After the death of Stalin, he headed the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Who was the president of the USSR and the Russian Federation

General Secretaries of the USSR in chronological order

General secretaries of the USSR in chronological order. Today they are simply part of history, but once upon a time their faces were familiar to every single inhabitant of the vast country. The political system in the Soviet Union was such that citizens did not elect their leaders. The decision to appoint the next secretary general was made by the ruling elite. But, nevertheless, the people respected government leaders and, for the most part, took this state of affairs as a given.

Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Stalin)

Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, better known as Stalin, was born on December 18, 1879 in the Georgian city of Gori. Became the first General Secretary of the CPSU. He received this position in 1922, when Lenin was still alive, and until the latter’s death he played a minor role in government.

When Vladimir Ilyich died, a serious struggle began for the highest post. Many of Stalin's competitors had a much better chance of taking over, but thanks to tough, uncompromising actions, Joseph Vissarionovich managed to emerge victorious. Most of the other applicants were physically destroyed, and some left the country.

In just a few years of rule, Stalin took the entire country into a tight grip. By the beginning of the 30s, he finally established himself as the sole leader of the people. The dictator's policies went down in history:

· mass repressions;

· total dispossession;

· collectivization.

For this, Stalin was branded by his own followers during the “thaw”. But there is also something for which Joseph Vissarionovich, according to historians, is worthy of praise. This is, first of all, the rapid transformation of a collapsed country into an industrial and military giant, as well as the victory over fascism. It is quite possible that if the “cult of personality” had not been so condemned by everyone, these achievements would have been unrealistic. Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin died on the fifth of March 1953.

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was born on April 15, 1894 in the Kursk province (Kalinovka village) into a simple working-class family. He took part in the Civil War, where he took the side of the Bolsheviks. Member of the CPSU since 1918. At the end of the 30s he was appointed secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine.

Khrushchev headed the Soviet state shortly after Stalin's death. At first, he had to compete with Georgy Malenkov, who also aspired to the highest position and at that time was actually the leader of the country, presiding over the Council of Ministers. But in the end, the coveted chair still remained with Nikita Sergeevich.

When Khrushchev was secretary general, the Soviet country:

· launched the first man into space and developed this area in every possible way;

· was actively built up with five-story buildings, today called “Khrushchev”;

· planted the lion's share of the fields with corn, for which Nikita Sergeevich was even nicknamed “the corn farmer.”

This ruler went down in history primarily with his legendary speech at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, where he condemned Stalin and his bloody policies. From that moment on, the so-called “thaw” began in the Soviet Union, when the grip of the state was loosened, cultural figures received some freedom, etc. All this lasted until Khrushchev was removed from his post on October 14, 1964.

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was born in the Dnepropetrovsk region (village of Kamenskoye) on December 19, 1906. His father was a metallurgist. Member of the CPSU since 1931. He took the main post of the country as a result of a conspiracy. It was Leonid Ilyich who led the group of members of the Central Committee that removed Khrushchev.

The Brezhnev era in the history of the Soviet state is characterized as stagnation. The latter manifested itself as follows:

· the country's development has stopped in almost all areas except military-industrial;

· The USSR began to seriously lag behind Western countries;

· citizens again felt the grip of the state, repression and persecution of dissidents began.

Leonid Ilyich tried to improve relations with the United States, which had worsened during the time of Khrushchev, but he was not very successful. The arms race continued, and after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, it was impossible to even think about any reconciliation. Brezhnev held a high post until his death, which occurred on November 10, 1982.

Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov

Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov was born in the station town of Nagutskoye (Stavropol Territory) on June 15, 1914. His father was a railway worker. Member of the CPSU since 1939. He was active, which contributed to his rapid rise up the career ladder.

At the time of Brezhnev's death, Andropov headed the State Security Committee. He was elected by his comrades to the highest post. The reign of this Secretary General covers a period of less than two years. During this time, Yuri Vladimirovich managed to fight a little against corruption in power. But he didn’t accomplish anything drastic. On February 9, 1984, Andropov died. The reason for this was a serious illness.

Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko

Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko was born in 1911 on September 24 in the Yenisei province (village of Bolshaya Tes). His parents were peasants. Member of the CPSU since 1931. Since 1966 - deputy of the Supreme Council. Appointed General Secretary of the CPSU on February 13, 1984.

Chernenko continued Andropov’s policy of identifying corrupt officials. He was in power for less than a year. The cause of his death on March 10, 1985 was also a serious illness.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev was born on March 2, 1931 in the North Caucasus (the village of Privolnoye). His parents were peasants. Member of the CPSU since 1952. He proved himself to be an active public figure. He quickly moved up the party line.

He was appointed Secretary General on March 11, 1985. He entered history with the policy of “perestroika,” which included the introduction of glasnost, the development of democracy, and the provision of certain economic freedoms and other liberties to the population. Gorbachev's reforms led to mass unemployment, the liquidation of state-owned enterprises, and a total shortage of goods. This causes an ambiguous attitude towards the ruler on the part of citizens of the former USSR, which collapsed precisely during the reign of Mikhail Sergeevich.

But in the West, Gorbachev is one of the most respected Russian politicians. He was even awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Gorbachev was Secretary General until August 23, 1991, and headed the USSR until December 25 of the same year.

All deceased general secretaries of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics are buried near the Kremlin wall. Their list was completed by Chernenko. Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev is still alive. In 2017, he turned 86 years old.

Photos of the secretaries general of the USSR in chronological order

Stalin

Khrushchev

Brezhnev

Andropov

Chernenko

Image caption The royal family hid the illness of the heir to the throne

Disputes about the state of health of President Vladimir Putin bring to mind the Russian tradition: the first person was considered as an earthly deity, which was disrespectful and should not be remembered in vain.

