a certain territory and having a common culture. Under culture is understood as a certain set or complex of symbols, norms, attitudes, values ​​inherent in a given social group and transmitted from generation to generation. To maintain the integrity of society, some sociologists name such necessary properties as communication between its members, the production and distribution of goods and services, the protection of members of society, and the control of behavior.

The main problems of megasociology

Sociological theories differ in the level of generalization to a general theory (megasociology), middle-level theory (macro-sociology, studying large social communities) and micro-level theory (microsociology, studying interpersonal relationships in everyday life). Society as a whole is the object of study of general sociological theory. It is considered in science according to the following main problem blocks in their logical sequence: What is society? -- Does it change? -- How does it change? -- What are the sources of change? Who determines these changes? -- What are the types and patterns of changing societies? In other words, megasociology is dedicated to explaining social change.

Problem block - What is a society? - includes a set of questions about the structure of society, its components, about the factors that ensure its integrity, about the processes taking place in it. They find their coverage in numerous versions of scientists: in the theories (Spencer, Marx, Weber, Dahrendorf and many other researchers) of the socio-demographic and social class structure of society, social stratification, ethnic structure, etc. The problem of changes in society implies two questions: Is society evolving? Is its development reversible or irreversible? The answer to them divides the existing general sociological concepts into two classes: development theory And theories of historical circulation. The former were developed by the Enlighteners of the New Age, the theorists of positivism, Marxism and others, who proved the irreversibility of the development of society. The latter are permeated with the idea of ​​cyclicality, i.e. the movement of society as a whole or its subsystems in a vicious circle with a constant return to its original state and subsequent cycles of revival and decline. This idea was reflected in the judgments of Plato and Aristotle on the forms of the state, in the concept of "cultural-historical types" by N. Danilevsky, in the theory of "morphology of cultures" by O. Spengler, in A. Toynbee's version of closed civilizations, in the social philosophy of P. Sorokin, etc.

The next problematic block reveals the direction of the development of society by posing questions about whether society, a person, relations between people, relations with the natural environment are improving, or the opposite process is taking place, i.e. degradation of society, man and relations with the environment. The content of the answers to these questions divides the existing questions into two groups: theories of progress(optimistic) and regression theories(pessimistic). The former include positivism, Marxism, theories of technological determinism, social Darwinism, the latter - a number of theories of bureaucracy, elites, pessimistic versions of technological determinism, partly the concept of L. Gumilyov, J. Gobineau, etc. The problem of the mechanism of progress, its conditionality, its sources and driving forces is revealed in megasociology by single-factor and multi-factor theories, theories of evolution and revolution.

One factor theories narrow the sources and causes of progress to any one force, absolutizing it, for example, the biological factor (biologism, organicism, social Darwinism), the ideal factor (Weber's theories).

Multifactorial theories, highlighting one determinant, they strive to take into account the impact of all other factors (the theories of Marx, neo-Marxists, etc.).

The problem of the relationship between the importance of the individual and the role of social communities in the process of social change is associated with those theories that either give preference to communities as the main driving force (statism, fascism, leftist pseudo-Marxism, ethno-nationalism), or emphasize the priority of the individual over any communities (positivism, socialism of Marx, neo-Marxism). The problem of the type and model of the development of society is revealed in the theories of their absolutization (reductionism) and synthesis (complex theories). On the issue of periodization of the development of society, two approaches are most widely used in megasociology: formational(Marx), according to which society in its development goes through a number of socio-economic formations - primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, and civilizational(Morgan, Engels, Tennis, Aron, Bell, etc.). The typology of societies according to K. Marx is based on the criterion of the mode of production. The civilizational approach is more heterogeneous, since the very category of "civilization" is very multifaceted. In practice, this criterion is most often reduced to either territorial (eg, European society or civilization) or religious (eg, Islamic society).

Literature

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 7, 8.

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. Textbook for students of liberal arts universities. M., Interpraks, 1995. - Ch. 7.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 3, 4.

1. The concept of the social structure of society. Social groups and communities.
2. Social institutions and organizations.

The concept of the social structure of society. Social groups and communities

Society is a system, since it is a set of elements that are in interconnection and relationships and form a single whole, capable of changing its structure in interaction with external conditions. This social system, i.e. associated with people's lives and their relationships. Society has an internal form of organization, i.e. its structure. It is complex and identifying its components requires an analytical approach using different criteria. The structure of society is understood as its internal structure.

According to the form of life manifestation of people, society is divided into economic, political and spiritual subsystems, which are called in sociology social systems (spheres of public life). According to the subject of public relations in the structure of society, demographic, ethnic, class, settlement, family, professional and other subsystems are identified. According to the type of social connections of its members in society, social groups, social institutions and social organizations are distinguished.

social group is a set of people who interact in a certain way with each other, are aware of their belonging to this group and are considered members of it from the point of view of other people. Traditionally, primary and secondary groups are distinguished. The first group includes small groups of people, where direct personal emotional contact is established. This is a family, a group of friends, work teams and so on. Secondary groups are formed from people between whom there is almost no personal emotional relationship, their interactions are due to the desire to achieve certain goals, communication is predominantly formal, impersonal.

During the formation of social groups, norms and roles are developed, on the basis of which a certain order of interaction is established. The size of the group can be very diverse, starting from 2 people.

Social communities include mass social groups that are characterized by the following features: statistical nature, probabilistic nature, situational nature of communication, heterogeneity, amorphousness (eg, demographic, racial, gender, ethnic, and other communities).

Social institutions and organizations

Social institutions- sustainable forms of organization and regulation of public life. They can be defined as a set of roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs. They are classified according to public spheres:

economic(property, wages, division of labor) that serve the production and distribution of values ​​and services;

political(parliament, army, police, party) regulate the use of these values ​​and services and are associated with power;

kinship institutions(marriage and family) are associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, the socialization of young people;

cultural institutions(museums, clubs) associated with religion, science, education, etc.;

stratification institutions(castes, estates, classes), which determine the distribution of resources and positions.

social organization- this is an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules. Social organizations vary in complexity, specialization of tasks, and formalization of roles and procedures. There are several types of classification of social organizations. The most common classification is based on the type of membership people have in an organization. In accordance with this criterion, three types of organizations are distinguished: voluntary, coercive or totalitarian and utilitarian.