Possessing virtually unlimited lifelong power, the rulers of Russia fell ill and died like mere mortals. They say that in the 1950s, one of the liberal-minded young “stadium poets” once said: “They only have no control over heart attacks!”

Discussion of the personal lives of leaders, including their physical condition, was prohibited. Russia is not America, where analysis data of presidents and presidential candidates and their blood pressure figures are published.

Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich, as you know, suffered from congenital hemophilia - a hereditary disease in which the blood does not clot normally, and any injury can lead to death from internal hemorrhage.

The only person capable of improving his condition in some way still incomprehensible to science was Grigory Rasputin, who was, in modern terms, a strong psychic.

Nicholas II and his wife categorically did not want to make public the fact that their only son was actually disabled. Even the ministers only knew in general terms that the Tsarevich had health problems. Ordinary people, seeing the heir during rare public appearances in the arms of a hefty sailor, considered him a victim of an assassination attempt by terrorists.

Whether Alexey Nikolaevich would subsequently be able to lead the country or not is unknown. His life was cut short by a KGB bullet when he was less than 14 years old.

Vladimir Lenin

Image caption Lenin was the only Soviet leader whose health was an open secret

The founder of the Soviet state died unusually early, at 54, from progressive atherosclerosis. An autopsy showed cerebral vascular damage incompatible with life. There were rumors that the development of the disease was provoked by untreated syphilis, but there is no evidence of this.

Lenin suffered his first stroke, which resulted in partial paralysis and loss of speech, on May 26, 1922. After this, he spent more than a year and a half at his dacha in Gorki in a helpless state, interrupted by short remissions.

Lenin is the only Soviet leader whose physical condition was not a secret. Medical bulletins were published regularly. At the same time, his comrades-in-arms assured him until his last days that the leader would recover. Joseph Stalin, who visited Lenin in Gorki more often than other members of the leadership, published optimistic reports in Pravda about how he and Ilyich cheerfully joked about reinsurance doctors.

Joseph Stalin

Image caption Stalin's illness was reported the day before his death

In recent years, the “Leader of Nations” suffered from severe damage to the cardiovascular system, probably aggravated by an unhealthy lifestyle: he worked a lot, turning night into day, ate fatty and spicy foods, smoked and drank, and did not like to be examined and treated.

According to some reports, the “doctors’ affair” began when professor-cardiologist Kogan advised a high-ranking patient to get more rest. The suspicious dictator saw this as someone’s attempt to remove him from business.

Having started the “doctors’ case,” Stalin was left without qualified medical care at all. Even those closest to him could not talk to him about this topic, and he intimidated the staff so much that after a stroke that happened on March 1, 1953 at the Nizhny Dacha, he lay on the floor for several hours, since he had previously forbidden the guards to disturb him without calling him.

Even after Stalin turned 70, public discussion of his health and forecasts of what would happen to the country after his departure were absolutely impossible in the USSR. The idea that we would ever be left “without him” was considered blasphemous.

The people were first informed about Stalin's illness the day before his death, when he had long been unconscious.

Leonid Brezhnev

Image caption Brezhnev "ruled without regaining consciousness"

In recent years, Leonid Brezhnev, as people joked, “ruled without regaining consciousness.” The very possibility of such jokes confirmed that after Stalin the country had changed a lot.

The 75-year-old Secretary General had plenty of aging diseases. Mention was made, in particular, of sluggish leukemia. However, it is difficult to say what exactly he died from.

Doctors spoke of a general weakening of the body caused by the abuse of sedatives and sleeping pills and causing memory loss, loss of coordination and speech disorder.

In 1979, Brezhnev lost consciousness during a Politburo meeting.

“You know, Mikhail,” Yuri Andropov said to Mikhail Gorbachev, who had just been transferred to Moscow and was not accustomed to such scenes, “we must do everything to support Leonid Ilyich in this situation. This is a question of stability.”

Brezhnev was politically killed by television. In earlier times, his condition could have been hidden, but in the 1970s it was impossible to avoid regularly appearing on screen, including live television.

The obvious inadequacy of the leader, combined with the complete lack of official information, caused an extremely negative reaction from society. Instead of pitying the sick person, the people responded with jokes and anecdotes.

Yuri Andropov

Image caption Andropov suffered from kidney damage

Yuri Andropov suffered from severe kidney damage for most of his life, from which he eventually died.

The disease caused increased blood pressure. In the mid-1960s, Andropov was intensively treated for hypertension, but this did not produce results, and there was a question about his retirement due to disability.

Kremlin doctor Yevgeny Chazov made a dizzying career thanks to the fact that he gave the head of the KGB the correct diagnosis and gave him about 15 years of active life.

In June 1982, at the plenum of the Central Committee, when the speaker called from the podium to “give a party assessment” to the spreaders of rumors, Andropov unexpectedly intervened and said in a harsh tone that he was “for the last time warning” those who talk too much in conversations with foreigners. According to researchers, he meant, first of all, leaks of information about his health.

In September, Andropov went on vacation to Crimea, caught a cold there and never got out of bed. In the Kremlin hospital, he regularly underwent hemodialysis - a blood purification procedure using equipment that replaces the normal functioning of the kidneys.

Unlike Brezhnev, who once fell asleep and did not wake up, Andropov died long and painfully.

Konstantin Chernenko

Image caption Chernenko rarely appeared in public and spoke breathlessly

After Andropov's death, the need to give the country a young, dynamic leader was obvious to everyone. But the old members of the Politburo nominated 72-year-old Konstantin Chernenko, who was formally the No. 2 man, as general secretary.

As the former Minister of Health of the USSR Boris Petrovsky later recalled, they all thought exclusively about how to die at their posts; they had no time for the country, and even more so, no time for reforms.