People join voluntary organizations to achieve goals that are considered morally significant, to obtain personal satisfaction, increase social prestige, the possibility of self-realization, but not for material reward. These organizations, as a rule, are not associated with state, government structures, they are formed to pursue the common interests of their members. Such organizations include religious, charitable, socio-political organizations, clubs, interest associations, etc.

A distinctive feature of totalitarian organizations is involuntary membership, when people are forced to join these organizations, and life in them is strictly subject to certain rules, there are supervisory personnel who deliberately control the people's environment, restrictions on communication with the outside world, etc. These organizations are prisons, the army, monasteries, and so on.

In utilitarian organizations, people enter to receive material rewards, wages.

In real life, it is difficult to single out the pure types of organizations considered; as a rule, there is a combination of features of different types.

According to the degree of rationality in achieving goals and the degree of efficiency, traditional and rational organizations are distinguished.

Literature

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. M., Interpraks, 1995. -8, 9.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 6, 10, 11.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 3.

Topic 6. Social stratification

1. The concept of social stratification.
2. Social mobility and its types.

The concept, content, foundations of social stratification

People differ among themselves in many ways: gender, age, skin color, religion, ethnicity, etc. But these differences become social only when they affect the position of a person, a social group on the ladder of the social hierarchy. Social differences determine social inequality, which implies the existence of discrimination on various grounds: skin color - racism, gender - sexism, ethnicity - ethno-nationalism, age - ageism. Social inequality in sociology is usually understood as the inequality of the social strata of society. It is the basis of social stratification. Literally translated, stratification means “making layers”, i.e. divide society into layers (stratum - layer, facere - to do). Stratification can be defined as structured inequalities between different groups of people. Societies can be seen as consisting of strata located hierarchically- with the most privileged layers at the top and the least - at the bottom.

The foundations of the theory of stratification were laid by M. Weber, T. Parsons, P. Sorokin and others. T. Parsons identified three groups of differentiating features. These include:

1) characteristics that people have from birth - gender, age, ethnicity, physical and intellectual characteristics, family ties, etc.;

2) signs associated with the performance of the role, i.e. with various types of professional and labor activity;

3) elements of "possession", which include property, privileges, material and spiritual values, etc.

These features are the initial theoretical basis of a multidimensional approach to the study of social stratification. Sociologists identify various cuts or dimensions in determining the number and distribution of social strata. This diversity does not exclude the essential features of stratification. First, it is related to the distribution of the population into hierarchically organized groups, i.e. upper and lower layers; secondly, stratification consists in the unequal distribution of sociocultural benefits and values. According to P. Sorokin, the object of social inequality is 4 groups of factors:

Rights and privileges

Duties and responsibilities

Social Wealth and Need

Power and influence

Stratification is closely connected with the dominant system of values ​​in society. It forms a normative scale for evaluating various types of human activity, on the basis of which people are ranked according to the degree of social prestige. In empirical research in contemporary Western sociology, prestige is often summarized in terms of three measurable features − the prestige of the profession, the level of income, the level of education. This indicator is called the index of socio-economic position.

Social stratification performs a dual function: it acts as a method of identifying the strata of a given society and at the same time represents its social portrait. Social stratification is distinguished by a certain stability within a particular historical stage.

Social mobility and its types

The concept of "social mobility" was introduced by P. Sorokin. social mobility means the movement of individuals and groups from one social strata, communities to others, which is associated with a change in the position of an individual or group in the system of social stratification. The possibilities and dynamics of social mobility differ in different historical settings.

The options for social mobility are diverse:

• individual and collective;
• vertical and horizontal;
• intragenerational and intergenerational.

Vertical mobility is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status, a transition to a higher or lower class position. It distinguishes between ascending and descending branches (eg, career and lumpenization). Horizontal mobility is a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

Intragenerational (intergenerational) mobility means that a person changes his position in the stratification system throughout his life. Intergenerational or intergenerational - implies that children occupy a higher position than their parents.

P. Sorokin refers to the following social institutions as channels or "elevators" of social mobility: the army, the church, educational institutions, the family, political and professional organizations, the media, etc.

Literature

Radugin A. A., Radugin K. A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 8.

Topic 7. Types of social stratification

1. Historical types of stratification.
2. Social stratification of modern societies.

Historical types of stratification

Social stratification is a certain orderliness of society. At the stages of human existence, its three main types can be traced: caste, estate and class. The primitive state is characterized by a natural structuring by age and gender.

The first type of social stratification is the division of society into castes. The caste system is a closed type of society, i.e. status is given from birth, and mobility is almost impossible. Caste was a hereditary association of people connected by traditional occupations and limited in communication with each other. Caste took place in ancient Egypt, Peru, Iran, Japan, in the southern states of the United States. Its classic example was India, where the caste organization turned into a comprehensive social system. The hierarchical ladder of access to wealth and prestige in India had the following steps: 1) brahmins - priests; 2) kshatriyas - military aristocracy; 3) vaishyas - farmers, artisans, merchants, free community members; 4) Shudras - not free community members, servants, slaves; 5) "untouchables", whose contacts with other castes were excluded. This system was banned in India in the 50s of the twentieth century, but caste prejudice and inequality still make themselves felt today.

The second type of social stratification - class - also characterizes a closed society, where mobility is strictly limited, although it is allowed. estate, like caste, was associated with the inheritance of rights and obligations enshrined in custom and law. But unlike caste, the principle of inheritance in estates is not so absolute, and membership can be bought, bestowed, recruited. Class stratification is characteristic of European feudalism, but was also present in other traditional civilizations. Its model is medieval France, where society was divided into four classes: 1) the clergy; 2) nobility; 3) artisans, merchants, servants (city dwellers); 4) peasants. In Russia, from Ivan the Terrible (mid-XNUMXth century) to Catherine II, a hierarchy of estates was formed, officially approved by her decrees (1762 - 1785) in the following form: the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry. The decrees stipulated the paramilitary class (sub-ethnos), the Cossacks and the raznochintsy.

class stratification characteristic of open societies. It differs significantly from caste and class stratification. These differences appear as follows:

Classes are not created on the basis of legal and religious norms, membership in them is not based on hereditary position;

Class systems are more fluid, and the boundaries between classes are not rigidly delineated;

Classes depend on economic differences between groups of people associated with inequalities in the ownership and control of material resources;

Class systems mainly carry out connections of an impersonal nature. The main basis of class differences - inequality between conditions and wages - operates in relation to all occupational groups as a result of economic circumstances belonging to the economy as a whole;

Social mobility is much simpler than in other stratification systems; there are no formal restrictions for it, although mobility is actually constrained by a person's starting capabilities and the level of his claims.

Classes can be defined as large groups of people, differing in their general economic opportunities, which significantly affect the types of their lifestyle.

The most influential theoretical approaches in the definition of classes and class stratification belong to K. Marx and M. Weber.

According to Marx, a class is a community of people in direct relation to the means of production. He singled out the exploiting and exploited classes in society at different stages. The stratification of society according to Marx is one-dimensional, connected only with classes, since its main basis is the economic situation, and all the rest (rights, privileges, power, influence) fit into the “Procrustean bed” of the economic situation, are combined with it.

M. Weber defined classes as groups of people who have a similar position in a market economy, receive similar economic rewards and have similar life chances. Class divisions stem not only from control over the means of production, but also from economic differences not related to property. Such sources include professional excellence, rare specialty, high qualifications, intellectual property ownership, and so on. Weber gave not only class stratification, considering it only a part of the structuring necessary for a complex capitalist society. He proposed a three-dimensional division: if economic differences (by wealth) give rise to class stratification, then spiritual (by prestige) - status, and political (by access to power) - party. In the first case, we are talking about the life chances of social strata, in the second - about the image and style of their life, in the third - about the possession of power and influence on it. Most sociologists consider the Weberian scheme to be more flexible and appropriate for modern society.

Social stratification of modern societies

The 20th century is represented by various domestic and foreign models of stratification. Domestic models of the Soviet period are Leninist and Stalinist-Brezhnevist class stratifications. V. Lenin considered the main criteria for classes to be property relations, functions performed, incomes, and according to them, he saw such classes in contemporary society as the bourgeoisie, petty bourgeoisie, working class, the class of cooperators and the social stratum of the intelligentsia and employees. The Stalin-Brezhnev model was reduced only to forms of ownership and, on this basis, to two classes (workers and collective farm peasantry) and a stratum (intelligentsia). The existing social inequality, the alienation of classes from property and from power in Soviet science did not undergo open structuring until the mid-1980s. However, foreign researchers were engaged in the stratification of social inequality in Soviet society. One of them - A. Inkels - analyzed the 40-50s and gave a conical model of the hierarchical division of society in the USSR. Using the material level, privileges, power as bases, he outlined nine social strata: the ruling elite, the upper intelligentsia, the labor aristocracy, the mainstream intelligentsia, the middle workers, the wealthy peasants, the white collar workers, the middle peasants, the underprivileged workers, and the forced labor group (prisoners) .

The inertia of a society closed to study turned out to be so great that at the present time the domestic stratification analysis is just unfolding. Researchers turn to both the Soviet past and the current Russian society. Variations of three layers are already known (business layer, middle layer, lumpen layer) and a model of 11 hierarchical steps (apparatus, "compradors", "national bourgeoisie", directorate, "merchants", farmers, collective farmers, members of new agricultural enterprises, lumpen - intelligentsia, working class, unemployed). The most developed model belongs to Academician T. Zaslavskaya, who identified 78 social strata in modern Russia.

Western sociologists in the 20th century use different approaches to social stratification: a) subjective self-assessment, when the respondents themselves determine their social affiliation; b) subjective reputational, when the respondents determine the social affiliation of each other; c) objective (the most common), as a rule, with a status criterion. Most Western sociologists, structuring the societies of developed countries, divide them into the upper, middle and working classes, in some countries also the peasantry (for example, France, Japan, third world countries).

The upper class stands out for its wealth, corporatism and power. It makes up about 2% of modern societies, but controls up to 85-90% of the capital. It is made up of bankers, owners, presidents, party leaders, movie stars, outstanding athletes.

The middle class includes non-manual workers and is divided into three groups: the upper middle class (professionals - doctors, scientists, lawyers, engineers, etc.); intermediate middle class (teachers, nurses, actors, journalists, technicians); the lower middle class (cashiers, salespeople, photographers, policemen, etc.). The middle class makes up 30-35% in the structure of Western societies.

The working class - the class of manual labor workers, which makes up about 50-65% in different countries, is also divided into three layers: 1) skilled manual labor workers (locksmiths, turners, cooks, hairdressers, etc.); 2) workers of semi-skilled manual labor (seamstresses, agricultural workers, telephone operators, bartenders, orderlies, etc.); 3) workers of unskilled labor (loaders, cleaners, kitchen workers, servants, etc.).

Literature

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. - Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 9.

Raduev V.V., Shkaratan O.I. Social stratification: textbook. allowance. M., 1996.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 8.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 9.

Topic 8. Ethnosociology

1. The subject and content of ethnosociology.
2. Ethnos: definition and typology. ethnic processes.

The subject and content of ethnosociology

One of the structural subsystems of society is ethnic. In relation to its constituent elements - ethnic groups, it is a system, but each ethnic group is also a system, and, according to the unanimous opinion of scientists, the system is basic.

The ethnic composition of the Earth's population has developed in the course of a long historical development as a result of complex ethnic and migration processes. Currently, about four thousand ethnic groups live on the planet - from small in number (Todo - India, Botokuds - Brazil, Alakalufs and Yamans - Argentina, etc.) to multi-million people (Americans, Japanese, Russians, etc.).

Ethnic groups are the object of direct and indirect interest of several sciences: social anthropology, which studies primitive communities; ethnography, describing the similarities and differences between peoples; ethnology - exploring ethnogenesis (the origin of ethnic groups), their basic characteristics and properties; ethnoconflictology, which studies the psychological aspects of interethnic conflicts. In political science as a science, there is a branch of knowledge that studies the political aspirations of ethnic groups, called ethno-political science.