Chernenko had been suffering from pulmonary emphysema for a long time, while heading the state, he hardly worked, rarely appeared in public, spoke, choking and swallowing his words.

In August 1983, he suffered severe poisoning after eating fish on vacation in Crimea, which he had personally caught and smoked from his dacha neighbor, USSR Minister of Internal Affairs Vitaly Fedorchuk. Many were treated to the gift, but nothing bad happened to anyone else.

Konstantin Chernenko died on March 10, 1985. Three days earlier, elections to the Supreme Soviet were held in the USSR. The television showed the Secretary General walking up to the ballot box with an unsteady gait, dropping a ballot into it, languidly waving his hand and muttering: “Okay.”

Boris Yeltsin

Image caption Yeltsin, as far as is known, suffered five heart attacks

Boris Yeltsin suffered from severe heart disease and reportedly suffered five heart attacks.

The first president of Russia was always proud of the fact that nothing bothered him, he went in for sports, swam in icy water and largely built his image on this, and was accustomed to endure ailments on his feet.

Yeltsin's health deteriorated sharply in the summer of 1995, but with elections ahead, he refused extensive treatment, although doctors warned of "irreparable harm to his health." According to journalist Alexander Khinshtein, he said: “After the elections, at least cut them, but now leave me alone.”

On June 26, 1996, a week before the second round of elections, Yeltsin suffered a heart attack in Kaliningrad, which was hidden with great difficulty.

On August 15, immediately after taking office, the president went to the clinic where he underwent coronary artery bypass surgery. This time he conscientiously followed all the doctors’ instructions.

In conditions of freedom of speech, it was difficult to hide the truth about the state of health of the head of state, but those around him tried their best. In extreme cases, it was recognized that he had ischemia and temporary colds. Press secretary Sergei Yastrzhembsky said that the president rarely appears in public because he is extremely busy working with documents, but his handshake is ironclad.

Separately, the issue of Boris Yeltsin’s relationship with alcohol should be mentioned. Political opponents constantly discussed this topic. One of the main slogans of the communists during the 1996 campaign was: “Instead of the drunken Elya, we will choose Zyuganov!”

Meanwhile, Yeltsin appeared in public “under the influence” the only time - during the famous conducting of the orchestra in Berlin.

The former head of the presidential security, Alexander Korzhakov, who had no reason to defend his former boss, wrote in his memoirs that in September 1994, in Shannon, Yeltsin did not get off the plane to meet with the Prime Minister of Ireland not because of intoxication, but because of a heart attack. After a quick consultation, the advisers decided that people should believe the “alcoholic” version rather than admit that the leader was seriously ill.

Resignation, regime and peace had a beneficial effect on Boris Yeltsin’s health. He lived in retirement for almost eight years, although in 1999, according to doctors, he was in serious condition.

Is it worth hiding the truth?

According to experts, illness is, of course, not a plus for a statesman, but in the era of the Internet, hiding the truth is pointless, and with skillful PR, you can even extract political dividends from it.

As an example, analysts point to Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, who made good publicity out of his fight against cancer. Supporters got a reason to be proud that their idol does not burn in the fire and even in the face of illness thinks about the country, and they rallied around him even more.

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR Joseph Stalin died on March 5 at 21:50. From March 6 to 9, the country was plunged into mourning. The coffin with the leader’s body was exhibited in Moscow in the Hall of Columns of the House of Unions. About one and a half million people took part in the mourning events.

To maintain public order, troops were deployed to the capital. However, the authorities did not expect such an incredible influx of people wishing to see Stalin off on his last journey. According to various sources, the victims of the crush on the day of the funeral, March 9, were from 300 to 3 thousand people.

“Stalin entered Russian history as a symbol of greatness. The main achievements of the Stalin era were industrialization, victory in the Great Patriotic War and the creation of the nuclear bomb. The foundation that the leader left allowed the country to achieve nuclear parity with the United States and launch rockets into space,” said Dmitry Zhuravlev, Doctor of Historical Sciences and political scientist, in a conversation with RT.

At the same time, according to the expert, the Soviet people paid a huge price for great achievements during the Stalin era (1924-1953). The most negative phenomena, according to Zhuravlev, were collectivization, political repression, labor camps (the Gulag system) and gross neglect of basic human needs.

The mystery of the leader's death

Stalin was distinguished by a pathological distrust of doctors and neglected their recommendations. Serious deterioration in the leader’s health began in 1948. The last public speech of the Soviet leader took place on October 14, 1952, at which he summed up the results of the 19th Congress of the CPSU.

• Joseph Stalin speaks at the final meeting of the 19th Congress of the CPSU
• RIA News

The last years of his life, Stalin spent a lot of time at his “nearby dacha” in Kuntsevo. On March 1, 1953, the leader was found motionless by state security officers. They reported this to Lavrenty Beria, Georgy Malenkov and Nikita Khrushchev.

No prompt medical assistance was provided to Stalin. Doctors came to examine him only on March 2. What happened in the first days of March at the “nearby dacha” is a mystery for historians. The question of whether the leader’s life could have been saved still remains unanswered.

The son of Nikita Khrushchev is sure that Stalin became “a victim of his own system.” His associates and doctors were afraid to do anything, although it was obvious that the leader was in critical condition. According to official information, Stalin was diagnosed with a stroke. The illness was not announced, but on March 4 the party leadership, apparently anticipating the imminent death of the leader, decided to break the silence.

• A line of people wishing to say goodbye to Joseph Stalin outside the House of Unions, Moscow
• RIA News

“On the night of March 2, 1953, at I.V. Stalin suffered a sudden cerebral hemorrhage, which involved vital areas of the brain, resulting in paralysis of the right leg and right arm with loss of consciousness and speech,” said an article in the Pravda newspaper.