Ethnosociology- a frontier branch of knowledge that arose at the junction of two sciences: ethnology and sociology. Ethnosociology studies the ethnic through the prism of the social, and therefore examines the social problems of ethnic groups, the social processes taking place in them and interethnic relations. This scientific discipline is engaged in comparative studies of various ethnic groups, the specifics of the manifestation of social phenomena in them. Ethnosociology is a domestic invention of the second half of the 1960s. In the West, studies of an ethno-sociological nature have been conducted for a long time, but they were not formalized as a special branch of knowledge and were carried out under the auspices of cultural and social anthropology. But in the 1960s and 1970s in Europe (in particular, in Holland) a direction arose that was close to Russian ethnosociology (A. Inkels, M. Hechter, Van den Berghe, etc.).

The ideological dogmas of the Soviet era, the varnishing of emerging problems, the interpretation of intra- and inter-ethnic relations only as internationalist for a long time held back ethno-sociological studies and determined their nature. Emancipated during the period of transformations of the 80-90s, ethnosociology is currently developing in four main areas: 1) a comprehensive study of the life of ethnic groups in its socio-economic, socio-political and spiritual incarnation; 2) analysis of modern intra-ethnic processes; 3) study of topical issues of interethnic relations; 4) understanding the mistakes of past years in the field of ethnic policy. From the end of the 1980s, empirical research began to be widely used in ethnosociology.

Ethnos: definition and typology. ethnic processes

Ethnos- the fundamental category of ethnosociology, literally translated from Greek meaning "tribe, people". In a broad sense, ethnos can be defined as the main unit of classification of all the peoples of the world, denoting a specific people with its own history, its own original culture, its own self-consciousness and self-name. In the most popular scientific interpretation, an ethnos is a stable set of people historically established in a certain territory, who have common features and characteristics of culture and psychological make-up, as well as a consciousness of their unity and difference from other similar entities (self-awareness).

The unity of the territory and the community of economic life derived from it are material factors in the formation of an ethnos, which can be lost in the process of further development of the ethnos. And the main features of an ethnos, its systemic properties, which can disappear only with itself, are ethnic self-consciousness, psychological make-up and ethnic culture.

ethnic identity there is a sense of belonging to this ethnic group. Its important component is the idea of ​​the common origin of its members, i.e. joint historical practice of ancestors.

Psychological warehouse- this is the so-called ethnic character, understood broadly up to the inclusion of ethnic temperament in it.

ethnic culture includes language, folk art, customs, rituals, traditions, norms of behavior, habits passed down from generation to generation. But ethnic systems are not reduced to only one, albeit basic, element - the ethnos. There is, according to researchers (L. Gumilyov, V. Belyaev and others), an ethnic hierarchy that can be represented in the following sequence: superethnos, ethnos, subethnos, consortia, conviction. Superethnos- an integral group of ethnic groups that arose simultaneously in one region, as a rule, with a common origin, culture, psychology (Slavs, Turks, etc.). sub-ethnos- a subsystem of an ethnos with specifics in religion, language, culture, history, self-consciousness and self-name (in the ethnos "Russians" - Kamchadals, Pomors, Siberians, etc.; in the ethnos "Tatars" - Kryashens, Mishars, Kazan, Kasimov, Astrakhan Tatars and etc.). Consortia - a group of people with a common historical destiny (guilds, sects, etc.). Conviction - a group with a common life, a single-character way of life and family ties (suburbs, settlements, etc.).

Domestic ethnosociology singles out historically significant types of ethnos. In science, there are two approaches to its typology: the first singles out the genus, tribe, nationality, nation as the main types of ethnos; the second considers three types - clan, tribe, people.

First approach gives the evolution of the ethnos in historical sequence: first - the clan and tribe as a consanguineous production team with territorial instability, with an oral language, tribal culture and the psychology of blood ties; then - nationality as a patriarchal small-scale community of the state type with customs borders, with a written (but not always) language, with a petty-bourgeois ideology and culture; finally - a nation as an economic community of an industrial type, not separated by customs borders, with a literary language, culture associated with widespread ideologies.

Second approach replaces "people" and "nation" as types of ethnos with a single type called "people", gradually taking shape on the basis of the unification of tribes. This type in science is defined in different ways: as a cultural union of people who speak the same way; as a collection of people with a common destiny, character and psychology; as a community of people connected by origin and self-consciousness, etc. The two approaches diverged on a number of parameters, but the main one is the definition of a nation. In the first case, it was considered as an ethnic community; in the second - as a political phenomenon, meaning co-citizenship. The understanding of the nation as co-citizenship comes from the concept of popular sovereignty of Rousseau, now accepted by the whole world, according to which the population becomes a nation only when the subjects recognize themselves as citizens. Since the time of the French Revolution of 1789, first in French and English, and then in other languages, and in international law, the etatist interpretation of the nation as the totality of all citizens of the state has been affirmed. Only in languages ​​that lagged behind the bourgeois transformations of the peoples of Germany, Russia, and the countries of Eastern Europe, both of its meanings - etatist and ethnic - were preserved. Hence, there are two approaches to the typology of the ethnos in Russian science.

In the course of the development of an ethnos and its interaction with others, significant changes occur in the ethnos as a whole or its individual parts, i.e. ethnic processes. According to their influence on the fate of the ethnos, they are divided into evolutionary and transformational. The former imply significant changes in the language, culture, social and demographic structure of the ethnic group. The latter lead to a change in ethnicity and ethnic identity.

According to their orientation, ethnic processes are divided into the processes of ethnic unification prevailing in the modern world and the processes of ethnic division. Unification is carried out through the mutual influence of cultures, bilingualism, integration, consolidation, ethnic assimilation, and separation - through separation through differentiation, segregation, disintegration, separatism, Balkanization. Ethnic contacts and ethnic adaptation contribute to unification and rapprochement. Separation is usually associated with conflicts. The division and unification of ethnic groups can be the result of not only natural-historical processes, but also a purposeful policy, ideological dogmas. People's commitment to the interests of their ethnic group (ethno-nationalism) can play both a positive and a negative role. Its variety (ethnophilia) involves concern for the preservation and development of the ethnic group, its language and culture, and the other (ethnophobia) - recognition of the exclusivity of one's ethnic group and hostility to other peoples. In a polyethnic society, the state cannot be ethnic. The main spheres of activity of the ethnos are language and culture, and the state only renders its assistance to these spheres.