"Similar to a palace coup"

Retired KGB colonel and counterintelligence officer Igor Prelin believes that the leader’s entourage understood the inevitability of his imminent death and were not interested in Stalin’s recovery.

“These people were interested in him (Stalin. —RT) rather left, for two reasons. They feared for their position and well-being, that he would remove them, remove them and repress them. And secondly, of course, they themselves were striving for power. They understood that Stalin's days were numbered. It was clear that this was the final,” Prelin said in an interview.

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The main contenders for the role of leader of the Soviet state were the former head of the NKVD Lavrentiy Beria, deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers Georgy Malenkov, first secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee Nikita Khrushchev and member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee, Marshal Nikolai Bulganin.

During Stalin's illness, the party leadership redistributed senior government positions. It was decided that the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, which belonged to the leader, would be taken by Malenkov, Khrushchev would become the first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee (the highest position in the party hierarchy), Beria would receive the portfolio of Minister of Internal Affairs, and Bulganin - Minister of Defense.

The reluctance of Beria, Malenkov, Khrushchev and Bulganin to save the life of the leader by all possible means and the redistribution of government posts gave rise to a widespread version of the existence of an anti-Stalin conspiracy. The conspiracy against the leader was objectively beneficial to the party leadership, Zhuravlev believes.

• Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Lavrenty Beria, Matvey Shkiryatov (in the first row from right to left), Georgy Malenkov and Andrei Zhdanov (in the second row from right to left)
• RIA News

“Hypothetically, some semblance of a palace coup was possible, since open opposition to the leader was completely excluded. Nevertheless, the theory of conspiracy and Stalin’s violent death did not receive concrete evidence. Any versions on this matter are private opinions, not based on documentary evidence,” Zhuravlev stated in a conversation with RT.

The collapse of the main contender

The post-Stalin regime in 1953-1954 is often referred to as “collegial management”. Powers in the state were distributed among several party bosses. However, historians agree that under the beautiful screen of “collegial management” there was hidden a fierce struggle for absolute leadership.

Malenkov, being the curator of the most important defense projects of the USSR, had close ties with the country's military elite (Marshal Georgy Zhukov is considered one of Malenkov's supporters). Beria had enormous influence on the security agencies - the key institutions of power in the Stalin era. Khrushchev enjoyed the sympathy of the party apparatus and was perceived as a compromise figure. Bulganin had the weakest position.

At the funeral, the first to carry the coffin with the leader out of the House of Trade Unions were Beria (left) and Malenkov (right). On the podium of the mausoleum in which Stalin was buried (in 1961 the leader was reburied near the Kremlin wall), Beria stood in the center, between Malenkov and Khrushchev. This symbolized his dominant position at that time.

Beria united the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of State Security under his authority. On March 19, he replaced almost all the heads of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the union republics and regions of the RSFSR.

However, Beria did not abuse his power. It is noteworthy that his political program coincided with the democratic initiatives expressed by Malenkov and Khrushchev. Oddly enough, it was Lavrenty Pavlovich who began the review of the criminal cases of those citizens who were accused of anti-Soviet conspiracies.

On March 27, 1953, the Minister of Internal Affairs signed the decree “On Amnesty.” The document allowed for the release from prison of citizens convicted of official and economic crimes. In total, more than 1.3 million people were released from prison, and criminal proceedings were terminated against 401 thousand citizens.

Despite these steps, Beria was strongly associated with the repressions that were carried out during the Stalin era. On June 26, 1953, the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs was summoned to a meeting of the Council of Ministers and detained, accusing him of espionage, falsification of criminal cases and abuse of power.

His closest associates were caught in sabotage activities. On December 24, 1953, the Special Judicial Presence of the Supreme Court of the USSR sentenced Beria and his supporters to death. The ex-Minister of Internal Affairs was shot in the bunker of the headquarters of the Moscow Military District. After the death of the main contender for power, about ten functionaries who were part of the “Beria gang” were arrested and convicted.

Triumph of Khrushchev

The elimination of Beria became possible thanks to the alliance of Malenkov and Khrushchev. In 1954, a struggle broke out between the head of the Council of Ministers and the first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

• Georgy Malenkov
• RIA News

Malenkov advocated eliminating the excesses of the Stalinist system both in politics and economics. He called for leaving the cult of personality of the leader in the past, improving the situation of collective farmers and focusing on the production of consumer goods.

Malenkov's fatal mistake was his indifferent attitude towards the party and state apparatus. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers reduced the salaries of officials and repeatedly accused the bureaucracy of “complete neglect of the needs of the people.”

“The main problem of Stalinism for the leaders of the CPSU was that anyone could fall under the steamroller of repression. The party apparatus is tired of this unpredictability. He needed guarantees of a stable existence. This is exactly what Nikita Khrushchev promised. In my opinion, it was this approach that became the key to his victory,” said Zhuravlev.

In January 1955, the head of the USSR government was criticized by Khrushchev and his party comrades for failures in economic policy. On February 8, 1955, Malenkov resigned as head of the Council of Ministers and received the portfolio of Minister of Power Plants, retaining his membership in the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee. Malenkov's post was taken by Nikolai Bulganin, and Georgy Zhukov became Minister of Defense.

Such an attitude towards a political rival was intended to emphasize the beginning of a new era, where a gentle attitude towards the Soviet nomenklatura reigns. Nikita Khrushchev became its symbol.

"Hostage of the system"

In 1956, at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, Khrushchev made a famous speech about debunking the cult of personality. The period of his reign is called the Thaw. From the mid-1950s to the early 1960s, hundreds of thousands of political prisoners received freedom, and the labor camp system (GULAG) was completely dismantled.

• Joseph Stalin and Nikita Khrushchev greet the participants of the May Day demonstration on the podium of the Mausoleum of V.I. Lenin
• RIA News

“Khrushchev was able to become one of his own for the apparatus. Debunking Stalinism, he said that the leaders of the Bolshevik Party should not have been subject to repression. However, in the end, Khrushchev became a hostage to the management system he himself created,” Zhuravlev stated.

As the expert explained, Khrushchev was excessively harsh when communicating with his subordinates. He traveled a lot around the country and, in personal meetings with the first secretaries of regional committees, subjected them to severe criticism, making, in fact, the same mistakes as Malenkov. In October 1964, the party nomenklatura removed Khrushchev from the post of first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and chairman of the Council of Ministers.

“Khrushchev took smart steps to become the leader of the USSR for some time. However, he did not intend to radically change the Stalinist system. Nikita Sergeevich limited himself to correcting the most obvious shortcomings of his predecessor,” Zhuravlev noted.

• First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Nikita Khrushchev
• RIA News

According to the expert, the key problem of the Stalinist system was the requirement of constant labor and military feats from Soviet people. Most of the projects of Stalin and Khrushchev benefited the USSR, but the personal needs of citizens were given catastrophically little attention.

“Yes, under Khrushchev the elite and society breathed more freely. However, man still remained a means to achieve grandiose goals. People are tired of the endless pursuit of records, they are tired of calls for self-sacrifice and the expectation of the onset of a communist paradise. This problem was one of the key reasons for the subsequent collapse of Soviet statehood,” concluded Zhuravlev.

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• Saving a day on the purchase, while officially receiving a diploma with posting in St. Petersburg costs much more than a finished document.
• Official proof of study at a higher education institution in the specialty you require.
• Having a higher education in St. Petersburg will open all the roads for quick career advancement.

Russian history

Topic No. 20

USSR AFTER STALIN in the 1950s

LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY AFTER THE DEATH OF STALIN (1953–1955)

At the end 1952 MGB authorities arrested a large group Kremlin doctors, who were accused of deliberately killing the leaders of the party and state (in 1945 - 1st Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee and Chairman of the Sovinformburo Alexander Sergeevich Shcherbakov, in 1948 - Andrei Alexandrovich Zhdanov). Most of those arrested were Jews by nationality, which gave rise to the statement about “the discovery of a Zionist terrorist group of murderous doctors” “associated with the international Jewish bourgeois-nationalist organization “Joint”.” A TASS report about this was published in Pravda on January 13, 1953. Doctor Lydia Timashuk “exposed the wreckers” and was awarded the Order of Lenin for this (in April 1953, after Stalin’s death, the award decree was canceled “as incorrect”). The arrest of the doctors was supposed to be the end of the anti-Semitic campaign in the USSR: after the public execution of the killer doctors, bring down mass repressions on all Jews, deport them to Siberia, etc. The arrest of the doctors was carried out with the sanction of Stalin, among those arrested was Stalin’s personal doctor, Professor V.N. Vinogradov, who, having discovered a cerebral circulation disorder and multiple minor cerebral hemorrhages in the leader, said that Stalin needed to retire from active work. Stalin regarded this as a desire to deprive him of power (in 1922, he did the same with Lenin, isolating him in Gorki).

Organizers "doctors' affairs" were L.P. Beria and the new Minister of State Security S.D. Ignatiev, the executor was the head of the investigative unit of the MGB, Major Ryumin. In this way, Stalin was deprived of the help of the most qualified doctors, and the first serious hemorrhage in the brain became fatal for him.

(A month after Stalin’s death, a message from the Ministry of Internal Affairs was published about the verification of this case, about the illegality of the arrests, about the use of unacceptable investigative methods prohibited by Soviet laws in the MGB. The doctors were released, Major Ryumin was arrested and executed in the summer of 1954, six months after Beria. )

March 2, 1953 Stalin was struck by a blow at his dacha in Kuntsevo near Moscow, and for about half a day he was not given any help. Stalin's condition was hopeless (“Cheyne-Stokes breathing”). Without regaining consciousness, Stalin died at 21.50 March 5, 1953. From March 1953 to October 1961, Stalin's body was in the Mausoleum next to Lenin's body. On the day of the funeral (March 9), a stampede broke out in Moscow, hundreds of people died or were maimed.

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR(Stalin's successor as head of government) became Georgiy Maximilianovich Malenkov. His first deputies were L. P. Beria, V. M. Molotov, N. A. Bulganin and L. M. Kaganovich.

Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR(formally this was the position of the head of state) On March 15, at the session of the Supreme Council, it was approved Kliment Efremovich Voroshilov.

Ministry of Internal Affairs and MGB were merged within the framework of the new Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), the Minister of Internal Affairs again (after 1946) became Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria. In 1953, an amnesty was held, and many criminals were released (“Cold Summer of ’53”). The crime rate in the country increased sharply (a new surge after 1945–1947). Beria intended to use this situation to strengthen the powers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for his own purposes.

Minister of Foreign Affairs again (after 1949) became Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov(A. Ya. Vyshinsky, who held this position, was sent to the USA by the permanent representative of the USSR to the UN, where he died of a heart attack).

Minister of War remained (since 1947, replacing Stalin himself in this post). His first deputies were Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov and Alexander Mikhailovich Vasilevsky.

Thus, after the death of Stalin, the period of disgrace for V. M. Molotov, K. E. Voroshilov and G. K. Zhukov ended.