Literature

Arutyunyan Yu.V., Drobizheva L.M., Susokolov A.A. Ethnosociology: Textbook. allowance. M., 1998.

Belyaev V.A., Filatov A.N. Sociology: Textbook. university course. Part 1. - Kazan, 1997. - Ch. 11, 12.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 6.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 10.

Topic 9. Sociology of personality

1. Sociological theories of personality.
2. Socialization of the individual.
3. Deviant behavior and social control.

Sociological theories of personality

The primary agent of social interaction and relationships is the individual. In order to understand what a person is, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “person”, “individual”, “personality”.

concept Human used to characterize the qualities and abilities inherent in all people. This concept indicates the presence of such a special historically developing community as the human race. A single representative of the human race, a specific carrier of human traits is individual. He is unique, unrepeatable. At the same time, it is universal - after all, each person depends on social conditions, the environment in which he lives, the people with whom he communicates. An individual is a person insofar as, in relations with others (within specific social communities), he performs certain functions, implements socially significant properties and qualities in his activities. It can be said that personality- this is a social modification of a person: after all, the sociological approach singles out the socially typical in the personality.

Sociological theories of personality are aimed at studying the inseparable connection between the process of personality formation and the functioning and development of social communities, at studying the interaction of the individual and society, between the individual and the group, at the problems of regulation and self-regulation of the individual's social behavior. In sociology, the following theories of personality are best known:

1.Mirror self theory(C. Cooley, J. Mead). Supporters of this theory understand personality as a set of reflections of the reactions of other people. The core of the personality is self-consciousness, which develops as a result of social interaction, during which the individual has learned to look at himself through the eyes of other people, i.e. like an object.

2. Psychoanalytic theories(Z.Freud) are aimed at revealing the inconsistency of the inner world of a person, at studying the psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society. The scope of the human psyche includes: 1) the unconscious (natural instincts); 2) the consciousness of the individual, which is the regulator of instinctive reactions; 3) collective consciousness, i.e. culture, laws, prohibitions learned in the process of education. Such a three-layered nature makes the personality extremely contradictory, as there is a struggle between natural instincts, inclinations, desires and the requirements and standards of society, aimed at subordinating social norms.

3. Role theory of personality(R. Minton, R. Merton, T. Parsons) describes her social behavior with two basic concepts: "social status" and "social role". Social status refers to the specific position of the individual in the social system, which implies certain rights and obligations. A person can have several statuses - prescribed, natural, professional and official, and the latter, as a rule, is the basis of the main or integral status, which determines the position of a person in society, in a group.

Each status usually includes a number of roles. A social role is understood as a set of actions that a person with a given status in the social system must perform. Therefore, a person is a derivative of the social statuses that an individual occupies, and of the social roles that he performs in society.

4. Marxist theory of personality considers the personality as a product of historical development, the result of the inclusion of the individual in the social system through active objective activity and communication, while the essence of the personality is revealed in the totality of its social qualities, due to belonging to a certain type of society, class and ethnicity, features of work and lifestyle.

Despite the difference in approaches, all sociological theories recognize the personality as a specific formation, directly derived from certain social factors.

Thus, we can say that a person is not born as a person, but becomes in the process of socialization and individualization.

Personality socialization

Socialization is understood as the process of assimilation by a person of patterns of behavior of society and groups, their values, norms, attitudes. In the process of socialization, the most common stable personality traits are formed, which are manifested in socially organized activities, regulated by the role structure of society. The main agents of socialization are: family, school, peer groups, mass media, literature and art, social environment, etc. The following goals are realized in the course of socialization:

• interaction of people based on the development of social roles;
• the preservation of society through the assimilation by its new members of the values ​​and patterns of behavior that have developed in it.

The process of personality formation goes through different phases. First, the individual adapts to socio-economic conditions, role functions, social groups, organizations and institutions - this is the phase of social adaptation. At the phase of internalization, the internal structures of a person's consciousness are formed due to the assimilation of the structures of external social activity, social norms and values ​​become an element of the person's inner world.

The life path of an individual is an ongoing process of socialization, the success of which depends on its interaction with individualization. Individualization is understood as a personified form of implementation of social requirements.

Deviant behavior and social control

Socialization is aimed at the development of a conforming person, i.e. one that would fulfill social standards, correspond to social standards. Deviation from them is called deviation. Thus, deviant behavior is determined by conformity to social norms. The norms are understood as: 1) a model, a standard of required behavior; 2) framework, boundaries of acceptable behavior. In society, there are many different norms - from criminal law to the requirements of fashion or professional ethics. In addition, the main feature of the norms is their variability: they are different in different regions, in different social communities, etc. This their relativity (relativism) gives rise to difficulties in determining the deviation. Moreover, deviant behavior is not always negative, it can be associated with the individual's desire for a new, progressive one. Therefore, sociology does not study any deviations from the norms, but those that cause public concern. Under deviation refers to a deviation from a group norm that entails isolation, treatment, imprisonment, or other punishment for the offender. It traditionally includes: crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, suicide, and so on.

The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants are described by the concept of "social control". It includes a set of norms and values ​​of society, as well as the sanctions applied to implement them.

There are two forms of social control: 1) formal, which includes criminal and civil law, internal affairs bodies, courts, etc.; 2) informal, providing for social reward, punishment, persuasion, reassessment of norms.

Literature

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. M., Interpraks, 1995. - Ch. 10.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 7.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994.

Topic 10. Fundamentals of applied sociology

1. The purpose of applied sociology and its social significance.
2. General characteristics of specific sociological research (CSI). Preparatory stage. Collection of sociological information, its analysis and use.