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was the only one of the secretaries of the Central Committee who was part of the highest party leadership - the Bureau of the Presidium. It was decided to relieve him of his duties as 1st Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee so that he could concentrate on his work in the Central Committee. In fact, Khrushchev became head the apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee, although he has not formally become First Secretary yet. G. M. Malenkov and L. P. Beria, actually leading the country after Stalin’s death, intended to concentrate power in the Council of Ministers - the government of the USSR. They needed the party apparatus to strictly implement government decisions. In Khrushchev they saw a simple performer who did not claim power. (They made the same mistake as Zinoviev and Kamenev, who in 1922 recommended Stalin for the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the RCP(b).)

Beria and Malenkov understood the need for changes in the country, but while maintaining the essence of the regime. Beria took the initiative to normalize relations with Yugoslavia, Malenkov called for taking care of the material and cultural needs of the people. But the leadership of the party and state was afraid that Beria, relying on the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, would sooner or later want to take all power into his own hands and eliminate all his rivals. The initiator of the elimination of Beria was Khrushchev. Malenkov was the last to agree to eliminate his friend Beria.

IN June 1953 Beria was arrested at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee in the Kremlin. The arrest was made by 6 officers led by Marshals Zhukov and Moskalenko. Before this, all the security in the Kremlin was replaced by the military, and Zhukov brought the Tamanskaya and Kantemirovskaya tank divisions into Moscow to prevent possible actions by the Ministry of Internal Affairs to free Beria. The people were informed that the Plenum of the Central Committee, held on July 2–7, exposed “the agent of the British and Musavatist (bourgeois Azerbaijani) intelligence services, the enemy of the people Beria,” who “earned trust” in the leadership of the party and state, sought to “put the Ministry of Internal Affairs over the party” and establish their personal power in the country. Beria was removed from all posts, expelled from the party, convicted by a military tribunal (chaired by Marshal I.S. Konev) and in the end December 1953 shot.

IN September 1953 Khrushchev was elected 1st Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The term “cult of personality” began to be mentioned in the press for the first time. They began publishing verbatim reports of the Central Committee Plenums (glasnost). The people got the opportunity to visit the Kremlin museums. The process of rehabilitation of innocently convicted people has begun. Khrushchev's popularity grew, the military and the party apparatus were behind him. In fact, Khrushchev became the first person in the state.

In 1955 Malenkov announced his unwillingness to take up the post of head of government. New Chairman Council of Ministers became Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin, and Malenkov became Minister of Power Plants.

Even Malenkov, in his first speeches as head of government, spoke about the need to increase the production of consumer goods (group “B”) and about the priority of group “B” over group “A” (production of means of production), about changing attitudes towards agriculture. Khrushchev criticized the rapid pace of development of Group B, saying that without powerful heavy industry it would be impossible to ensure the country's defense capability and the rise of agriculture. In the economy, the main one was the agrarian problem: there was a shortage of grain in the country, although Malenkov stated at the 19th Congress of the CPSU in 1952 that “the grain problem in the USSR has been solved.”

Task No. 1. Was G. M. Malenkov right when he spoke about the priority of group “B” over group “A”?

September (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee decided: increase purchase price for agricultural products (for meat - 5.5 times, for milk and butter - 2 times, for vegetables - 2 times and for grain - 1.5 times), take off debt from collective farms, reduce taxes on personal farms of collective farmers, not to redistribute income between collective farms (equalization was condemned). Khrushchev stated that improving the lives of the people is impossible without improving agriculture and improving the lives of collective farmers. Were mandatory supplies reduced agricultural products to the state, reduced(later cancelled) homestead taxes. This led to greater interest among collective farmers in production, and the supply of cities improved. The number of poultry on peasant farms increased and cows appeared. By the spring of 1954, 100 thousand certified specialists were sent to collective and state farms.

Touching upon the grain problem, Khrushchev said that Malenkov’s statement at the 19th Party Congress about its solution was not true, and that the shortage of grain was hampering the growth of production of meat, milk and butter. Solving the grain problem was possible in two ways: first - increase in yield, which required fertilizers and improved farming standards and would not give immediate returns, the second - expansion of cultivated areas.

In order to immediately increase grain production, it was decided to develop virgin and fallow lands in Kazakhstan, Southern Siberia, the Volga region and the Southern Urals. People landed right in the steppes, in off-road conditions, without basic amenities, lived in tents in the winter steppe, and lacked equipment.

February-March (1954) Plenum of the Central Committee approved the decision on development of virgin lands . Already in the spring of 1954, 17 million hectares of land were raised and 124 grain state farms were created. The leaders of Kazakhstan, who insisted on preserving traditional sheep farming, were replaced: Panteleimon Kondratyevich became the 1st Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan Ponomarenko, and the 2nd secretary is Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev. In 1954–1955 350 thousand people went to work in 425 virgin state farms on Komsomol vouchers. In the record year of 1956, virgin lands produced 40% of the country's total grain. At the same time, grain production in the arid steppes required a high level of farming and was highly dependent on weather conditions. Subsequently, extensive (without the introduction of scientific achievements and new technologies) farming methods led to the depletion of the fertile soil layer and a drop in yields due to wind erosion of the soil.

Thus, Khrushchev’s attempt to solve the grain problem within the framework of the collective farm system failed, but grain production increased, which made it possible to eliminate grain queues and begin the free sale of flour. However, there was not enough grain for the needs of livestock farming (for fattening beef cattle).