The purpose of applied sociology and its social significance

Applied sociology is an integral part of sociology as a science. It is aimed at understanding social phenomena and processes by studying the causes of their origin, the mechanism of functioning and the direction of development. Applied sociology relies on the theoretical achievements of fundamental science using methods of empirical verification and formalized procedures. Domestic applied sociology in the form of specific empirical research occupied a prominent place in scientific life even in pre-revolutionary Russia, especially in the early 1920s. The next three decades were a time of silence for applied scientists, caused by the prohibition of sociology. Applied sociology's right to exist was recognized only in the early 1960s, when the "Soviet school" of applied sociologists revived, largely borrowing the methodological experience of Western (more often American) sociological schools.

The main reason for turning to sociological research is the need for extensive and up-to-date information that reflects those aspects of the life of society that are hidden from the "outside eye", but which must be taken into account in the practice of sociological management. Sociological research has great potential: it reveals the leading trends in the development of social relations; determine the best ways and means of improving relations in society; substantiate plans and management decisions; analyze and predict social situations, etc. But sociological research is not a panacea for all ills - they act as one of the means of obtaining information. The decision to conduct a sociological study must be substantiated by practical or scientific expediency.

General characteristics of a specific sociological research (CSI).

Preparatory stage

Case Study(CSI) is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that allows you to gain new knowledge about a social object (process, phenomenon) for solving fundamental and applied problems. Sociological research consists of four interrelated stages: 1) research preparation; 2) collection of primary sociological information; 3) preparation of the collected information for processing and its processing on a computer; 4) analysis of the processed information, preparation of a report on the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

There are three main types of sociological research: exploratory, descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence- the simplest type that solves limited problems and studies small surveyed populations. It has a simplified program and is used in the case of unexplored problems, to obtain additional information about the object, to clarify hypotheses and tasks, to obtain operational data.

descriptive study- a more complex type, which involves obtaining empirical information for a holistic view of the phenomenon under study, which has a complete program and is applied to a large community with diverse characteristics.

Analytical study- the most complex type, pursuing the goal not only to describe the phenomenon under study, but also to find out the reasons that underlie it and determine the nature, prevalence, severity and other features inherent in it. It represents the greatest value, requires considerable time and a carefully crafted program.

According to the dynamics of the object, a point (one-time) study and a repeated one (several studies of the same object at certain intervals according to a single program) are distinguished. A specific sociological study can be large-scale or local. Mostly it is social work to order.

Direct preparation of the study involves the development of its program, work plan and supporting documents. Program- this is the language of communication between a sociologist and a customer, this is a strategic research document. It is a thesis presentation of the concept of the organizers of the work, their ideas and intentions. It is also considered a comprehensive theoretical substantiation of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying social facts.

The program consists of two parts - methodological and methodical. The first includes the formulation and justification of the problem, the indication of the goal, the definition of the object and subject of research, the logical analysis of the basic concepts, the formulation of hypotheses and tasks; the second is the definition of the surveyed population, the characteristics of the methods used to collect primary sociological information, the logical structure of the tools for collecting this information and the logical schemes for its processing on a computer.

A brief commentary on the structural elements of the CSI program.

A social problem is a contradictory situation created by life itself. Problems are classified according to the purpose, the carrier, the extent of prevalence, the duration of the contradiction and its depth.

The goal should always be result-oriented, should help to identify ways and means of solving the problem through implementation.

The object of the CSI is a social fact, i.e. any social phenomenon or process. The subject of the CSI is the sides or properties of the object that most fully express the problem.

The logical analysis of the basic concepts implies the selection of concepts that define the subject, an accurate and comprehensive explanation of their content and structure.

A hypothesis is a preliminary assumption that explains a social fact for the purpose of its subsequent confirmation or refutation.

Tasks are formulated in accordance with the goal and hypotheses.

The general population (N) is all the people who are territorially and temporally involved in the object under study. The sampling set (n) is a micromodel of the general population. It consists of respondents selected for the survey using one or another sampling method. The selection of respondents is carried out according to social formulas, using a table of random numbers, mechanical, serial, nested, spontaneous sampling methods, snowball methods and the main array. The quota sampling method is the most accurate.

The program substantiates the need to use specific methods of collecting sociological information (questionnaires, interviews, document analysis, observation, etc.).

The logical structure of the toolkit reveals the focus of a particular block of questions on certain characteristics and properties of the object, as well as the order in which the questions are arranged.

The logical schemes for processing the collected information show the expected range and depth of the analysis of sociological data.

Collection of sociological information, its analysis and use

The second stage of the study is called the “field stage”, since the zone of practical actions of sociologists is a field from which the harvest is harvested in the form of reliable and representative information. During the collection of information, various methods are used, each of which has its own characteristics. The main methods are survey, observation, analysis of documents, peer review, experiment, sociometry, measurement of social attitudes. The most common of them is a survey, with its help 90% of sociological information is collected.

The survey method was not invented by sociologists, it is actively used by doctors, lawyers, journalists, teachers, etc. It has a long tradition in sociology. The specificity of the survey lies primarily in the fact that when it is used, the source of primary sociological information is a person (respondent) - a direct participant in the studied social phenomena. There are two types of surveys - questionnaires and interviews. The advantages of the survey are: a) in the shortest possible time for collecting information; b) in the possibility of obtaining a variety of information; c) in the possibility of reaching large populations of people; d) in the breadth of coverage of various areas of social practice. And the imperfection lies in the possibility of information distortion due to the subjective perception and assessment of the social fact by the respondents.

The most common type of survey in the practice of applied sociology is questioning. It can be group or individual. The group method involves the presence of a sociologist and a group of 15-20 people, provides a 100% return of questionnaires, the possibility of consultations on the technique of filling out the questionnaire and control by the sociologist. Individual questioning involves the distribution of questionnaires to respondents for a certain period of time to fill out without the presence of the questionnaire. Checking the quality of filling is carried out in the course of returning the questionnaires.

Questionnaire- this is a system of questions united by a single research plan aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of an object. Compositionally, this is a scenario of a conversation with a respondent, including: 1) an introduction with the designation of the research topic, the purpose of the survey, the name of the organization conducting it and an explanation of the technique for filling out the questionnaire; 2) the plot - a psychological setting for cooperation, i.e. a block of simple questions aimed at interest of the interlocutor; 3) the main content part - a block of main questions that meet the purpose of the study; 4) a passport - a socio-demographic block of questions.