Task No. 2. Was the development of virgin lands in the USSR justified?
XX CONGRESS OF THE CPSU. ITS SOLUTIONS AND IMPORTANCE

C February 14 to 25, 1956 The 20th Congress of the CPSU took place, which determined the final turn towards de-Stalinization Soviet society, liberalization internal economic and political life, expansion of foreign policy relations and establishment friendly relations with a number of foreign countries

The report at the congress was made by Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev. Basic provisions international part of the report:

a) it has been established that it has formed and exists world socialist system(“socialist camp”);

b) a desire is expressed cooperation with everyone social democratic movements and parties (under Stalin, social democracy was considered the worst enemy of the labor movement, since it distracted workers from the revolutionary struggle with peaceful slogans);

c) it is stated that transition forms various countries to socialism can be diverse, including the possible way for communists and socialists to win a parliamentary majority based on the election results and carry out all the necessary socialist transformations in a peaceful, parliamentary way (under Stalin, such statements would have resulted in accusations of opportunism);

d) the principle is emphasized peaceful coexistence two systems (socialist and capitalist), strengthening trust and cooperation; socialism does not need to be exported: the working people of capitalist countries will themselves establish socialism when they are convinced of its advantages;

d) danger of war remains, but her there is no more inevitability, since the forces of peace (the socialist, labor movement, the countries of the “third world” - the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America) are stronger than the forces of war.

The report provided an analysis of the internal economic situation of the USSR and tasks in the field of economics have been set:

A) electrify the entire national economy, accelerate the electrification of railways;

b) create a powerful energy, metallurgical and machine-building base in Siberia and on Far East;

c) in the VI Five-Year Plan (1956–1960) increase production industrial products by 65%, catch up with developed capitalist countries in terms of production per capita;

G) in agriculture to bring the annual grain harvest to 11 billion poods (1 pood = 16 kg), to fully provide the country with potatoes and vegetables in 2 years, to double meat production in five years, focusing on development pig farming;

e) sharply increase crops corn, primarily to provide livestock with feed (Khrushchev, working after the war as 1st Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, saw that corn produces high yields; it was a mistake to spread corn crops in those areas where it had never been cultivated before and could not produce high harvests - in Belarus, the Baltic states, Tula, Leningrad regions, etc.); in 1953, there were 3.5 million hectares under corn, and in 1955 – already 17.9 million hectares.

Decisions of the XX Congress in the field of social policy:

a) transfer all workers and employees during the VI Five-Year Plan to a 7-hour working day with a 6-day working week; from 1957, begin transferring certain sectors of the economy to 5-day workweek with 8-hour workday;

b) increase the volume housing construction 2 times due to its transfer to an industrial footing (transition to large-panel housing construction, when house elements are produced at house-building plants and only assembled into a single whole at a construction site). Khrushchev called for the creation of a socialist architectural style - durable, economical, beautiful. This is how “Khrushchev” houses appeared with separate apartments of a small area, but they were also a great joy for those who moved there from communal apartments and post-war barracks;

c) Khrushchev called for an increase production of household appliances and to expansion catering networks to liberate the Soviet woman;

d) from September 1, 1956 was canceled introduced in 1940 tuition fee in high schools, technical schools and universities;

d) it was decided raise the salary low-paid workers by 30% and increase the minimum wage pensions up to 350 rub. (from February 1, 1961 - 35 rubles); It was considered advisable for the salaries of enterprise managers to depend on the results achieved.

In the report of the Central Committee, the name of Stalin was mentioned with respect: the report was approved by the Bureau of the Presidium of the Central Committee, in which the majority was against exposing the cult of personality, primarily V. M. Molotov, G. M. Malenkov, K. E. Voroshilov, L. M. Kaganovich, themselves involved in mass repressions. Khrushchev believed that it was necessary to tell the truth and repent in order to restore the trust of ordinary communists and ordinary people in the party leadership. Despite the objections of Stalin's associates, Khrushchev gathered on the evening of the last day of the congress (February 25) closed meeting, at which he made a report "On the cult of personality and its consequences", in which for the first time he openly linked “deviations from Leninist norms of party life” and what was happening in the country lawlessness and arbitrariness in the name of Stalin. Khrushchev’s speech was a courageous step, because he himself, unconditionally believing Stalin, signed sanctions for the destruction of “enemies of the people.”

The delegates to the congress learned for the first time about many things: about the characterization of Stalin given by Lenin in the addition to the “Letter to the Congress”; that most of the delegates to the 17th Party Congress (1934) were exterminated for “counter-revolutionary crimes”; that the confessions of many prominent figures of the party and state about their participation in sabotage and espionage were extracted from them under torture; about the falsification of Moscow trials in the 30s; about torture with the permission of the Party Central Committee (Stalin’s letter to the NKVD of 1937); that Stalin personally signed 383 “execution” lists; about violation of collective management norms; about Stalin’s gross miscalculations during the war, etc. By decision of the congress, a commission was formed to investigate the circumstances of the murder of Sergei Mironovich Kirov.

What we know today in every detail came as a shock to the delegates of the congress. Khrushchev's report was kept secret for the Soviet people until 1989, although it was immediately published in the West. The text of the report was read to the communists at closed party meetings; notes were not allowed. After such meetings, people were taken away with heart attacks. Many lost faith in what they lived for (the suicide of the writer Alexander Fadeev in 1956 was caused, in particular, by this circumstance). The lack of clarity in the assessment of the Stalinist regime led to a pro-Stalin demonstration of Georgian youth in Tbilisi in October 1956, which was shot.

Based on the decision of the XX Congress June 30, 1956 a resolution of the Central Committee was adopted “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences”. There, Stalin’s “individual mistakes” were condemned, but the system he created was not questioned; neither the names of those guilty of lawlessness (except Beria) nor the facts of lawlessness themselves were named. It was stated that the cult of personality could not change the nature of our system. After this decision began mass rehabilitation illegally repressed. They were released without returning the confiscated property and were given compensation in the amount of 2 months' earnings before arrest. Executioners and informers, meanwhile, continued to work in their places, avoiding punishment.