Questionnaire questions are classified according to content, form and function. By content, they are divided into questions about the facts of consciousness (identification of opinions, wishes, plans for the future); questions about the facts of behavior (identification of actions, results of activities); questions about the identity of the respondent.

Classification by form is a division: a) into open questions, designed for individual answers in writing without variations proposed by sociologists, and closed questions (with a set of answer options), in turn, subdivided into alternative (with a possible choice of one option) and non-alternative (with the allowance of the choice of several answers); b) to direct questions that require the respondent to take a critical attitude towards himself, to those around him or evaluate negative phenomena, and indirect questions that check the information of direct questions and supplement it.

By function, the questionnaire questions are divided into the main ones, aimed at the content of the phenomenon under study; not basic, identifying the addressee of questions, checking the sincerity of answers; contact (starting questions) and filtering, cutting off the circle of respondents from answers to a number of questions.

In order for the received primary sociological information to begin to actively serve, it must be processed, generalized, analyzed and scientifically interpreted. Only after these procedures will there be a real opportunity to formulate conclusions and practical recommendations, which will open sociological information to practice.

A brief commentary on this stage of the study:

Information processing is carried out manually or with the help of a computer, its result is sociological data, i.e. indicators of answers to questions in numerical and percentage terms.

The information is summarized by grouping those who answered the questions and through a series of distributions (including with the help of tables).

The analysis and interpretation of data is carried out within the framework of the theoretical processing of the information received and directly depends on the professionalism of sociologists, their hypotheses, the verification of which is carried out first of all.

The results of the work are poured into official documents: a report, an appendix to the report and an analytical report containing conclusions and recommendations.

The use of the results of sociological research depends on the relevance of the social problem under study, the analysis of the reliability of the information collected and the interest of society in it.

Literature

Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. M., Interpraks, 1995. - Ch. 6.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 14.

Sheregi F.A., Gorshkov M.K. Fundamentals of applied sociology. Textbook for high schools. M., 1995.

Test tasks on the topics of the course "Sociology"

Topic 1. Sociology as a science

1. What is the object of sociology?

1. society
2. Human
3. state

2. What does the word sociology mean?

1. humanitarian knowledge
2. the doctrine of society

3. What is the subject of sociology?

1. political relations
2. laws of development of the human community
3. social life

4. What word defines the position of a person in society, providing access to education, wealth, power, etc.?

1. status
2. job title

5. What is the name of the behavior expected from a person, due to his status?

1. status
2. profession

6. What approach allows dividing sociology into fundamental and applied sciences?

1. large-scale
2. meaningful
3. target

7. What is the applied function of sociology?

1. enrichment of sociological theory
2. providing specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems
3. creation of a methodological base for other sciences

8. How is the concept of "social" deciphered?

1. as relating to the lives of people in the course of their relationships
2. as the activity of people outside of production
3. as the relationship of people with nature

9. What is empiricism in sociology?

1. a complex of sociological research focused on the collection and analysis of real facts of social life using a special methodology
2. set of concepts about social development

10. What is the name of a sociology focused on practical use?

1. applied
2. theoretical
3. macrosociology

Topic 2. The evolution of sociological thought

1. When did sociology as a science emerge?

1. in the first third of the nineteenth century
2. during antiquity
3. in modern times

2. Who introduced the word "sociology" into scientific circulation?

1. K. Marx
2. O.Kont
3. M. Weber

1. G.Spencer
2. K. Marx
3. T. Parsons

4. Which of the sociologists of the 19th century explained social development as a change in socio-economic formations?

1. M. Weber
2. K. Marx
3. E. Durkheim

5. What is the name of a rational approach in the study of society, based on observation, comparison, experiment?

1. methodology
2. positivism
3. phenomenology

6. Followers of which direction recognize only two forms of knowledge - empirical and logical?

1. positivism
2. phenomenology

7. Humanitarianism approaches society through

1. experiment
2. understanding
3. logical analysis

8. Ideography is

1. study of individual phenomena and events
2. knowledge of the general laws of the development of society

9. Which paradigm sees society as a relatively stable system of interconnected parts?

1. structural-functional
2. conflict-radical
3. symbolic interactionism

10. What paradigm considers society at the micro level?

1. symbolic interactionism
2. structural functionalism

Topic 3. Features of the development of domestic sociology

1. What determined the inconsistency of sociological thought in Russia?

1. identity of the country
2. duality of origins

2. What direction did the views of N. Danilevsky represent?

1. positivism
2. humanitarianism

3. In the study of what problems did P. Sorokin make a huge contribution?

1. social anomie
2. social darwinism
3. theory of social stratification and social mobility

4. In pre-revolutionary Russia coexisted

1. three main directions
2. five main directions
3. many scientific fields

5. The institutionalization of sociology takes place in Russia in

1. 1920s
2. at the beginning of the century
3. in the 40s of the twentieth century

6. The declaration of sociology as a bourgeois pseudoscience was connected

1. with the emergence of a new science of society
2. with the mistakes of science itself
3. with the advent of totalitarianism

7. In the 60s of the twentieth century, science develops:

1. empirical research
2. theoretical developments

8. When was the recognition of sociology in the USSR?

1. during the years of stagnation
2. during the years of perestroika
3. after the collapse of the USSR

Topic 4. Society as an object of study in sociology

1. The concept of society in sociology

1. varies depending on the approach of the researcher
2. is an unchanging universally recognized category

2. The identification of society and the state was characteristic of the views:

1. Aristotle
2. Plato

3. Who owns the development of the theory of "social contract"?

1. Confucius
2. I.Kantu
3. T. Hobbes

4. What is the specificity of A. Smith's definition of society?

1. humanitarian approach
2. economic approach
3. philosophical approach

5. The idea of ​​civil society belongs to

1. G. Hegel
2. O.Kontu
3. G. Spencer

6. In modern sociology, society means:

1. all sentient beings on the planet
2. people interacting in a certain territory and having a common culture

7. Culture is

1. a set of symbols, norms, attitudes, values ​​inherent in a given social group and passed down from generation to generation
2. a collection of works of literature, music, painting, etc.