Task No. 3. What decisions of the XX Congress of the CPSU could not in principle be adopted under Stalin and why?
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE USSR

From the mid-50s. an era has begun scientific and technological revolution (STR). First of all, it was expressed in the use atomic energy for peaceful purposes, as well as in the development outer space. In 1954, the world's first Obninsk nuclear power plant was launched; in the late 50s. The nuclear icebreaker Lenin was put into operation. Scientific and technological revolution in the USSR developed within the framework military-industrial complex.

October 4, 1957 the first one was launched artificial satellite Earth. In the USSR, increasingly powerful ballistic missiles were developed and tested. After test flights of dogs Laika (without a lander), and then Belka and Strelki (returned to Earth) April 12, 1961 man flew into space for the first time - Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin(flew away as a senior lieutenant, after 108 minutes of flight - 1 orbit around the Earth - landed as a major).

The era of scientific and technological revolution was accompanied by qualitatively new disasters. In 1957, a radioactive release occurred at the Mayak plant in the Chelyabinsk region, and the radioactive trace was not eliminated, and the consequences of the contamination are still felt. In 1960, a ballistic missile exploded at launch. Marshal M.I. Nedelin, several generals, hundreds of engineers, soldiers, and officers were burned alive.

The oil and gas industry developed rapidly, and oil and gas pipelines were built. Priority was given to the construction of ferrous metallurgy enterprises.

In the mid-50s. It became clear that over-centralized economic management, when any minor issues are resolved only at the ministry level, does not justify itself and slows down the development of production. In addition, the ministries duplicated each other's activities. Cross-transportation of the same goods was carried out through different ministries. In 1957, the economic council reform began . The entire territory of the USSR was divided into 105 economic regions, in each of which territorial economic management bodies were established - national economic councils (economic councils). Each economic council included one or more regions and developed as a single economic system, devoid of departmental contradictions. Economic councils received the right independent planning, could establish mutual direct economic ties. The need for the existence of large all-Union ministries disappeared, about 60 ministries were eliminated, their functions were transferred to economic councils; There were only 10 most important ones that could not be divided (Ministry of Defense, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Communications, Communications, etc.).

In 1957–1958, when the ministries had already been abolished and the economic councils had not yet been formed, the national economy worked most efficiently, as it was out of the control and tutelage of the expanding bureaucratic apparatus. Dissatisfaction with the economic council reform was primarily expressed by officials who lost their positions. Gradually, workers from the abolished ministries became part of the apparatus of economic councils or sectoral departments of the State Planning Committee, and the size of the bureaucratic apparatus that managed the economy remained virtually unchanged.

Task No. 4. What are the positive and negative aspects of the economic council reform in the USSR?

At enterprises in the 50s. appeared communist labor brigades, but the incentives were still only moral (a pennant for winning the competition), the salary was time-based - almost the same for both the leaders and the laggards.

In the field of agriculture, the reform consisted of 1958 all equipment of state machine and tractor stations (MTS) was mandatory sold to collective farms. Only large, wealthy farms benefited from this, as it was convenient and profitable for them to maintain their own equipment. Most of the rest did not have the funds to either buy equipment or maintain it, so when they were forced to buy equipment, they found themselves on the verge of ruin. In addition, machine operators did not want to move along with their equipment to collective farms and looked for another job in the city so as not to worsen their standard of living. The debts of bankrupt collective farms were written off and they were turned into state farms - state agricultural enterprises.

N. S. Khrushchev’s visit to the USA once again convinced him of the need to develop corn (after visiting the fields of farmer Garst, who grew hybrid corn). A new wave has begun corn campaign: corn was sown as far as Yakutia and the Arkhangelsk region. The blame for the fact that it did not grow there was shifted to the local leadership (“they let things take their course”). At the same time, American varieties of corn produced good yields in Ukraine, Kuban and other southern regions of the country.

At the end of the 50s. The 1st Secretary of the Ryazan Regional Party Committee Larionov announced that he would increase meat procurement in the region by 3 times in one year. As a result, all the collective farm dairy cattle in the region, cattle seized from the population, and cattle purchased in other regions with huge bank loans were put to slaughter. The following year there was a sharp drop in the level of agricultural production in Ryazan and neighboring regions. Larionov shot himself.

Khrushchev personally traveled around the country and supervised agriculture. WITH 1958 started again struggle with personal subsidiary farms. Collective farmers trading in markets were called speculators and parasites. Townspeople were prohibited from keeping livestock. In the mid-50s. personal farms provided 50% of the meat produced in the country, in 1959 - only 20%. Another campaign was the fight against waste on a state scale (“there is no need to create museums everywhere where Pushkin visited”).

In 1957 they were expanded budgetary rights of the union republics, the functions of the State Planning Committee were partially transferred to them. By the end of the 50s. began equalizing the pace of their development. The development of industry in Central Asia and Kazakhstan was ensured by labor from the central regions of Russia, and unemployment appeared among the local population, traditionally employed in agriculture. Lands were redistributed between the republics of Central Asia without taking into account the national composition of the inhabitants and their wishes. All this became the basis for interethnic conflicts in the future. IN 1954 Crimea was transferred from the RSFSR into Ukraine to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The decision of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee was not even supported by an official act of government bodies.

By the end of 1958, there were some disruptions in the implementation of the VI Five-Year Plan. IN January 1959 took place XXI (Extraordinary) Congress of the CPSU, who accepted seven year plan development of the national economy for 1959–1965. (last 2 years of the VI Five-Year Plan + VII Five-Year Plan) to establish a long-term perspective of economic planning. The seven-year plan provided for: an increase in industrial production by 80% (actual implementation - 84%), an increase in agricultural production by 70% (actual implementation - 15%). By the end of the seven-year plan, it was planned to catch up and surpass the United States in agricultural production per capita, and by 1970 - in industrial production.