8. What type of theories are positivism, Marxism, technological determinism theories?

1. regression theories
2. theories of progress

9. What approach to the periodization of the development of society is characteristic of Marxist sociology?

1. civilizational
2. formational

10. What underlies the typology of societies according to Karl Marx?

1. mode of production
2. level of development of engineering and technology
3. level of cultural development

Topic 5. The social structure of society

1. Society is a system

1. natural
2. social

2. What is the main characteristic of primary social groups?

1. close emotional connection
2. having a leader
3. distribution of statuses and roles

3. Family refers to

1. secondary groups
2. primary groups

4. A set of roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs is:

1. social institution
2. social group
3. social community

5. What type of institutions does the higher education system belong to?

1. policy institutions
2. to economic institutions
3. to spiritual institutions

6. Why do people join voluntary organizations?

1. to receive financial reward
2. for moral satisfaction

7. What type of organization do hospitals predominantly belong to?

1. forced
2. voluntary

8. Rational organizations are:

1. non-bureaucratic organizations
2. bureaucratic organizations

Topic 6. Social stratification

1. Social stratification is -

1. differences between people
2. division of people by country
3. structured inequalities between different groups of people

2. What is the main characteristic of the location of strata in society?

1. equality
2. hierarchy

3. What does the word "strata" mean?

1. group
2. Class

4. Groups of signs that differentiate people, singled out

1. O.Kont
2. T. Parsons
3. E. Durkheim

5. Social inequality based on ethnicity is called

1. nationalism
2. racism

6. In empirical research, prestige is defined as:

1. the role of man in society
2. degree of wealth
3. index of socio-economic position

7. In what case do biological differences acquire the character of social inequality?

1. if they interfere with communication
2. if they divide people into capable and incapable
3. if they become the basis of discrimination against groups of people

8. Changing the position of an individual or group in the system of social stratification is called:

1. professional growth
2. social mobility
3. age-related changes

9. What type of mobility can be attributed to the situation when the parents are peasants, and the son is an academician?

1. to intergenerational mobility
2. upward mobility
3. horizontal mobility

10. The essence of stratification is

1. division of society into classes
2. unequal distribution of sociocultural benefits and values
3. in the distribution of power

Topic 7. Types of social stratification

1. What does a closed society mean, from the point of view of the theory of stratification?

1. in this society status is given from birth
2. this society is difficult to penetrate
3. This society has strict rules of conduct.

2. An example of caste division is:

1. India
2. Japan

3. Class stratification characterizes:

1. open society
2. closed society

4. What is the main difference between estate and caste stratification?

1. mobility limited but possible
2. the estate system was in Europe
3. class stratification is not related to religion

5. Classes depend on:

1. socio-political beliefs
2. class position of the family
3. economic differences between groups of people

6. Class stratification characterizes:

1. closed society
2. open society

7. What is the main class-forming feature according to K. Marx?

1. relation to the means of production
2. degree of wealth
3. nature of work

8. What is the specificity of M. Weber's stratification approach?

1. class denial
2. three-dimensional stratification

9. In modern civilized countries, there are:

1. three main classes
2. more than three classes
3. many classes

10. The working class includes:

1. people doing manual labor
2. poor, disadvantaged people

Topic 8. Ethnosociology

1. Today on Earth lives:

1. about four thousand ethnic groups
2. about ten thousand ethnic groups
3. about three thousand ethnic groups

2. The main unit of classification of all the peoples of the world:

1. ethnos
2. nationality
3. a country

3. The unity of the territory for the existence of an ethnic group is:

1. optional
2. mandatory

4. Is religion a self-sufficient sign of an ethnic group?

5. The word "ethnos" means

1. people
2. family
3. nationality

6. Modern sociology understands the nation

1. fellow citizenship
2. people of the same nationality

7. The process of the emergence of individual peoples is called

1. consortium
2. ethnogenesis
3. adaptation

8. The process of interaction of ethnic cultures, involving the assimilation of the language, culture, ethnic identity of another ethnic group is called

1. association
2. assimilation
3. merger

9. The desire for isolation, separation of a part of the state or a separate ethnic group is defined by the concept

1. segregation
2. apartheid
3. separatism

10. Ethnic identity is:

1. knowledge of ethnic history
2. knowledge of the ethnic language
3. feeling of belonging to a given ethnic group

Topic 9. Sociology of personality

1. In sociology, the concepts of man, individual, personality are identical?

2. Personality is:

1. every single individual
2. outstanding person
3. human social modification

3. Sociological approach highlights in personality

1. social-typical
2. individual characteristics

4. From the point of view of what concept is self-consciousness the core of personality?

1. concept of "mirror self"
2. role concept

5. Person by personality

1. is born
2. becomes

6. The process of forming common stable personality traits is called

1. education
2. upbringing
3. socialization

7. Social norms and values ​​become an element of a person's inner world at the phase

1. adaptation
2. interiorization

8. What is deviant behavior?

1. deviation from the group norm
2. criminal behavior
3. obedience to general rules

9. What is the main characteristic of social norms?

1. relativity
2. sustainability
3. impermanence

10. Social control is:

1. activities of internal affairs bodies
2. society's efforts to prevent deviation
3. education of members of society

Topic 10. Fundamentals of applied sociology

1. The Soviet school of applied sociology was born:

1. in the 80s.
2. in the 30s.
3. in the 60s.

2. Specific sociological research is:

1. way of solving urgent social problems
2. means of obtaining information

3. What is the name of a person participating in a sociological study as a carrier of information?

1. respondent
2. interviewer
3. sociologist

4. Sample is:

1. population micromodel selection method
2. identification of all carriers of sociological information

5. What is the most common method of collecting sociological information

1. questioning
2. survey
3. observation

6. Questionnaire is used for:

1. gathering information about specific individuals
2. collecting information about mass social phenomena

7. What is the name of the property of a sample to represent the characteristics of the general population?

1. representativeness
2. validity
3. modeling

8. If the questionnaire offers answers to the question posed, then the question is called:

1. open
2. closed